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Blue Peter is a British children 's television programme , shown on the CBBC television channel . It first aired in 1958 and is the longest-running children 's TV show in the world . Although the show has a nautical title and theme , its current format takes the form of a magazine/entertainment show containing viewer and presenter challenges , as well as the famous arts and crafts `` makes '' . During its history there have been many presenters , often consisting of two women and two men at a time . The current presenters are Barney Harwood , Lindsey Russell and Radzi Chinyanganya . The show uses a studio for the main format of the presenting ; there is also a garden , often referred to as the Blue Peter Garden , which is used during the summer months or for outdoor activities . The programme also features a number of pets , currently a tortoise called Shelly . Content Blue Peter content is wide-ranging . Most programmes are broadcast live , but usually include at least one filmed report . There will also often be a demonstration of an activity in the studio , and/or a music or dance performance . Between the 1960s and 2011 the programme was made at BBC Television Centre , and often came from Studio 1 , the fourth-largest TV studio in Britain and one of the largest in Europe . This enabled Blue Peter to include large-scale demonstrations and performances within the live programme . From the September 2007 series , the programme was broadcast from a small fixed set in Studio 2 . However , from 2009 the series began to use the larger studios once more ; also more programmes were broadcast in their entirety from the Blue Peter Garden . The show is also famous for its `` makes '' , which are demonstrations of how to construct a useful object or prepare food . These have given rise to the oft-used phrase `` Here 's one I made earlier '' , as presenters bring out a perfect and completed version of the object they are making – a phrase credited to Christopher Trace , though Marguerite Patten is another possibility . He also used the line `` And now for something completely different '' , which was later taken up by Monty Python . Time is also often given over to reading letters and showing pictures sent in by viewers . Over 4,000 editions have been produced since 1958 , and almost every episode from 1964 onwards still exists in the BBC archives . This is extremely unusual for programmes of that era , and is a testament to the foresight and initiative of editor Biddy Baxter , as she personally ensured that telerecordings and , from 1970 , video copies were kept of the episodes . Many items from Blue Peter history have become embedded in British popular culture , especially moments when things have gone wrong , such as the much-repeated clip of Lulu the elephant ( from a 1969 edition ) who urinated and defecated on the studio floor , appeared to tread on the foot of presenter John Noakes and then proceeded to attempt an exit , dragging her keeper along behind her . Other well-remembered and much-repeated items from this era include the Girl Guides ' campfire that got out of hand on the 1970 Christmas edition , John Noakes 's report on the cleaning of Nelson 's Column , and Simon Groom referring to a previous item on door-knockers with the words 'what a beautiful pair of knockers ' . History Early years Blue Peter was first aired on 16 October 1958 . It had been commissioned to producer John Hunter Blair by Owen Reed , the head of children 's programmes at the BBC , as there were no programmes in existence that catered for children aged between five and eight . Reed got his inspiration after watching Children 's Television Club , the brainchild of former radio producer , Trevor Hill , who created the latter show as a successor to his programme Out of School , broadcast on BBC Radio 's Children 's Hour ; Hill networked the programme from BBC Manchester and launched it aboard the Royal Iris paddle steamer on Merseyside with presenter Judith Chalmers welcoming everyone aboard at the bottom of the gangplank . It was subsequently televised about once a month Hill relates how Reed came to stay with him and his wife , Margaret Potter , in Cheshire , and was so taken with the `` Blue Peter '' flag on the side of the ship and the programme in general , that he asked to rename it and take it to London to be broadcast on a weekly basis ( see Reed 's obituary ) . The `` Blue Peter '' is used as a maritime signal , indicating that the vessel flying it is about to leave , and Reed chose the name to represent ' a voyage of adventure ' on which the programme would set out . Hunter Blair also pointed out that blue was a child 's favourite colour , and Peter was the common name of a typical child 's friend . The first two presenters were Christopher Trace , an actor , and Leila Williams , winner of Miss Great Britain in 1957 . The two presenters were responsible for activities which matched the traditional gender roles . As Asa Briggs , the historian of broadcasting , expressed it in 1995 : `` Leila played with dolls ; Chris played with trains '' . They were supported on occasion by Tony Hart , Baxter & Barnes , p.13 an artist who later designed the ship logo , Baxter & Barnes , p.33 who told stories about an elephant called Packi ( or Packie ) . It was broadcast every Friday for fifteen minutes ( 17.00-17.15 ) on BBC TV ( which later became BBC One ) . Over the first few months more features were added , including competitions , documentaries , cartoons , and stories . Early programmes were almost entirely studio-based , with very few filmed inserts being made . 1960s From Monday October 7 , 1960 , Blue Peter was switched from every Friday to every Monday and extended from 15 minutes to 20 minutes ( 17.00-17.20 ) . In 1961 , Hunter Blair became ill , and was often absent . After he produced his last edition on 12 June 1961 , Marson , p.16 a series of temporary producers took up the post . Hunter Blair was replaced the following September by Clive Parkhurst . He did not get along with Leila Williams , who recalled `` he could not find anything for me to do '' , and in October , Williams did not appear for six editions , and was eventually fired , leaving Christopher Trace on his own or with one-off presenters . Parkhurst was replaced by John Furness , and Anita West joined Trace on 7 May 1962 . She featured in just 16 editions , making her the shortest-serving presenter , and was replaced by Valerie Singleton , who presented regularly until 1972 , and on special assignments until 1981 . Following the departure of Furness , a new producer who was committed to Blue Peter was required , so Biddy Baxter was appointed . At the time she was contracted to schools ' programmes on the radio , and therefore unable to take up her new post immediately . It was suggested that Edward Barnes , Marson , p.37 a production assistant , would temporarily produce the show until Baxter arrived , at which point he would become her assistant . This suggestion was turned down , and a more experienced producer , Leonard Chase , was appointed , with Barnes as his assistant . Baxter eventually joined Blue Peter at the end of October 1962 . During this period , many iconic features of Blue Peter were introduced . The first appeal took place in December 1962 , replacing the practice of reviewing toys that children would ask for themselves . Blue Peters first pet , a brown and white mongrel dog named Petra , was introduced on 17 December 1962 . The puppy soon died of distemper , and having decided against upsetting young viewers over the news , Barnes and Baxter had to search London pet shops for a convincing clandestine replacement . Features such as `` makes '' ( normally involving creating something such as an advent crown , out of household junk ) and cooking became regular instalments on Blue Peter and continue to be used today . The Blue Peter badge was introduced in 1963 , along with the programme 's new logo designed by Tony Hart . Baxter introduced a system that ensured replies sent to viewers ' letters were personal ; as a girl , she had written to Enid Blyton and twice received a standard reply , which had upset her . The next year , from 28 September 1964 , Blue Peter began to be broadcast twice weekly , with Baxter becoming the editor in 1965 , and Barnes and Rosemary Gill ( an assistant producer who had joined as a temporary producer while Baxter was doing jury service ) becoming the programme 's producers.Marson , p.45 The first Blue Peter book , an annual in all but name , was published this year , and one has been produced nearly every year since . A third presenter , John Noakes , was introduced at the end of 1965 and became the longest-serving presenter . A complete contrast to Trace , Noakes set the scene for `` daredevil '' presenters that has continued through the generations of presenters . Trace left Blue Peter in July 1967 , and was replaced by Peter Purves in November . The trio of Valerie Singleton , John Noakes and Peter Purves lasted five years , and according to Richard Marson were 'the most famous presenting team in the show 's history ' . In 1965 , the first Summer Expedition ( a filming trip abroad ) was held in Norway , and continued every year ( except 1986 and 2011 ) until 2012 , all over the world . 1970–1990s The first colour edition of Blue Peter aired on 14 September 1970 , and the last black and white edition on 24 June 1974 . A regular feature of the 1970s were the Special Assignments , which were essentially reports on interesting topics , filmed on location . Singleton took this role , and in effect became the programme 's `` roving reporter '' . Blue Peter also offered breaking news on occasion , such as the 1971 eruption of Mount Etna , as well as unique items such as the first appearance of Uri Geller on British television . In May 1976 , presenter Lesley Judd interviewed Otto Frank , father of Anne Frank , after he had agreed to bring his daughter 's diaries to Britain . From 1971 , the summer expedition from the previous year was edited into special programmes broadcast under the title Blue Peter Flies The World , televised during the summer break when the team were recording the latest expedition . The first was shown in July 1971 and featured the expedition to Jamaica In 1974 , the Blue Peter Garden was officially opened in a green space outside the Television Centre restaurant block . By this time , Blue Peter had become an established children 's programme , with regular features which have since become traditions . Its theme music was updated by Mike Oldfield in 1979 , and at the end of the decade a new presenting team was brought in , consisting of Simon Groom , Tina Heath and Christopher Wenner . They were overshadowed by the success of the previous two decades , and failed to make an impact.Marson , p.72 Heath decided to leave after a year when she discovered she was pregnant , but agreed to have a live scan of her baby , something which had never been done on television before . Blue Peter was praised for this by the National Childbirth Trust who told the BBC that in 'five minutes , Blue Peter had done more to educate children about birth than they 'd achieved in ten years of sending out leaflets ' . Wenner was unpopular with viewers , so left along with Heath on 23 June 1980 . Sarah Greene and Peter Duncan both joined in 1980 , and a new producer , Lewis Bronze , joined in 1982 . The 1980s saw the Blue Peter studio become more colourful and bright , with the presenters gradually wearing more fashionable outfits , in contrast to the more formal appearance of previous decades . Several videos of Blue Peter were released from 1982 , the first being Blue Peter Makes , and an omnibus comprising the two weekly editions appeared in 1986 on Sunday mornings . On 27 June 1988 , Baxter took part in her final show , after nearly 26 years of involvement , and Bronze took her place as editor . Around this time , Blue Peter became distinctively environmentally aware , and introduced a green badge in November 1988 for achievements related to the environment . In 1989 ( and again in 1992 and 1994 ) , new arrangements of the theme tune was used . Due to falling ratings in BBC children 's programming , BBC1 controller Alan Yentob suggested airing a third edition of Blue Peter each week from 1995 . This meant that it was sometimes pre-recorded ; Joe Godwin , the director , suggested that the Friday edition should be a lighter version of Blue Peter , which would concentrate on music , celebrities and games.Marson , p.124 A fourth presenter , Katy Hill , was introduced in 1995 , but unlike earlier decades , there was little stability in the line-up , with resignations and new additions made almost every year of the decade . The 1990s also saw many more live broadcasts on location , with many shot entirely away from the studio . Blue Peter was also one of the first television series to launch a website . Oliver Macfarlane replaced Bronze as editor in 1996 . 1998 marked the 40th anniversary of the TV show and the most talked about event to celebrate the show 's 40th birthday was a trip behind LNER Peppercorn Class A2 60532 Blue Peter On an Edinburgh to London railtour . Due to safety rules , none of the presenters were permitted to ride on board the footplate during the trip ; however , Peter Kirk ( the man in charge on board 60532 and who was presenting from the footplate ) allowed Stuart Miles to travel on board the footplate between Newark-on-Trent & Peterborough ( the reason for this was being due to this section being where , back on 3 July 1938 , an LNER A4 Locomotive no . 4468 Mallard set a world speed record of 126 mph ; this record still stands to this day ) . In October 1998 , Richard Bacon was sacked , following reports in News of the World that he had taken cocaine . Steve Hocking then replaced Macfarlane as editor , at a time that was believed to be a difficult period for the programme . He introduced a further re-arrangement of the theme tune and a new graphics package in September 1999 . 2000s–present The 2000s started off when two time capsules that had been buried on Blue Peter were opened up . The former presenters were invited back to assist , and the rest of the programme looked at life in the 1970s when the first capsule was buried . With Hill 's departure and replacement by Liz Barker in 2000 , the new team of Konnie Huq , Simon Thomas , Matt Baker and herself made the programme strong and consistent for the next five years , which had been somewhat lacking in the 1990s . The Friday edition , as in the previous decade , featured games and competitions , but additionally there was a drama series , The Quest , which featured cameos from many former presenters . Basil Brush also made several appearances on Fridays . It was at this time that the new Head of the BBC Children 's Department , Nigel Pickard , asked for Blue Peter to be broadcast all year round . This was achieved by having two editions per week instead of three during the summer months , and using pre-recorded material . The early 2000s also introduced Christmas productions , in which the presenters took part . In 2003 , Richard Marson became the new editor , and one of his first tasks was changing the output of Blue Peter on the digital CBBC , which for the first year of the channel 's launch consisted of repeated editions , plus spin-off series Blue Peter Unleashed and Blue Peter Flies the World . This new arrangement involved a complex schedule of live programmes and pre-recorded material , being broadcast on BBC One and CBBC . Marson also introduced a new set , graphics and music . In September 2007 , a new editor , Tim Levell , took over . At the same time , budget cuts meant that the programme came from a smaller studio . In February 2008 the BBC One programme was moved from 5 pm to 4.35 pm to accommodate The Weakest Link , and as a result , Blue Peters ratings dropped to as low as 100,000 viewers in the age 6–12 bracket but have since steadily improved . Writing in the BBC 's in-house magazine , Ariel , in 2009 , BBC Children 's Controller Richard Deverell announced plans to re-invent the show to be more like the BBC 's motoring programme Top Gear . Deverell hopes that by adding `` danger and excitement '' , Blue Peter will achieve the same `` playground buzz '' among children as Top Gear . On 29 March 2011 , Blue Peter became the first programme in the UK to broadcast an entire show in 360 degrees on the web . Viewers were able to watch the programme via their TVs and simultaneously interact with the television studio in front and behind the cameras on the website . Viewers were also challenged to play a game where they had to find particular crew members and staff dressed up in distinctive costumes . The final edition of Blue Peter to broadcast from the BBC 's Television Centre in London , was broadcast on 28 June 2011 , before a move to the BBC 's new facilities at MediaCityUK in Salford . The set left behind at BBC Television Centre was subsequently purchased and installed at Sunderland University 's David Puttnam Media Centre in August 2013 . When the new series started on 26 September 2011 , after the usual summer break , Barney Harwood and Helen Skelton revealed the new look Blue Peter studio along with the new music and title sequence . Departed Blue Peter presenter Andy Akinwolere was not initially replaced , and for the first time in 50 years only two presenters remained on the programme until Lindsey Russell joined the team in July 2013 . From 12 January 2012 , Blue Peter has been broadcast all year round ( with no break for summer ) once a week , its original premiere being on CBBC Channel on Thursdays at 5.45pm , changed to 5.30pm from April 2013 then 5.00pm from March 2015 . It was usually repeated on Fridays on BBC One , although this ceased in December 2012 . A repeat airs at 9.00am on Sundays . At this time , Levell left to work at BBC Radio 5 Live ; he was replaced ( initially in an acting capacity ) as editor by Ewan Vinnicombe , who had worked on the programme as a producer since 2007 . The reformatted Blue Peter occasionally also includes specials and spin-offs such as `` Helen 's Polar Adventure '' or the Stargazing Live special on other days of the week . Presenters and contributors Christopher Trace and Leila Williams were the first presenters of Blue Peter in October 1958 , and since then , there have been 35 subsequent presenters . The current presenting team comprises Barney Harwood , Radzi Chinyanganya ( who replaced Helen Skelton in October 2013 ) and Lindsey Russell . Russell is the first presenter to be chosen by viewers following a contest to find a new presenter , entitled 'Blue Peter ! You Decide ' and Helen Skelton left Blue Peter in September 2013 , after 5 and a half years on the show . Barney the red-setter dachshund went with her . Prior to this , in the first two years of the programme 's new home at Salford , guest presenters occasionally covered for Helen and Barney in the studio or in some film reports . Other people who have played roles on the show include the zoologist George Cansdale , who was the programme 's first on-screen veterinarian , and Percy Thrower who was the show 's gardening expert from 21 March 1974 to 23 November 1987 and was presented with a Gold Blue Peter badge shortly before he died in 1988 . He was followed from 1988–91 by Chris Crowder and from 1991–2000 by Clare Bradley . From 2004- 2013 by Chris Collins . From 2014–Present , The Skinny Jean Gardeners Lee & Dale Connelly Another contributor , though rarely seen on screen , was Margaret Parnell , who created almost all of the show 's `` makes '' from 1963 until her retirement in 2001 . Her role was then filled by Gillian Shearing , though Parnell 's name still appeared in the credits from time to time when a classic `` make '' was re-used . Director/producer Alex Leger who joined the show in 1975 as a production assistant finally retired in 2011 , making him Blue Peters longest serving staff member ever . Presenter Anthea Turner said of Leger : `` Alex was the director we feared and loved in the same sentence ; he would push you to your limits of endurance and in my case made me face my fear of water by taking me to Crystal Palace to shoot a film about high board diving . Never have my knees knocked so much . '' Writing on The Huffington Post in November 2012 , Leger admitted the `` piles of clippings , strange souvenirs from overseas trips , half-finished 'makes ' from the show and half-dead pot plants disguised the fact something ground-breaking was happening in the cramped Blue Peter offices '' . Leger published his book , Blue Peter : Behind the Badge , on 5 November 2012 , in collaboration with many of his former colleagues . Pets The Blue Peter pets are the animals who regularly appear on the programme . These include dogs , cats , parrots and tortoises . Among the most recent Blue Peter Pets are : a dog , a red setter-dachshund called Barney ; two cats , one called Socks and one called Cookie ; and one tortoise called Shelley . Mabel retired on 30 March 2010 after 14 years on the show . The latest pet to join is 2-year-old Barney , a red setter-dachshund , who made his TV debut on Tuesday 22 September 2009 , but left four years later at the same time as presenter Helen Skelton . Lucy , a golden retriever , died aged 13 in late March 2011 . In July 2013 , Socks and Cookie made their final appearance in the studio in Salford , as ( like Shelley the tortoise ) they live in London , but they are still regarded as part of the programme team . The trained Guide Dog Iggy appears regularly . Blue Peter Garden The presenters also maintain the Blue Peter Garden . The original garden , adjacent to Television Centre , was designed by Percy Thrower in 1974 . Its features include an Italian sunken garden with a pond , which contains goldfish , a vegetable patch , greenhouse and viewing platform . George the Tortoise was interred in the garden following his death in 2004 , and there is also a bust of the dog Petra , sculptures of Mabel and the Blue Peter ship , and a plaque in honour of Percy Thrower . The 2000 Blue Peter time capsule was buried in the Garden and later relocated to the current location , where it is due to be opened in 2029 . The garden is also available to other programmes for outside broadcasts , and is often used for the links between children 's programmes during the summer months and for BBC Breakfasts weather forecasts . When the programme 's production base moved to Salford MediaCityUK in September 2011 , sections of the garden , including the sculptures and the sunken pond , were carefully relocated to the piazza of the new studio facility . It was officially opened on Thursday 23 February 2012 by HRH The Princess Royal . On the Monday 21 November 1983 edition , Janet Ellis reported that over the weekend the garden had been vandalised . The report contained an on-air appeal for viewers to come forward with information—which now often appears on clip shows . The garden had been vandalised previously in 1978 . A rumour circulated in the early 1990s that the vandalism had been carried out by a gang including the footballers Dennis Wise and Les Ferdinand when they were teenagers . Both men have denied direct involvement in the actual vandalism , although Ferdinand did later appear to confess to `` helping a few people over the wall . '' Later still , however , Ferdinand claimed that his admission of involvement had merely been a joke , and that he had not been involved at all . Badge Children ( and adults ) who appear on the show or achieve something notable may be awarded the coveted Blue Peter badge . The Blue Peter badge allows holders free entry into a number of visitor attractions across the UK . In March 2006 , this privilege was temporarily suspended after a number of badges were discovered for sale on the auction site eBay . This suspension was lifted in June 2006 , when a new `` Blue Peter Badge Card '' was introduced to combat the problem , which is issued to each badge winner to prove that they are the rightful owners . The presenters almost always wear their badge ; the only exception being when their apparel is incompatible ( for example , a life jacket ) , in which case a sticker with the ship emblem is normally used instead . In addition , large prints or stickers of the ship are attached to vehicles driven by the presenters Barney Harwood and Helen Skelton during filming assignments . In addition to the standard `` blue '' badge , several variations of the badge exist , for various achievements , including : * Silver badges , For sending in a letter or poem to the show when you already have the blue badge * Green badges , for contributions with a conservation , nature or environmental theme * Gold badges , the most rarely awarded , for exceptional achievement * Competition winners orange badges , for competition winners or runners up ( replacing the previous circular `` competition winner 's badge '' ) * Purple badges , awarded for completing a review of the show by completing the form on the Blue Peter website * 50th anniversary badge , awarded for sending a picture , poem or letter on the subject of the programme 's 50th birthday * Factbyte factory badge , Awarded to people who completed up to V.I.P . level 7 on the Factbyte factory online game on the official Blue Peter Website in 2009 . * Sport badge , awarded to people from July – September 2013 ( and again each summer since ) for inspiring a friend or family member to try a new sport . Annual events The programme also marks annual events , including Chinese New Year , St David 's Day , Shrove Tuesday , Mothering Sunday , Guy Fawkes Night and Christmas . The latter , in particular , is a special occasion with a traditional format repeated year on year . Shrove Tuesday Usually shows one of the presenters making a pancake . It is usually the newest presenter who makes the pancake and attempts to toss it perfectly . Mothering Sunday Usually shows the viewers how to make their own Mother 's Day card or present . Guy Fawkes Night Usually

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Later a 'Blue Peter' presenter, who played 'Steven Taylor', an assistant to William Hartnell's 'Doctor Who'?

A trademark , trade mark , or trade-mark is a recognizable sign , design , or expression which identifies products or services of a particular source from those of others , although trademarks used to identify services are usually called service marks . The trademark owner can be an individual , business organization , or any legal entity . A trademark may be located on a package , a label , a voucher , or on the product itself . For the sake of corporate identity , trademarks are being displayed on company buildings . Usage A trademark identifies the brand owner of a particular product or service . Trademarks can be licensed to others ; for example , Bullyland obtained a license to produce Smurf figurines ; the Lego Group purchased a license from Lucasfilm in order to be allowed to launch Lego Star Wars ; TT Toys Toys is a manufacturer of licensed ride-on replica cars for children . The unauthorized usage of trademarks by producing and trading counterfeit consumer goods is known as brand piracy . The owner of a trademark may pursue legal action against trademark infringement . Most countries require formal registration of a trademark as a precondition for pursuing this type of action . The United States , Canada and other countries also recognize common law trademark rights , which means action can be taken to protect an unregistered trademark if it is in use . Still , common law trademarks offer the holder in general less legal protection than registered trademarks . A trademark may be designated by the following symbols : * ™ ( the `` trademark symbol '' , which is the letters `` TM '' in superscript , for an unregistered trademark , a mark used to promote or brand goods ) * ℠ ( which is the letters `` SM '' in superscript , for an unregistered service mark , a mark used to promote or brand services ) * ® ( the letter `` R '' surrounded by a circle , for a registered trademark ) A trademark is typically a name , word , phrase , logo , symbol , design , image , or a combination of these elements . There is also a range of non-conventional trademarks comprising marks which do not fall into these standard categories , such as those based on colour , smell , or sound ( like jingles ) . A trademark can not be offensive . The term trademark is also used informally to refer to any distinguishing attribute by which an individual is readily identified , such as the well-known characteristics of celebrities . When a trademark is used in relation to services rather than products , it may sometimes be called a service mark , particularly in the United States . Fundamental concepts The essential function of a trademark is to exclusively identify the commercial source or origin of products or services , so a trademark , properly called , indicates source or serves as a badge of origin . In other words , trademarks serve to identify a particular business as the source of goods or services . The use of a trademark in this way is known as trademark use . Certain exclusive rights attach to a registered mark . It should be noted that trademark rights generally arise out of the use of , or to maintain exclusive rights over , that sign in relation to certain products or services , assuming there are no other trademark objections . Different goods and services have been classified by the International ( Nice ) Classification of Goods and Services into 45 Trademark Classes ( 1 to 34 cover goods , and 35 to 45 services ) . The idea behind this system is to specify and limit the extension of the intellectual property right by determining which goods or services are covered by the mark , and to unify classification systems around the world . History In trademark treatises it is usually reported that blacksmiths who made swords in the Roman Empire are thought of as being the first users of trademarks . Other notable trademarks that have been used for a long time include Löwenbräu , which claims use of its lion mark since 1383 . The first trademark legislation was passed by the Parliament of England under the reign of King Henry III in 1266 , which required all bakers to use a distinctive mark for the bread they sold . The first modern trademark laws emerged in the late 19th century . In France the first comprehensive trademark system in the world was passed into law in 1857 with the `` Manufacture and Goods Mark Act '' . In Britain , the Merchandise Marks Act 1862 made it a criminal offense to imitate another 's trade mark 'with intent to defraud or to enable another to defraud ' . In 1875 the Trade Marks Registration Act was passed which allowed formal registration of trade marks at the UK Patent Office for the first time . Registration was considered to comprise prima facie evidence of ownership of a trade mark and registration of marks began on 1 January 1876 . The 1875 Act defined a registrable trade mark as ' a device , or mark , or name of an individual or firm printed in some particular and distinctive manner ; or a written signature or copy of a written signature of an individual or firm ; or a distinctive label or ticket ' . In the United States , Congress first attempted to establish a federal trademark regime in 1870 . This statute purported to be an exercise of Congress ' Copyright Clause powers . However , the Supreme Court struck down the 1870 statute in the Trade-Mark Cases later on in the decade . In 1881 , Congress passed a new trademark act , this time pursuant to its Commerce Clause powers . Congress revised the Trademark Act in 1905 . The Lanham Act of 1946 updated the law and has served , with several amendments , as the primary federal law on trademarks . The Trade Marks Act 1938 in the United Kingdom set up the first registration system based on the “ intent-to-use ” principle . The Act also established an application publishing procedure and expanded the rights of the trademark holder to include the barring of trademark use even in cases where confusion remained unlikely . This Act served as a model for similar legislation elsewhere . Oldest registered trademarks The oldest registered trademark has various different claimants , enumerated below : * United Kingdom : 1876 – The Bass Brewery 's label incorporating its triangle logo for ale was the first trademark to be registered under the Trade Mark Registration Act 1875 . [ http : //www.ipo.gov.uk/tmcase/Results/1/UK00000000001 ? legacySearch False Case details for trade mark UK00000000001 ] , United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office . * United States : A design mark with an eagle and a ribbon and the words `` Economical , Brilliant '' was the first registered trademark , filed by the Averill Chemical Paint Company on August 30 , 1870 under the Trademark Act of 1870 . However , in the Trade-Mark Cases , , the U.S. Supreme Court held the 1870 Act to be unconstitutional . The oldest U.S. registered trademark still in use is trademark reg . no 11210 , a depiction of the Biblical figure Samson wrestling a lion , registered in the United States on May 27 , 1884 by the J.P. Tolman Company ( now Samson Rope Technologies , Inc. ) , a rope-making company . * United States : In 1923 , the businessman and author Edgar Rice Burroughs registered his fictitious character Tarzan as a trademark ; even after the copyright to the Tarzan story expired , his company used ownership of the trademarks relating to the character ( which unlike copyrights , do not have a limited length ) to control the production of media using its imagery and license the character for use in other works ( such as adaptations ) . This practice is a precursor to the modern concept of a media franchise . * Germany : 1875 – The Krupp steel company registered three seamless train wheel tires , which are put on top of each other , as its label in 1875 , under the German Trade Mark Protection Law of 1874 . The seamless train wheel tire did not break , unlike iron tires with seams , and was patented by Krupp in Prussia in 1853 . Symbols The two symbols associated with trademarks , ™ ( the trademark symbol ) and ® ( the registered trademark symbol ) , represent the status of a mark and accordingly its level of protection . While ™ can be used with any common law usage of a mark , ® may only be used by the owner of a mark following registration with the relevant national authority , such as the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office ( USPTO or PTO ) . The proper manner to display either symbol is immediately following the mark in superscript style . Terminology Terms such as `` mark '' , `` brand '' and `` logo '' are sometimes used interchangeably with `` trademark '' . `` Trademark '' , however , also includes any device , brand , label , name , signature , word , letter , numerical , shape of goods , packaging , colour or combination of colours , smell , sound , movement or any combination thereof which is capable of distinguishing goods and services of one business from those of others . It must be capable of graphical representation and must be applied to goods or services for which it is registered . Specialized types of trademark include certification marks , collective trademarks and defensive trademarks . A trademark which is popularly used to describe a product or service ( rather than to distinguish the product or services from those of third parties ) is sometimes known as a genericized trademark . If such a mark becomes synonymous with that product or service to the extent that the trademark owner can no longer enforce its proprietary rights , the mark becomes generic . A `` trademark look '' is an informal term for a characteristic look for a performer or character of some sort . It is usually not legally trademark protected and the term is not used in the trademark law . Registration The law considers a trademark to be a form of property . Proprietary rights in relation to a trademark may be established through actual use in the marketplace , or through registration of the mark with the trademarks office ( or `` trademarks registry '' ) of a particular jurisdiction . In some jurisdictions , trademark rights can be established through either or both means . Certain jurisdictions generally do not recognize trademarks rights arising through use . If trademark owners do not hold registrations for their marks in such jurisdictions , the extent to which they will be able to enforce their rights through trademark infringement proceedings will therefore be limited . In cases of dispute , this disparity of rights is often referred to as `` first to file '' as opposed to `` first to use . '' Other countries such as Germany offer a limited amount of common law rights for unregistered marks where to gain protection , the goods or services must occupy a highly significant position in the marketplace — where this could be 40 % or more market share for sales in the particular class of goods or services . In the United States , the registration process includes several steps . First , the trademark owner files an application to register the trademark . About three months after it is filed , the application is reviewed by an examining attorney at the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office . The examining attorney checks for compliance with the rules of the Trademark Manual of Examination Procedure . This review includes procedural matters such as making sure the applicant 's goods or services are identified properly . It also includes more substantive matters such as making sure the applicant 's mark is not merely descriptive or likely to cause confusion with a pre-existing applied-for or registered mark . If the application runs afoul of any requirement , the examining attorney will issue an office action requiring the applicant to address certain issues or refusals prior to registration of the mark . If the examining attorney approves the application , it will be `` published for opposition . '' During this 30-day period third parties who may be affected by the registration of the trademark may step forward to file an Opposition Proceeding to stop the registration of the mark . If an Opposition proceeding is filed it institutes a case before the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board to determine both the validity of the grounds for the opposition as well as the ability of the applicant to register the mark at issue . Finally , provided that no third-party opposes the registration of the mark during the opposition period or the opposition is ultimately decided in the applicant 's favor the mark will be registered in due course . Outside of the United States the registration process is substantially similar to that found in the U.S. save for one notable exception in many countries : registration occurs prior to the opposition proceeding . In short , once an application is reviewed by an examiner and found to be entitled to registration a registration certificate is issued subject to the mark being open to opposition for a period of typically 6 months from the date of registration . A registered trademark confers a bundle of exclusive rights upon the registered owner , including the right to exclusive use of the mark in relation to the products or services for which it is registered . The law in most jurisdictions also allows the owner of a registered trademark to prevent unauthorized use of the mark in relation to products or services which are identical or `` colourfully '' similar to the `` registered '' products or services , and in certain cases , prevent use in relation to entirely dissimilar products or services . The test is always whether a consumer of the goods or services will be confused as to the identity of the source or origin . An example may be a very large multinational brand such as `` Sony '' where a non-electronic product such as a pair of sunglasses might be assumed to have come from Sony Corporation of Japan despite not being a class of goods that Sony has rights in . Once trademark rights are established in a particular jurisdiction , these rights are generally only enforceable in that jurisdiction , a quality which is sometimes known as territoriality . However , there is a range of international trademark laws and systems which facilitate the protection of trademarks in more than one jurisdiction . Search In the United States the USPTO maintains a database of registered trademarks . The database is open to the public . A licensed attorney may be required to interpret the search results . As trademarks are governed by federal law , state law , and common law , a thorough search as to the availability of a mark is very important . In the United States obtaining a trademark search and relying upon the results of an opinion issued by an attorney may insulate a trademark user from being required to pay treble damages and attorney 's fees in a trademark infringement case as it demonstrates that the trademark user performed due diligence and was using the mark in good faith . The USPTO internally captures more information about trademarks than what they publicly disclose on their official search website , such as the complete contents of every logo trademark filing . Trademarks may also be searched on third-party databases such as LexisNexis , Dialog , and Compu-Mark . In Europe and if a community trademark has to be filed , searches have to be conducted with the EUIPO ( European Intellectual Property Office ) and with the various national offices . An alternative solution is to conduct a trademark search within private databases . Classification systems exist to help in searching for marks . One example is the `` International Classification of the Figurative Elements of Marks '' , better known as the Vienna Classification . Ability to register In most systems , a trademark can be registered if it is able to distinguish the goods or services of a party , will not confuse consumers about the relationship between one party and another , and will not otherwise deceive consumers with respect to the qualities . Distinctive character A trademark may be eligible for registration , or registrable , if it performs the essential trademark function , and has distinctive character . Registrability can be understood as a continuum , with `` inherently distinctive '' marks at one end , `` generic '' and `` descriptive '' marks with no distinctive character at the other end , and `` suggestive '' and `` arbitrary '' marks lying between these two points . `` Descriptive '' marks must acquire distinctiveness through secondary meaning - consumers have come to recognize the mark as a source indicator - to be protectable . `` Generic '' terms are used to refer to the product or service itself and can not be used as trademarks . See the KitKat v Cadbury case ] Maintaining rights Trademarks rights must be maintained through actual lawful use of the trademark . These rights will cease if a mark is not actively used for a period of time , normally 5 years in most jurisdictions . In the case of a trademark registration , failure to actively use the mark in the lawful course of trade , or to enforce the registration in the event of infringement , may also expose the registration itself to become liable for an application for the removal from the register after a certain period of time on the grounds of `` non-use '' . It is not necessary for a trademark owner to take enforcement action against all infringement if it can be shown that the owner perceived the infringement to be minor and inconsequential . This is designed to prevent owners from continually being tied up in litigation for fear of cancellation . An owner can at any time commence action for infringement against a third party as long as it had not previously notified the third party of its discontent following third party use and then failed to take action within a reasonable period of time ( called acquiescence ) . The owner can always reserve the right to take legal action until a court decides that the third party had gained notoriety which the owner 'must ' have been aware of . It will be for the third party to prove their use of the mark is substantial as it is the onus of a company using a mark to check they are not infringing previously registered rights . In the US , owing to the overwhelming number of unregistered rights , trademark applicants are advised to perform searches not just of the trademark register but of local business directories and relevant trade press . Specialized search companies perform such tasks prior to application . All jurisdictions with a mature trademark registration system provide a mechanism for removal in the event of such non use , which is usually a period of either three or five years . The intention to use a trademark can be proven by a wide range of acts as shown in the `` Wooly Bull '' and Aston v Harlee cases . In the U.S. , failure to use a trademark for this period of time will result in abandonment of the mark , whereby any party may use the mark . An abandoned mark is not irrevocably in the ) , but may instead be re-registered by any party which has re-established exclusive and active use , and must be associated or linked with the original mark owner . A mark is registered in conjunction with a description of a specific type of goods , and if the party uses the mark but in conjunction with a different type of goods , the mark may still be considered abandoned , as was the case in Lens.com , Inc. v. 1-800 Contacts , Inc .. If a court rules that a trademark has become `` generic '' through common use ( such that the mark no longer performs the essential trademark function and the average consumer no longer considers that exclusive rights attach to it ) , the corresponding registration may also be ruled invalid . Unlike other forms of intellectual property ( e.g. , patents and copyrights ) a registered trademark can , theoretically , last forever . So long as a trademark 's use is continuous a trademark holder may keep the mark registered with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office by filing Section 8 Affidavit ( s ) of Continuous Use as well as Section 9 Applications for renewal , as required . Specifically , once registered with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office the owner of a trademark is required to file a Section 8 Affidavit of Continuous Use to maintain the registration between the 5th and 6th year anniversaries of the registration of the mark or during the 6-month grace period following the 6th-year anniversary of the registration . During this period , a trademark owner may concurrently opt to file a Section 15 , Declaration of Incontestability . A mark declared incontestable is immune from future challenge , except in instances where the mark becomes generic , the mark is abandoned , or if the registration was acquired fraudulently . Note , if the Section 8 Affidavit is filed during the 6-month grace period additional fees to file the Affidavit with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office will apply . In addition to requirement above , U.S. trademark registrations are also required to be renewed on or about every 10-year anniversary of the registration of the trademark . The procedure for 10-year renewals is somewhat different from that for the 5th-6th year renewal . In brief , registrants are required to file both a Section 8 Affidavit of Continuous Use as well as a Section 9 Application for Renewal every ten years to maintain their registration . Enforcing rights The extent to which a trademark owner may prevent unauthorized use of trademarks which are the same as or similar to its trademark depends on various factors such as whether its trademark is registered , the similarity of the trademarks involved , the similarity of the products or services involved , and whether the owner 's trademark is well known or , under U.S. law relating to trademark dilution , famous . If a trademark has not been registered , some jurisdictions ( especially Common Law countries ) offer protection for the business reputation or goodwill which attaches to unregistered trademarks through the tort of passing off . Passing off may provide a remedy in a scenario where a business has been trading under an unregistered trademark for many years , and a rival business starts using the same or a similar mark . If a trademark has been registered , then it is much easier for the trademark owner to demonstrate its trademark rights and to enforce these rights through an infringement action . Unauthorized use of a registered trademark need not be intentional in order for infringement to occur , although damages in an infringement lawsuit will generally be greater if there was an intention to deceive . For trademarks which are considered to be well known , infringing use may occur where the use occurs in relation to products or services which are not the same as or similar to the products or services in relation to which the owner 's mark is registered . A growing area of law relating to the enforcement of trademark rights is secondary liability , which allows for the imputation of liability to one who has not acted directly to infringe a trademark but whose legal responsibility may arise under the doctrines of either contributory or vicarious liability . Limits and defenses to claims of infringement Trademark is subject to various defenses , such as abandonment , limitations on geographic scope , and fair use . In the United States , the fair use defence protects many of the interests in free expression related to those protected by the First Amendment . Fair use may be asserted on two grounds , either that the alleged infringer is using the mark to describe accurately an aspect of its products , or that the alleged infringer is using the mark to identify the mark owner . One of the most visible proofs that trademarks provide a limited right in the U.S. comes from the comparative advertising that is seen throughout U.S. media . An example of the first type is that although Maytag owns the trademark `` Whisper Quiet '' , makers of other products may describe their goods as being `` whisper quiet '' so long as these products do not fall under the same category of goods the trademark is protected under . An example of the second type is that Audi can run advertisements saying that a trade publication has rated an Audi model higher than a BMW model , since they are only using `` BMW '' to identify the competitor . In a related sense , an auto mechanic can truthfully advertise that he services Volkswagens , and a former Playboy Playmate of the Year can identify herself as such on her website . Wrongful or groundless threats of infringement Various jurisdictions have laws which are designed to prevent trademark owners from making wrongful threats of trademark infringement action against other parties . These laws are intended to prevent large or powerful companies from intimidating or harassing smaller companies . Where one party makes a threat to sue another for trademark infringement , but does not have a genuine basis or intention to carry out that threat , or does not carry out the threat at all within a certain period , the threat may itself become a basis for legal action . In this situation , the party receiving such a threat may seek from the Court a declaratory judgment ; also known as a declaratory ruling . Other aspects Public policy Trademark law is designed to fulfill the public policy objective of consumer protection , by preventing the public from being misled as to the origin or quality of a product or service . By identifying the commercial source of products and services , trademarks facilitate identification of products and services which meet the expectations of consumers as to quality and other characteristics . Trademarks may also serve as an incentive for manufacturers , providers or suppliers to consistently provide quality products or services to maintain their business reputation . Furthermore , if a trademark owner does not maintain quality control and adequate supervision in relation to the manufacture and provision of products or services supplied by a licensee , such `` naked licensing '' will eventually adversely affect the owner 's rights in the trademark . For US law see , ex . Eva 's Bridal Ltd. v. Halanick Enterprises , Inc. 639 F.3d 788 ( 7th Cir . 2011 ) . This proposition has , however , been watered down by the judgment of the House of Lords in the case of Scandecor Development AB v. Scandecor Marketing AB et al . [ 2001 ] UKHL 21 ; wherein it has been held that the mere fact that a bare license ( equivalent of the United States concept of a naked license ) has been granted did not automatically mean that a trademark was liable to mislead . By the same token , trademark holders must be cautious in the sale of their mark for similar reasons as apply to licensing . When assigning an interest in a trademark , if the associated product or service is not transferred with it , then this may be an `` assignment-in-gross '' and could lead to a loss of rights in the trademark . It is still possible to make significant changes to the underlying goods or services during a sale without jeopardizing the trademark , but companies will often contract with the sellers to help transition the mark and goods or services to the new owners to ensure continuity of the trademark . Comparison with patents , designs and copyright

bt_4055--Trademark.txt

Which letter appears in a small circle after a trade-name to prove that the trade name is a registered trademark

Australia ( , , ) , officially the Commonwealth of Australia , is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent , the island of Tasmania , and numerous smaller islands . It is the world 's sixth-largest country by total area . Neighbouring countries include Papua New Guinea , Indonesia and East Timor to the north ; the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east ; and New Zealand to the south-east . For about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century , Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians , who spoke languages grouped into roughly 250 language groups . After the European discovery of the continent by Dutch explorers in 1606 , Australia 's eastern half was claimed by Great Britain in 1770 and initially settled through penal transportation to the colony of New South Wales from 26 January 1788 . The population grew steadily in subsequent decades ; the continent was explored and an additional five self-governing crown colonies were established . On 1 January 1901 , the six colonies federated , forming the Commonwealth of Australia . Since federation , Australia has maintained a stable liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states and several territories . The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated in the eastern states and on the coast . Australia is a developed country and one of the wealthiest in the world , with the world 's 12th-largest economy . In 2014 Australia had the world 's fifth-highest per capita income . Australia 's military expenditure is the world 's 13th-largest . With the second-highest human development index globally , Australia ranks highly in many international comparisons of national performance , such as quality of life , health , education , economic freedom , and the protection of civil liberties and political rights . Australia is a member of the United Nations , G20 , Commonwealth of Nations , ANZUS , Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) , World Trade Organization , Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation , and the Pacific Islands Forum . Name The name Australia ( pronounced in Australian English ) is derived from the Latin Terra Australis ( `` southern land '' ) a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times . The earliest recorded use of the word Australia in English was in 1625 in `` A note of Australia del Espíritu Santo , written by Sir Richard Hakluyt '' , published by Samuel Purchas in Hakluytus Posthumus , a corruption of the original Spanish name `` Austrialia del Espíritu Santo '' ( Southern Land of the Holy Spirit ) for an island in Vanuatu . The Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia ( Jakarta ) in 1638 , to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south . The first time that the name Australia appears to have been officially used was in a despatch to Lord Bathurst of 4 April 1817 in which Governor Lachlan Macquarie acknowledges the receipt of Matthew Flinders ' charts of Australia . On 12 December 1817 , Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted . In 1824 , the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia . History Prehistory Human habitation of the Australian continent is estimated to have begun between 42,000 and 48,000 years ago , possibly with the migration of people by land bridges and short sea-crossings from what is now Southeast Asia . These first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians . At the time of European settlement in the late 18th century , most Indigenous Australians were hunter-gatherers , with a complex oral culture and spiritual values based on reverence for the land and a belief in the Dreamtime . The Torres Strait Islanders , ethnically Melanesian , were originally horticulturists and hunter-gatherers . The northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia . European arrival The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland , and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent , are attributed to the Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon . He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606 , and made landfall on 26 February at the Pennefather River near the modern town of Weipa on Cape York.Davison , Hirst and Macintyre , p. 233 . The Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent `` New Holland '' during the 17th century , but made no attempt at settlement . William Dampier , an English explorer and privateer , landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688 and again in 1699 on a return trip . In 1770 , James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast , which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain . With the loss of its American colonies in 1783 , the British Government sent a fleet of ships , the `` First Fleet '' , under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip , to establish a new penal colony in New South Wales . A camp was set up and the flag raised at Sydney Cove , Port Jackson , on 26 January 1788 , a date which became Australia 's national day , Australia Day , although the British Crown Colony of New South Wales was not formally promulgated until 7 February 1788 . The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney , and the exploration and settlement of other regions . A British settlement was established in Van Diemen 's Land , now known as Tasmania , in 1803 , and it became a separate colony in 1825 . The United Kingdom formally claimed the western part of Western Australia ( the Swan River Colony ) in 1828 . Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales : South Australia in 1836 , Victoria in 1851 , and Queensland in 1859 . The Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia . South Australia was founded as a `` free province '' —it was never a penal colony . Victoria and Western Australia were also founded `` free '' , but later accepted transported convicts . A campaign by the settlers of New South Wales led to the end of convict transportation to that colony ; the last convict ship arrived in 1848 . The indigenous population , estimated to have been between 750,000 and 1,000,000 in 1788 , declined for 150 years following settlement , mainly due to infectious disease . Thousands more died as a result of frontier conflict with settlers . A government policy of `` assimilation '' beginning with the Aboriginal Protection Act 1869 resulted in the removal of many Aboriginal children from their families and communities—often referred to as the Stolen Generations—a practice which may also have contributed to the decline in the indigenous population . The Federal government gained the power to make laws with respect to Aborigines following the 1967 referendum . Traditional ownership of land—aboriginal title—was not recognised until 1992 , when the High Court case Mabo v Queensland ( No 2 ) overturned the legal doctrine that Australia had been terra nullius ( `` land belonging to no one '' ) before the European occupation . Colonial expansion A gold rush began in Australia in the early 1850s and the Eureka Rebellion against mining licence fees in 1854 was an early expression of civil disobedience . Between 1855 and 1890 , the six colonies individually gained responsible government , managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of the British Empire . The Colonial Office in London retained control of some matters , notably foreign affairs , defence , and international shipping . Nationhood On 1 January 1901 , federation of the colonies was achieved after a decade of planning , consultation and voting . This established the Commonwealth of Australia as a dominion of the British Empire . The Federal Capital Territory ( later renamed the Australian Capital Territory ) was formed in 1911 as the location for the future federal capital of Canberra . Melbourne was the temporary seat of government from 1901 to 1927 while Canberra was being constructed . The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the federal parliament in 1911 . In 1914 , Australia joined Britain in fighting World War I , with support from both the outgoing Commonwealth Liberal Party and the incoming Australian Labor Party . Australians took part in many of the major battles fought on the Western Front . Of about 416,000 who served , about 60,000 were killed and another 152,000 were wounded . Many Australians regard the defeat of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ( ANZACs ) at Gallipoli as the birth of the nation—its first major military action . The Kokoda Track campaign is regarded by many as an analogous nation-defining event during World War II . Britain 's Statute of Westminster 1931 formally ended most of the constitutional links between Australia and the UK . Australia adopted it in 1942 , but it was backdated to 1939 to confirm the validity of legislation passed by the Australian Parliament during World War II . The shock of the United Kingdom 's defeat in Asia in 1942 and the threat of Japanese invasion caused Australia to turn to the United States as a new ally and protector . Since 1951 , Australia has been a formal military ally of the US , under the ANZUS treaty . After World War II Australia encouraged immigration from Europe . Since the 1970s and following the abolition of the White Australia policy , immigration from Asia and elsewhere was also promoted . As a result , Australia 's demography , culture , and self-image were transformed . The final constitutional ties between Australia and the UK were severed with the passing of the Australia Act 1986 , ending any British role in the government of the Australian States , and closing the option of judicial appeals to the Privy Council in London . In a 1999 referendum , 55 % of voters and a majority in every state rejected a proposal to become a republic with a president appointed by a two-thirds vote in both Houses of the Australian Parliament . Since the election of the Whitlam Government in 1972 , there has been an increasing focus in foreign policy on ties with other Pacific Rim nations , while maintaining close ties with Australia 's traditional allies and trading partners . Government Australia is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy with Elizabeth II at its apex as the Queen of Australia , a role that is distinct from her position as monarch of the other Commonwealth realms . The Queen is represented in Australia by the Governor-General at the federal level and by the Governors at the state level , who by convention act on the advice of her ministers . The most notable exercise to date of the Governor-General 's reserve powers outside the Prime Minister 's request was the dismissal of the Whitlam Government in the constitutional crisis of 1975 . The federal government is separated into three branches : * The legislature : the bicameral Parliament , defined in section 1 of the constitution as comprising the Queen ( represented by the Governor-General ) , the Senate , and the House of Representatives ; * The executive : the Federal Executive Council , which in practice gives legal effect to the decisions of the cabinet , comprising the prime minister and ministers of state who advise the Governor-General ; * The judiciary : the High Court of Australia and other federal courts , whose judges are appointed by the Governor-General on advice of the Federal Executive Council . In the Senate ( the upper house ) , there are 76 senators : twelve each from the states and two each from the mainland territories ( the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory ) . The House of Representatives ( the lower house ) has 150 members elected from single-member electoral divisions , commonly known as `` electorates '' or `` seats '' , allocated to states on the basis of population , with each original state guaranteed a minimum of five seats . Elections for both chambers are normally held every three years simultaneously ; senators have overlapping six-year terms except for those from the territories , whose terms are not fixed but are tied to the electoral cycle for the lower house ; thus only 40 of the 76 places in the Senate are put to each election unless the cycle is interrupted by a double dissolution . Australia 's electoral system uses preferential voting for all lower house elections with the exception of Tasmania and the ACT which , along with the Senate and most state upper houses , combine it with proportional representation in a system known as the single transferable vote . Voting is compulsory for all enrolled citizens 18 years and over in every jurisdiction , as is enrolment ( with the exception of South Australia ) . The party with majority support in the House of Representatives forms the government and its leader becomes Prime Minister . In cases where no party has majority support , the Governor-General has the constitutional power to appoint the Prime Minister and , if necessary , dismiss one that has lost the confidence of Parliament . There are two major political groups that usually form government , federally and in the states : the Australian Labor Party and the Coalition which is a formal grouping of the Liberal Party and its minor partner , the National Party . Within Australian political culture , the Coalition is considered centre-right and the Labor Party is considered centre-left . Independent members and several minor parties have achieved representation in Australian parliaments , mostly in upper houses . The most recent federal election was held on 7 September 2013 and resulted in a majority government for the Coalition . Liberal Party leader Tony Abbott was sworn into office as Prime Minister by the Governor-General of Australia on 18 September . In September 2015 , Malcolm Turnbull successfully challenged Abbott for leadership of the Coalition , and was sworn in as the 29th Prime Minister of Australia . States and territories Australia has six states—New South Wales ( NSW ) , Queensland ( QLD ) , South Australia ( SA ) , Tasmania ( TAS ) , Victoria ( VIC ) and Western Australia ( WA ) —and two major mainland territories—the Australian Capital Territory ( ACT ) and the Northern Territory ( NT ) . In most respects these two territories function as states , but the Commonwealth Parliament can override any legislation of their parliaments . By contrast , federal legislation overrides state legislation only in areas that are set out in Section 51 of the Australian Constitution ; state parliaments retain all residual legislative powers , including those over schools , state police , the state judiciary , roads , public transport and local government , since these do not fall under the provisions listed in Section 51 . Each state and major mainland territory has its own parliament—unicameral in the Northern Territory , the ACT and Queensland , and bicameral in the other states . The states are sovereign entities , although subject to certain powers of the Commonwealth as defined by the Constitution . The lower houses are known as the Legislative Assembly ( the House of Assembly in South Australia and Tasmania ) ; the upper houses are known as the Legislative Council . The head of the government in each state is the Premier and in each territory the Chief Minister . The Queen is represented in each state by a Governor ; and in the Northern Territory , the Administrator . In the Commonwealth , the Queen 's representative is the Governor-General . The federal parliament directly administers the following territories : * Ashmore and Cartier Islands * Australian Antarctic Territory * Christmas Island * Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands * Coral Sea Islands * Heard Island and McDonald Islands * Jervis Bay Territory , a naval base and sea port for the national capital in land that was formerly part of New South Wales The external territory of Norfolk Island previously exercised considerable autonomy under the Norfolk Island Act 1979 through its own legislative assembly and an Administrator to represent the Queen . In 2015 , the Commonwealth Parliament abolished self-government , integrating Norfolk Island into the Australian tax and welfare systems and replacing its legislative assembly with a council . Macquarie Island is administered by Tasmania , and Lord Howe Island by New South Wales . Foreign relations and military Over recent decades , Australia 's foreign relations have been driven by a close association with the United States through the ANZUS pact , and by a desire to develop relationships with Asia and the Pacific , particularly through ASEAN and the Pacific Islands Forum . In 2005 Australia secured an inaugural seat at the East Asia Summit following its accession to the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia , and in 2011 attended the Sixth East Asia Summit in Indonesia . Australia is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations , in which the Commonwealth Heads of Government meetings provide the main forum for co-operation . Australia has pursued the cause of international trade liberalisation . It led the formation of the Cairns Group and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation . Australia is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and the World Trade Organization , and has pursued several major bilateral free trade agreements , most recently the Australia–United States Free Trade Agreement and Closer Economic Relations with New Zealand , with another free trade agreement being negotiated with China—the Australia–China Free Trade Agreement—and Japan , South Korea in 2011 , Australia–Chile Free Trade Agreement , and as of November 2015 has put the Trans-Pacific Partnership before parliament for ratification . Along with New Zealand , the United Kingdom , Malaysia and Singapore , Australia is party to the Five Power Defence Arrangements , a regional defence agreement . A founding member country of the United Nations , Australia is strongly committed to multilateralism and maintains an international aid program under which some 60 countries receive assistance . The 2005–06 budget provides A $ 2.5 billion for development assistance . Australia ranks fifteenth overall in the Center for Global Development 's 2012 Commitment to Development Index . Australia 's armed forces—the Australian Defence Force ( ADF ) —comprise the Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) , the Australian Army and the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) , in total numbering 81,214 personnel ( including 57,982 regulars and 23,232 reservists ) as of November 2015 . The titular role of Commander-in-Chief is vested in the Governor-General , who appoints a Chief of the Defence Force from one of the armed services on the advice of the government . Day-to-day force operations are under the command of the Chief , while broader administration and the formulation of defence policy is undertaken by the Minister and Department of Defence . In the 2015–16 budget , defence spending was A $ 31.9 billion or 1.92 % of GDP , representing the 13th largest defence budget . Australia has been involved in UN and regional peacekeeping , disaster relief and armed conflict , including the 2003 invasion of Iraq ; it currently has deployed about 2,241 personnel in varying capacities to 12 international operations in areas including Iraq and Afghanistan . Geography and climate Australia 's landmass of 7617930 km2 is on the Indo-Australian Plate . Surrounded by the Indian and Pacific oceans , it is separated from Asia by the Arafura and Timor seas , with the Coral Sea lying off the Queensland coast , and the Tasman Sea lying between Australia and New Zealand . The world 's smallest continent and sixth largest country by total area , Australia—owing to its size and isolation—is often dubbed the `` island continent '' , and is sometimes considered the world 's largest island . Australia has 34218 km of coastline ( excluding all offshore islands ) , and claims an extensive Exclusive Economic Zone of 8148250 km2 . This exclusive economic zone does not include the Australian Antarctic Territory . Apart from Macquarie Island , Australia lies between latitudes 9° and 44°S , and longitudes 112° and 154°E . The Great Barrier Reef , the world 's largest coral reef , lies a short distance off the north-east coast and extends for over 2000 km . Mount Augustus , claimed to be the world 's largest monolith , is located in Western Australia . At 2228 m , Mount Kosciuszko on the Great Dividing Range is the highest mountain on the Australian mainland . Even taller are Mawson Peak ( at 2745 m ) , on the remote Australian territory of Heard Island , and , in the Australian Antarctic Territory , Mount McClintock and Mount Menzies , at 3492 m and 3355 m respectively . Australia 's size gives it a wide variety of landscapes , with tropical rainforests in the north-east , mountain ranges in the south-east , south-west and east , and dry desert in the centre . It is the flattest continent , with the oldest and least fertile soils ; desert or semi-arid land commonly known as the outback makes up by far the largest portion of land . The driest inhabited continent , its annual rainfall averaged over continental area is less than 500 mm . The population density , 2.8 inhabitants per square kilometre , is among the lowest in the world , although a large proportion of the population lives along the temperate south-eastern coastline . Eastern Australia is marked by the Great Dividing Range , which runs parallel to the coast of Queensland , New South Wales and much of Victoria . The name is not strictly accurate , because parts of the range consist of low hills , and the highlands are typically no more than 1600 m in height . The coastal uplands and a belt of Brigalow grasslands lie between the coast and the mountains , while inland of the dividing range are large areas of grassland . These include the western plains of New South Wales , and the Einasleigh Uplands , Barkly Tableland , and Mulga Lands of inland Queensland . The northernmost point of the east coast is the tropical-rainforested Cape York Peninsula . The landscapes of the Top End and the Gulf Countrywith their tropical climateinclude forest , woodland , wetland , grassland , rainforest and desert . At the north-west corner of the continent are the sandstone cliffs and gorges of The Kimberley , and below that the Pilbara . To the south of these and inland , lie more areas of grassland : the Ord Victoria Plain and the Western Australian Mulga shrublands . At the heart of the country are the uplands of central Australia . Prominent features of the centre and south include Uluru ( also known as Ayers Rock ) , the famous sandstone monolith , and the inland Simpson , Tirari and Sturt Stony , Gibson , Great Sandy , Tanami , and Great Victoria deserts , with the famous Nullarbor Plain on the southern coast . The climate of Australia is significantly influenced by ocean currents , including the Indian Ocean Dipole and the El Niño–Southern Oscillation , which is correlated with periodic drought , and the seasonal tropical low-pressure system that produces cyclones in northern Australia . These factors cause rainfall to vary markedly from year to year . Much of the northern part of the country has a tropical , predominantly summer-rainfall ( monsoon ) climate . The south-west corner of the country has a Mediterranean climate . Much of the south-east ( including Tasmania ) is temperate . Environment Although most of Australia is semi-arid or desert , it includes a diverse range of habitats from alpine heaths to tropical rainforests , and is recognised as a megadiverse country . Fungi typify that diversity ; an estimated 250,000 species—of which only 5 % have been described—occur in Australia . Because of the continent 's great age , extremely variable weather patterns , and long-term geographic isolation , much of Australia 's biota is unique . About 85 % of flowering plants , 84 % of mammals , more than 45 % of birds , and 89 % of in-shore , temperate-zone fish are endemic . Australia has the greatest number of reptiles of any country , with 755 species . Australian forests are mostly made up of evergreen species , particularly eucalyptus trees in the less arid regions ; wattles replace them as the dominant species in drier regions and deserts . Among well-known Australian animals are the monotremes ( the platypus and echidna ) ; a host of marsupials , including the kangaroo , koala , and wombat , and birds such as the emu and the kookaburra . Australia is home to many dangerous animals including some of the most venomous snakes in the world . The dingo was introduced by Austronesian people who traded with Indigenous Australians around 3000 BCE . Many animal and plant species became extinct soon after first human settlement , including the Australian megafauna ; others have disappeared since European settlement , among them the thylacine . Many of Australia 's ecoregions , and the species within those regions , are threatened by human activities and introduced animal , chromistan , fungal and plant species . All these factors have led to Australia having the highest mammal extinction rate of any country in the world . The federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 is the legal framework for the protection of threatened species . Numerous protected areas have been created under the National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia 's Biological Diversity to protect and preserve unique ecosystems ; 65 wetlands are listed under the Ramsar Convention , and 16 natural World Heritage Sites have been established . Australia was ranked 3rd out of 178 countries in the world on the 2014 Environmental Performance Index . Environmental issues Protection of the environment is a major political issue in Australia . In 2007 , the First Rudd Government signed the instrument of ratification of the Kyoto Protocol . Nevertheless , Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions per capita are among the highest in the world , lower than those of only a few other industrialised nations . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10–20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . According to the Bureau of Meteorology 's 2011 Australian Climate Statement , Australia had lower than average temperatures in 2011 as a consequence of a La Niña weather pattern ; however , `` the country 's 10-year average continues to demonstrate the rising trend in temperatures , with 2002–2011 likely to rank in the top two warmest 10-year periods on record for Australia , at above the long-term average '' . Furthermore , 2014 was Australia 's third warmest year since national temperature observations commenced in 1910 . Water restrictions are frequently in place in many regions and cities of Australia in response to chronic shortages due to urban population increases and localised drought . Throughout much of the continent , major flooding regularly follows extended periods of drought , flushing out inland river systems , overflowing dams and inundating large inland flood plains , as occurred throughout Eastern Australia in 2010 , 2011 and 2012 after the 2000s Australian drought . A carbon tax was introduced in 2012 and helped to reduce Australia 's emissions but was scrapped in 2014 under the Liberal Government . Since the carbon tax was repealed , emissions have again continued to rise . Australian biota has been severely impacted by changes occurring since European settlement began in 1788 , with more than 10 % of mammal species lost in the past 225 years . There have also been 23 bird species or subspecies , 4 amphibians and more than 60 plant species known to be lost during this period . The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act of 1999 was designed to minimise further impacts on ecological communities in Australia and its territories . Economy Australia is a wealthy country ; it generates its income from various sources including mining-related exports , telecommunications , banking and manufacturing . It has a market economy , a relatively high GDP per capita , and a relatively low rate of poverty . In terms of average wealth , Australia ranked

qw_8517--Australia.txt

The island of Tasmania is governed by which country?

Valverde ( Spanish meaning `` green valley '' ) is a municipality in the Canary Islands in the province of Santa Cruz de Tenerife . It is located on the north-east part of El Hierro ( the rest of the island being the municipalities of Frontera and El Pinar ) . The town of the same name serves as the island 's official capital . It is both the smallest Canarian capital and the only one not located by the sea . The town 's airport and seaport are both several kilometres away on the island 's east coast . Pastureland and smallholdings dominate the central plateau area with pine and cloud forest at progressively higher elevations . The coastal areas and lower slopes are arid and mainly left to unimproved scrub and sparse grassland . Volcanism is prominent , with several cinder cones and areas of lava flow to be seen . Historical population Climate The city has a tropical desert climate ( Köppen climate classification BWh ) with mild temperatures year round . Winters are mild and warm with a January mean of . Temperatures rarely go below 10 C with the record low being on January 16 , 1981 . Frosts are non-existent . Most of the precipitation falls during the winter months . Summers are warm with the warmest month , September averaging , indicating a seasonal lag . Precipitation is scarce during this time , averaging 0 mm to 2 mm . Owing to its proximity to the sea , extreme temperatures are rare with the highest temperature recorded being on October 16 , 1983 . It should be noted in particular , that Valverde is at an altitude of 571 metres above sea level , while El Hierro airport is just 32 metres above sea level . The difference in altitude can have a significant effect on the weather .

odql_8059--Valverde,_Santa_Cruz_de_Tenerife.txt

Its capital is Valverde - which is the smallest of the Canary Islands?

The Count of Monte Cristo ( ) is an adventure novel by French author Alexandre Dumas ( père ) completed in 1844 . It is one of the author 's most popular works , along with The Three Musketeers . Like many of his novels , it is expanded from plot outlines suggested by his collaborating ghostwriter Auguste Maquet . The story takes place in France , Italy , and islands in the Mediterranean during the historical events of 1815–1839 : the era of the Bourbon Restoration through the reign of Louis-Philippe of France . It begins just before the Hundred Days period ( when Napoleon returned to power after his exile ) . The historical setting is a fundamental element of the book , an adventure story primarily concerned with themes of hope , justice , vengeance , mercy , and forgiveness . It centres around a man who is wrongfully imprisoned , escapes from jail , acquires a fortune , and sets about getting revenge on those responsible for his imprisonment . However , his plans have devastating consequences for the innocent as well as the guilty . In addition , it is a story that involves romance , loyalty , betrayal , and selfishness , shown throughout the story as characters slowly reveal their true inner nature . The book is considered a literary classic today . According to Luc Sante , `` The Count of Monte Cristo has become a fixture of Western civilization 's literature , as inescapable and immediately identifiable as Mickey Mouse , Noah 's flood , and the story of Little Red Riding Hood . '' Background to the plot Dumas wrote that the idea of revenge in The Count of Monte Cristo came from a story in a book compiled by Jacques Peuchet , a French police archivist , published in 1838 after the death of the author . Dumas included this essay in one of the editions from 1846 . Peuchet told of a shoemaker , Pierre Picaud , living in Nîmes in 1807 , who was engaged to marry a rich woman when three jealous friends falsely accused him of being a spy for England . Picaud was placed under a form of house arrest in the Fenestrelle Fort , where he served as a servant to a rich Italian cleric . When the man died , he left his fortune to Picaud , whom he had begun to treat as a son . Picaud then spent years plotting his revenge on the three men who were responsible for his misfortune . He stabbed the first with a dagger on which were printed the words `` Number One '' , and then he poisoned the second . The third man 's son he lured into crime and his daughter into prostitution , finally stabbing the man himself . This third man , named Loupian , had married Picaud 's fiancée while Picaud was under arrest . In another of the `` True Stories '' , Peuchet describes a poisoning in a family . This story , also quoted in the Pleiade edition , has obviously served as model for the chapter of the murders inside the Villefort family . The introduction to the Pleiade edition mentions other sources from real life : Abbé Faria existed and died in 1819 after a life with much resemblance to that of the Faria in the novel . As for Dantès , his fate is quite different from his model in Peuchet 's book , since the latter is murdered by the `` Caderousse '' of the plot . But Dantès has `` alter egos '' in two other Dumas works ; in `` Pauline '' from 1838 , and more significantly in `` Georges '' from 1843 , where a young man with black ancestry is preparing a revenge against white people who had humiliated him . Plot Summary On the day of his wedding to Mercédès , Edmond Dantès , First Mate of the Phaeron , is accused of treason , arrested , and imprisoned without trial in the Château d'If , a grim island fortress off Marseilles . A fellow prisoner , Abbé Faria , correctly deduces that his jealous rival , Fernand Mondego , envious crewmate , Danglars , and double-dealing Magistrate , Villefort , betrayed him . Faria inspires his escape and guides him to a fortune in treasure . As the powerful and mysterious Count of Monte Cristo , he arrives from the Orient to enter the fashionable Parisian world of the 1830s and avenge himself on the men who conspired to destroy him . Edmond Dantès In 1815 , Edmond Dantès , a young merchant sailor who has recently been granted the succession of his captain Leclère , returns to Marseille to marry his Catalan fiancée Mercédès . Leclère , a supporter of the exiled Napoléon I , found himself dying at sea and charged Dantès to deliver two objects : a package to General Bertrand ( exiled with Napoleon Bonaparte on Elba ) , and a letter from Elba to an unknown man in Paris . On the eve of Dantès ' wedding to Mercédès , Fernand Mondego ( Mercédès ' cousin and a rival for her affections ) is given advice by Dantès ' colleague Danglars ( who is jealous of Dantès ' rapid rise to captain ) to send an anonymous note accusing Dantès of being a Bonapartist traitor . Caderousse ( Dantès ' cowardly and selfish neighbor ) is drunk while the two conspirators set the trap for Dantès and stays quiet as Dantès is arrested , then sentenced . Villefort , the deputy crown prosecutor in Marseille , destroys the letter from Elba when he discovers that it is addressed to his own father , Noirtier ( who is a Bonapartist ) , since if this letter came into official hands , it would destroy his ambitions and reputation as a staunch Royalist . To silence Dantès , he condemns him without trial to life imprisonment . After six years of imprisonment in the Château d'If , Dantès is on the verge of suicide when he befriends the Abbé Faria ( `` The Mad Priest '' ) , a fellow prisoner who had dug an escape tunnel that ended up in Dantès ' cell . Over the next eight years , Faria gives Dantès an extensive education in language , culture , and science . Knowing himself to be close to death , Faria tells Dantès the location of a treasure on the island of Monte Cristo . When Faria dies , Dantès takes his place in the burial sack . When the guards throw the sack into the sea , Dantès breaks through and swims to a nearby island . He is rescued by a smuggling ship that stops at Monte Cristo . After recovering the treasure , Dantès returns to Marseille . He later purchases the island of Monte Cristo and the title of Count from the Tuscan government . Traveling as the Abbé Busoni , Dantès meets Caderousse , now living in poverty , whose intervention might have saved Dantès from prison . He gives Caderousse a diamond that can be either a chance to redeem himself or a trap that will lead to his ruin . Learning that his old employer Morrel is on the verge of bankruptcy , Dantès buys Morrel 's debts and gives Morrel three months to fulfill his obligations . At the end of the three months and with no way to repay his debts , Morrel is about to commit suicide when he learns that his debts have been mysteriously paid and that one of his lost ships has returned with a full cargo , secretly rebuilt and laden by Dantès . The Count of Monte Cristo Reappearing as the rich Count of Monte Cristo , Dantès begins his revenge on the three men responsible for his unjust imprisonment : Fernand , now Count de Morcerf and Mercédès ' husband ; Danglars , now a baron and a wealthy banker ; and Villefort , now procureur du roi . The Count appears first in Rome , where he becomes acquainted with the Baron Franz d'Épinay , and Viscount Albert de Morcerf , the son of Mercédès and Fernand . Dantès arranges for the young Morcerf to be captured by the bandit Luigi Vampa before rescuing him from Vampa 's gang . The Count then moves to Paris and dazzles Danglars with his wealth , persuading him to extend him a credit of six million francs . The Count manipulates the bond market and quickly destroys a large portion of Danglars ' fortune . The rest of it begins to rapidly disappear through mysterious bankruptcies , suspensions of payment , and more bad luck in the Stock Exchange . Villefort had once conducted an affair with Madame Danglars . She became pregnant and delivered the child in the house that the Count has now purchased . To cover up the affair , Villefort told Madame Danglars that the infant was stillborn . Villefort then smothered the child , and thinking him to be dead , tried to bury him behind the house . While Villefort was burying the child , he was stabbed by the smuggler Bertuccio , who found the child and brought him back to life . Bertuccio 's sister-in-law brought the child up , giving him the name `` Benedetto . '' Benedetto takes up a life of crime as he grows into adolescence . He decides to rob his adoptive mother ( Bertuccio 's sister-in-law ) and ends up killing her , then runs away . The Count learns this story from Bertuccio , who later becomes his servant . Meanwhile , Benedetto has grown up to become a criminal and is sentenced to the galleys with Caderousse , who had sold the diamond , but killed both the buyer and his wife out of greed . After the two are freed by Dantès , using the alias `` Lord Wilmore '' , Benedetto is sponsored by the Count to take the identity of `` Viscount Andrea Cavalcanti '' and is introduced by him into Parisian society . Andrea then ingratiates himself to Danglars , who betroths his daughter Eugénie to Andrea ( who are both also half-siblings ) after cancelling her engagement to Albert , son of Fernand . Meanwhile , Caderousse blackmails Andrea , threatening to reveal his past . Cornered by `` Abbé Busoni '' while attempting to rob the Count 's house , Caderousse begs to be given another chance , but Dantès forces him to write a letter to Danglars exposing Cavalcanti as an impostor and allows Caderousse to leave the house . The moment Caderousse leaves the estate , he is stabbed by Andrea . Caderousse dictates a deathbed statement identifying his killer , and the Count reveals his true identity to Caderousse moments before Caderousse dies . Years before , Ali Pasha of Janina had been betrayed to the Turks by Fernand . After Ali 's death , Fernand sold Ali 's wife Vasiliki and his daughter Haydée into slavery . While Vasiliki died shortly afterwards , Haydée was found by Dantès and becomes the Count 's ward . The Count manipulates Danglars into researching the event , which is published in a newspaper . As a result , Fernand is brought to trial for his crimes . Mercédès is the only person to recognize the Count as Dantès . When Albert blames the Count for his father 's downfall and challenges him to a duel , Mercédès goes to the Count and begs him to spare her son . During this interview , she learns the truth of his arrest and imprisonment . She later reveals the truth to Albert , which causes Albert to make a public apology to the Count . Albert and Mercédès disown Fernand , who is confronted with Dantès ' true identity and commits suicide . Albert and Mercédès renounce their titles and wealth and depart to begin new lives . Valentine , Villefort 's daughter by his late first wife , stands to inherit the fortune of her grandfather ( Noirtier ) and of her mother 's parents ( the Saint-Mérans ) , while Villefort 's second wife Héloïse seeks the fortune for her son Édouard . The Count is aware of Héloïse 's intentions and introduces her to the technique of poison . Héloïse fatally poisons the Saint-Mérans , so that Valentine inherits their fortune . Valentine is disinherited by Noirtier in an attempt to prevent Valentine 's impending marriage with Franz d'Épinay . The marriage is cancelled when d'Épinay learns that his father ( believed assassinated by Bonapartists ) was actually killed by Noirtier in a duel . Afterwards , Valentine is reinstated in Noirtier 's will . After a failed attempt on Noirtier 's life , Héloïse targets Valentine so that Édouard will get the fortune . However , Valentine is the prime suspect in her father 's eyes in the deaths of the Saint-Mérans and Noirtier 's servant , Barrois . On learning that Morrel 's son Maximilien is in love with Valentine , the Count saves her by making it appear as though Héloïse 's plan to poison Valentine has succeeded and that Valentine is dead . Villefort learns from Noirtier that Héloïse is the real murderer and confronts her , giving her the choice of a public execution or committing suicide . Fleeing after Caderousse 's letter exposes him , Andrea is arrested and returned to Paris , where Villefort prosecutes him . While in prison awaiting trial , Andrea is visited by Bertuccio , who tells him the truth about his father . At his trial , Andrea reveals that he is Villefort 's son and was rescued after Villefort buried him alive.Villefort admits his guilt and flees the court . He rushes home to stop his wife 's suicide but is too late ; she has poisoned her son as well . Dantès confronts Villefort , revealing his true identity , but this drives Villefort insane . Having not intended to kill the innocent young boy , Dantès tries to resuscitate Édouard but fails , causing him to question if he has gone too far . After the Count 's manipulation of the bond market , Danglars is left with a destroyed reputation and 5,000,000 francs he has been holding in deposit for hospitals . The Count demands this sum to fulfil their credit agreement , and Danglars embezzles the hospital fund . Abandoning his wife , Danglars flees to Italy with the Count 's receipt and 50,000 francs . While leaving Rome , he is kidnapped by the Count 's agent Luigi Vampa and is imprisoned . Forced to pay exorbitant prices for food and nearly starved to death , Danglars signs away his ill-gotten gains . Dantès anonymously returns the stolen money to the hospitals . Danglars finally repents his crimes . Dantès forgives him and allows him to leave with his freedom and his 50,000 francs . Maximilien Morrel , believing Valentine to be dead , contemplates suicide after her funeral . Dantès reveals his true identity and explains that he rescued Morrel 's father from bankruptcy years earlier ; he then tells Maximilien to reconsider his suicide . On the island of Monte Cristo , Dantès presents Valentine to Maximilien and reveals the true sequence of events . Having found peace , Dantès leaves the newly reunited couple his fortune and departs for an unknown destination to find comfort and a new life with Haydée , who has declared her love for him . The reader is left with a final thought : `` all human wisdom is contained in these two words , 'Wait and Hope ' '' . Characters Edmond Dantès and his aliases * Edmond Dantès ( born 1796 ) : A sailor with good prospects , engaged to Mercédès . After his transformation into the Count of Monte Cristo , he reveals his true name to his enemies as each revenge is completed . During the course of the novel , he falls in love with Haydée . * The Count of Monte Cristo : The identity Dantès assumes when he emerges from prison and inherits his vast fortune . As a result , the Count of Monte Cristo is usually associated with a coldness and bitterness that comes from an existence based solely on revenge . * Zatarra : the name Jacopo gave Dantés as an alias . * English Chief Clerk of the banking firm Thomson and French * Lord Wilmore : An Englishman , and the persona in which Dantès performs random acts of generosity . * Sinbad the Sailor : The persona that Dantès assumes when he saves the Morrel family and assumes while mixing with smugglers and brigands . * Abbé Busoni : The persona of an Italian priest with religious authority . * Monsieur Zaccone : Dantès , in the guise of the Abbé Busoni , and again as Lord Wilmore , tells an investigator that this is the Count of Monte Cristo 's true name . * Number 34 : The name given to him by the new governor of Château d'If . Finding it too tedious to learn Dantès ' real name , he was called by the number of his cell . * The Maltese Sailor : The name he was known by after his rescue by smugglers from the island of Tiboulen . Dantès ' allies * Abbé Faria : Italian priest and sage . Imprisoned in the Château d'If . * Giovanni Bertuccio : The Count of Monte Cristo 's steward and very loyal servant ; foster father of Benedetto . * Luigi Vampa : celebrated Italian bandit and fugitive . * Peppino : Formerly a shepherd , he is later a bandit and full member of Vampa 's gang . * Ali : Monte Cristo 's mute Nubian slave . * Baptistin : Monte Cristo 's valet-de-chambre . * Jacopo Manfredi : A poor smuggler who helps Dantès win his freedom . When Jacopo proves his selfless loyalty , Dantès rewards him with his own ship and crew . * Haydée : Monte Cristo 's young , beautiful slave . She is a major part of Dantes ' plan to get revenge on Fernand . At the end , she and Monte Cristo become lovers . Morcerf family * Mercédès Mondego ( née Herrera ) : Edmond Dantès ' lover and fiancée at the beginning of the story . She later marries Fernand and they have a son named Albert . Despite being Fernand 's wife , she remains in love with Edmond . * Fernand Mondego : Count de Morcerf , Dantès 's rival and cousin of Mercédès , whom he eventually marries . Fernand helped frame Edmond in order to get Mercédès and would later become a general in the army , which leads to his betrayal of Haydée 's father and sells Haydée and her mother to gain the title `` Count '' . * Albert de Morcerf : Son of Mercédès and the Viscount de Morcerf , later becomes fond of Monte Cristo and sees him as a friend . Danglars family * Baron Danglars : Dantès ' jealous junior officer and mastermind behind his imprisonment , later a wealthy banker . * Madame Hermine Danglars ( formerly Baroness Hermine de Nargonne née de Servieux ) : She had an affair with Gérard de Villefort . They had an illegitimate son , Benedetto . * Eugénie Danglars : Daughter of Baron Danglars . She is free-spirited and aspires to become an independent artist . Villefort family * Gérard de Villefort : Royal prosecutor who imprisons Dantès , later becoming acquaintances as Dantès enacts his revenge . * Renée de Villefort , née de Saint-Méran : Gérard de Villefort 's first wife , mother of Valentine . * The Marquis and Marquise de Saint-Méran : Renée 's parents . * Valentine de Villefort : The daughter of Gérard de Villefort and his first wife , Renée . In love with Maximilien Morrel . Engaged to Baron Franz d'Épinay . She is 19 years old with chestnut hair , dark blue eyes , and `` long white hands '' . * Monsieur Noirtier de Villefort : The father of Gérard de Villefort and grandfather of Valentine , Édouard ( and , without knowing it , Benedetto ) . A committed anti-royalist . He is paralysed and only able to communicate with his eyes , but retains his mental faculties and acts as protector to Valentine . * Héloïse de Villefort : The murderous second wife of Gérard de Villefort , mother of Edouard . * Édouard de Villefort ( Edward ) . The only legitimate son of Villefort . * Benedetto : The illegitimate son of de Villefort and Baroness Hermine Danglars ( Hermine de Nargonne ) , raised by Bertuccio and his sister-in-law , Assunta , in Rogliano . Becomes `` Andrea Cavalcanti '' in Paris . Morrel family * Pierre Morrel : Dantès 's employer , owner of Morrel & Son . * Maximilien Morrel : Son of Pierre Morrel , an army captain who becomes a friend of Dantès . In love with Valentine de Villefort . * Julie Herbault : Daughter of Pierre Morrel , wife of Emmanuel Herbault . * Emmanuel Herbault : an employee of Morrel & Son , who marries Julie Morrel and succeeds to the business . Other characters * Gaspard Caderousse : Originally a tailor and later the owner of an inn , he was a neighbour and friend of Dantès who fails to protect him at the beginning of the story and then turns to crime . * Louis Dantès : Edmond Dantès ' father , who dies from starvation during his son 's imprisonment . * Baron Franz d'Épinay : A friend of Albert de Morcerf , first fiancé of Valentine de Villefort . * Lucien Debray : Secretary to the Minister of the Interior , a friend of Albert de Morcerf , and a lover of Madame Danglars , whom he provides with inside investment information , which she then passes on to her husband . * Beauchamp : Journalist and friend of Albert de Morcerf . * Raoul , Baron de Château-Renaud : Member of a noble family and friend of Albert de Morcerf . * Louise d'Armilly : Eugénie Danglars ' music instructor and her intimate friend ( and it is strongly suggested , her lesbian lover ) . * Monsieur de Boville : Originally an inspector of prisons , later a detective in the Paris force . * Barrois : Old , trusted servant of Monsieur de Noirtier . * Monsieur d'Avrigny : Family doctor treating the Villefort family . * Major ( also Marquis ) Bartolomeo Cavalcanti : Old man who plays the role of Prince Andrea Cavalcanti 's father . * Ali Tebelen ( Ali Tepelini in some versions ) : An Albanian nationalist leader , Pasha of Yanina , whom Fernand Mondego betrays , leading to Ali Pasha ’ s murder at the hands of the Turks and the seizure of his kingdom . His wife and daughter Haydée are sold into slavery by Fernand . * Countess Teresa Guiccioli Publication The Count of Monte Cristo was originally published in the Journal des Débats in eighteen parts . Serialization ran from August 28 , 1844 to January 15 , 1846 . The first edition in book form was published in Paris by Pétion in 18 volumes with the first two issued in 1844 and the remaining sixteen in 1845 . Most of the Belgian pirated editions , the first Paris edition and many others up to the Lécrivain et Toubon illustrated edition of 1860 feature a misspelling of the title with `` Christo '' used instead of `` Cristo '' . The first edition to feature the correct spelling was the L'echo Des Feuilletons illustrated edition , Paris 1846 . This edition featured plates by Gavarni and Tony Johannot and was said to be `` revised '' and `` corrected '' , although only the chapter structure appears to have been altered with an additional chapter entitled La Maison des Allées de Meilhan having been created by splitting Le Départ into two . English translations The first appearance of The Count of Monte Cristo in English was the first part of a serialization by W. Francis Ainsworth in volume VII of Ainsworth 's Magazine published in 1845 , although this was an abridged summary of the first part of the novel only and was entitled The Prisoner of If . Ainsworth translated the remaining chapters of the novel , again in abridged form , and issued these in volumes VIII and IX of the magazine in 1845 and 1846 respectively . Another abridged serialisation appeared in The London Journal between 1846 and 1847 . The first single volume translation in English was an abridged edition with woodcuts published by Geo Pierce in January 1846 entitled The Prisoner of If or The Revenge of Monte Christo . In April 1846 , volume three of the Parlour Novelist , Belfast , Ireland : Simms and M'Intyre , London : W S Orr and Company , featured the first part of an unabridged translation of the novel by Emma Hardy . The remaining two parts would be issued as the Count of Monte Christo volumes I and II in volumes 8 and 9 of the Parlour Novelist respectively . The most common English translation is an anonymous one originally published in 1846 by Chapman and Hall . This was originally released in ten weekly installments from March 1846 with six pages of letterpress and two illustrations by M Valentin . The translation was released in book form with all twenty illustrations in two volumes in May 1846 , a month after the release of the first part of the above-mentioned translation by Emma Hardy . The translation follows the revised French edition of 1846 , with the correct spelling of `` Cristo '' and the extra chapter The House on the Allées de Meilhan . Most English editions of the novel follow the anonymous translation . In 1889 two of the major American publishers Little Brown and T.Y Crowell updated the translation , correcting mistakes and revising the text to reflect the original serialised version . This resulted in the removal of the chapter The House on the Allées de Meilhan , with the text restored to the end of the chapter called The Departure . In 1955 Collins published an updated version of the anonymous translation which cut several passages including a whole chapter entitled The Past and renamed others . This abridgement was republished by many Collins imprints and other publishers including the Modern Library , Vintage , the 1998 Oxford World 's Classics edition ( later editions restored the text ) and the 2009 Everyman 's Library edition . In 1996 Penguin Classics published a new translation by Robin Buss . Buss 's translation updated the language , making the text more accessible to modern readers , and restored content that was modified in the 1846 translation because of Victorian English social restrictions ( for example , references to Eugénie 's lesbian traits and behaviour ) to reflect Dumas ' original version . In addition to the above there have also been many abridged translations such as an 1892 edition published by F.M Lupton , translated by Henry L. Williams ( this translation was also released by M.J Ivers in 1892 with Williams using the pseudonym of Professor William Thiese ) . A more recent abridgement is the translation by Lowell Blair for Bantam Classics in 1956 . In Japan The first Japanese translation by Kuroiwa Shūroku was entitled `` Shigai Shiden Gankutsu-ou '' ( 史外史伝巌窟王 , `` a historical story from outside history , the King of the Cavern '' ) , and serialized from 1901-1902 in the Yorozu Chouhou newspaper , and released in book form in four volumes by publisher Aoki Suusandou in 1905 . Though later translations use the title `` Monte Cristo-haku '' ( モンテ・クリスト伯 , the Count of Monte Cristo ) , the `` Gankutsu-ou '' title remains highly associated with the novel and is often used as an alternative . As of March 2016 , all movie adaptations of the novel brought to Japan used the title `` Gankutsu-ou '' , with the exception of the 2002 film , which has it as a subtitle ( with the title itself simply being `` Monte Cristo '' ) . The novel is popular in Japan , and has spawned numerous adaptations , the most notable of which are the novels Meiji Gankutsu-ou by Taijirou Murasame and Shin Gankutsu-ou by

sfq_11972--The_Count_of_Monte_Cristo.txt

In the novel by Dumas, where was the Count of Monte Cristo imprisoned for 14 years?

A gentlemen 's club , or formerly traditional gentlemen 's club , is a members-only private club originally set up by and for British upper class men in the 18th century , and popularised by English upper-middle class men and women in the late 19th century and early 20th century . Today , some clubs are more accommodating about the gender and social status of their members . Many countries outside the United Kingdom have prominent gentlemen 's clubs , mostly those associated with the British Empire , in particular , India , Pakistan and Bangladesh have enthusiastically taken up the practice , and have a thriving club scene . History The original clubs were established in the West End of London . Today , the area of St James 's is still sometimes called `` clubland '' . Clubs took over some parts of the role occupied by coffee houses in 18th century London , and reached the height of their influence in the late 19th century . The first clubs , such as White 's , Brooks 's and Boodle 's , were aristocratic in flavour , and provided an environment for gambling , which was illegal outside of members-only establishments . The 19th century brought an explosion in the popularity of clubs , particularly around the 1880s . At their height , London had over 400 such establishments . This expansion can be explained in part by the large extensions of the franchise in the Reform Acts of 1832 , 1867 , and 1885 . Each time , hundreds of thousands more men were qualified to vote , and it was common for them to feel that they had been elevated to the status of a gentleman , thus they sought a club . The existing clubs , with strict limits on membership numbers and long waiting lists , were generally wary of such newly enfranchised potential members , and so these people began forming their own clubs . Each of the three great Reform Acts corresponded with a further expansion of clubs , as did a further extension of the franchise in 1918 . Many of these new , more `` inclusive '' clubs proved just as reluctant as their forebears to admit new members when the franchise was further extended . Club Life in London , an 1866 book , begins : `` The Club in the general acceptation of the term , may be regarded as one of the earliest offshoots of man 's habitual gregariousness and social inclination . '' An increasing number of clubs were characterised by their members ' interest in politics , literature , sport , art , automobiles , travel , particular countries , or some other pursuit . In other cases , the connection between the members was membership of the same branch of the armed forces , or the same school or university . Thus the growth of clubs provides an indicator as to what was considered a respectable part of the `` Establishment '' at the time . By the late 19th century , any man with a credible claim to the status of `` gentleman '' was eventually able to find a club willing to admit him , unless his character was objectionable in some way or he was `` unclubbable '' ( a word first used by Samuel Johnson ) . This came to include professionals who had to earn their income , such as doctors and lawyers . Most gentlemen had only one club , which closely corresponded with the trade or social / political identity he felt most defined him , but a few people belonged to several . Members of the aristocracy and politicians were likely to have several clubs . The record number of memberships is believed to have been with Earl Mountbatten , who had nineteen in the 1960s . Public entertainments , such as musical performances and the like , were not a feature of this sort of club . The clubs were , in effect , `` second homes '' in the centre of London where men could relax , mix with their friends , play parlour games , get a meal , and in some clubs stay overnight . Expatriates , when staying in England , could use their clubs , as the East India Club or the Oriental Club , as a base . They allowed upper- and upper-middle-class men with modest incomes to spend their time in grand surroundings . The richer clubs were built by the same architects as the finest country houses of the time , and had similar types of interiors . They were a convenient retreat for men who wished to get away from female relations , `` in keeping with the separate spheres ideology according to which the man dealt with the public world , whereas women 's domain was the home . '' Many men spent much of their lives in their club , and it was common for young newly graduated men who had moved to London for the first time to live at their club for two or three years before they could afford to rent a house or flat . Gentleman 's clubs were private places that were designed where men can relax and create friendships with other men . In the 19th and 20th centuries , clubs were regarded as a central part of elite men 's lives . They provided everything a regular home would have . Clubs were created and designed for a man 's domestic needs . They were places to relieve stress and worries . They provided emotional and practical needs . They provided spaces such as dining halls , library , entertainment and game rooms , rooms for sleep , bathrooms and washrooms , and a study . In many ways they resembled a regular home . Clubs had separate entrances for maids and the help . They were usually located on the side of the house that was not easily seen to the public eye . Many clubs had waiting lists , some as long as sixteen years . There is no standard definition for what is considered a men 's club . Each club differed slightly from another . Clubs were created in a time where family was considered one of the most important aspects of a man 's life in the 19th century . A man 's home was his property and should have been a place to satisfy most of his needs but for elite men this was not always the case ; it was not always a place that provided privacy and comfort . An explanation for this might be because the home of elite families often entertained guests for dinners , formal teas , entertainment , and parties . Their lives were on display and often their lives would be reported in local papers . A gentleman 's club offered an escape from this family world . Another explanation would be that men as boys were brought up in all male environments in places like schools and sports pastimes and they became uncomfortable when they now had to share their lives with women in a family environment . A gentleman 's club offered an escape . Men 's clubs were also a scene of gossip . The clubs were designed for communication and the sharing of information with each other . By gossiping , bonds were created which were used to confirm social and gender boundaries . Gossiping helped confirm a man 's identity both in their community and within society at large . It was often used as a tool to climb the social ladder . It revealed that a man had certain information others did not have . It was also a tool used to demonstrate a man 's masculinity . It established certain gender roles . Men told stories and joked . The times and places a man told stories , gossiped , and shared information were also considered to show a man 's awareness of behaviour and discretion . Clubs were places where men could gossip freely . Gossip was also a tool that led to more practical results in the outside world . There were also rules that governed gossip in the clubs . These rules governed the privacy and secrecy of members . Clubs regulated this form of communication so that it was done in a more acceptable manner . Women also set about establishing their own clubs in the late nineteenth century , such as the Ladies ' Institute , and the Ladies ' Athenaeum . They proved quite popular at the time , but only one , The University Women 's Club , has survived to this day as a single-sex establishment . Until the 1950s , clubs were also heavily regulated in the rooms open to non-members . Most clubs contained just one room where members could dine and entertain non-members ; it was often assumed that one 's entire social circle should be within the same club . Harold Macmillan was said to have taken `` refuge in West End clubs ... : Pratt 's , Athenaeum , Buck 's , Guards , the Beefsteak , the Turf , [ and ] the Carlton '' . The class requirements relaxed gradually throughout the 19th and 20th centuries . From the 1970s onwards , some single-sex clubs opened to both sexes as guests and as members , partly to maintain membership levels . Current status Although traditional gentlemen 's clubs are no longer as popular or influential as they originally were , many have seen a significant resurgence in popularity and status in recent years . Membership is by election after the proposers ( at least two and in many clubs more ) who have known the candidate for a term of years , formally nominate the person for membership . Election is by a special committee ( itself elected ) who may interview the candidate and who look at any support and also objections of other members . Some top clubs still maintain distinctions which are often undefined and rarely explained to those who do not satisfy their membership requirements . After reaching the top of a long waiting list , there is a possibility of being blackballed during the process of formal election by the committee . In these circumstances , the principal proposer of such a person may be expected to resign , as he failed to withdraw his undesirable candidate . More often , the member who proposes an unsuitable candidate will be `` spoken to '' at a much earlier stage than this , by senior committee members and he will withdraw his candidate to avoid embarrassment for all concerned . The Clubs are owned by their members and not by an individual or corporate body . These kinds of relationships have been analyzed from the network analysis perspective by Maria Zozaya . Today gentlemen 's clubs exist throughout the world , predominantly in Commonwealth countries and the US . Many clubs offer reciprocal hospitality to other clubs ' members when travelling abroad . In Britain and particularly London , there is a facsimile between the original gentlemen 's clubs and the more modern but otherwise similar private members ' clubs such the Groucho Club , Soho House and Home House but these are membership by subscription and are owned and run as commercial concerns . All offer similar facilities such as food , drink , comfortable surroundings , venue hire and in many cases accommodation . In recent years the advent of mobile working ( using phone and email ) has placed pressures on the traditional London clubs which frown on , and often ban , the use of mobiles and discourage laptops , indeed any discussion of business matters or 'work related papers ' . A new breed of business-oriented private members ' clubs , exemplified by One Alfred Place and Eight in London or the Gild in Barcelona , combines the style , food and drink of a contemporary private members ' club with the business facilities of an office . It was for this reason that the Institute of Directors acquired one of the older clubhouses in Pall Mall as more business friendly . United Kingdom There are perhaps some 25 traditional London gentlemen 's clubs of particular note , from The Arts Club to White 's . Many other estimable clubs ( such as the yacht clubs ) have a specific character which places them outside the mainstream , or may have sacrificed their individuality for the commercial interest of attracting enough members regardless of their common interests . ( See article at club for a further discussion of these distinctions . ) The oldest gentleman 's club in London is White 's , which was founded in 1693 . Discussion of trade or business is usually not allowed in traditional gentlemen 's clubs , but increasingly politicians and businesspeople hire club premises for debates and conferences on current affairs . For example , the Commonwealth Club in London counts former British Prime Minister Tony Blair , former Nigerian President Olusegun Obasanjo , and former Australian Prime Minister John Howard as influential people who have spoken there . The use of such establishments for public discussion and debate is in its infancy , as many of the larger and more established clubs strictly enforce their rules on such matters . Similar clubs exist in other large UK cities , such as New Club in Edinburgh , The St James 's Club in Manchester , and the Ulster Reform Club in Belfast . The Liverpool Athenaeum was founded in 1797 by art collector and social reformer William Roscoe and friends , and contains a notable library of rare books . The Clifton Club in Bristol was founded in 1818 and occupies an imposing building . St Paul 's Club was formed in 1859 in Birmingham , the first in the Midlands . Jersey and Guernsey in the Channel Islands , although outside the UK proper , each have their own The United Club , founded , respectively , in 1848 and in 1870 . Modern day clubs include Blacks and Groucho Club . United States Most major cities in the United States have at least one traditional gentlemen 's club , many of which have reciprocal relationships with the older clubs in London , with each other , and with other gentlemen 's clubs around the world . The oldest existing American clubs date to the 18th century ; the five oldest are the South River Club in Annapolis , Maryland ( c.1690/1700 ) , the Schuylkill Fishing Company in Andalusia , Pennsylvania ( 1732 ) , the Old Colony Club in Plymouth , Massachusetts ( 1769 ) , The Philadelphia Club in Philadelphia ( 1834 ) , and the Union Club of the City of New York in New York City ( 1836 ) . The five oldest existing clubs west of the Mississippi River are the Pacific Club in Honolulu ( 1851 ) , the Pacific-Union Club ( 1852 ) , Olympic Club ( 1860 ) , and Concordia-Argonaut Club ( 1864 ) , all in San Francisco , and the Arlington Club in Portland , Oregon ( 1867 ) . Today , gentlemen 's clubs in the United States remain more prevalent in older cities , especially those on the East Coast . Only twelve American cities have five or more existing clubs : Atlanta , Boston , Chicago , Cincinnati , Denver , Los Angeles , New Orleans , New York City , Philadelphia , San Francisco , Seattle , and Washington , D.C. New York City contains more than any other American city . The Yale Club of New York City , comprising a clubhouse of 22 stories and a worldwide membership of over 11,000 , is the largest traditional gentlemen 's club in the world . In the United States , the term `` gentlemen 's club '' is commonly used to refer euphemistically to strip clubs . As a result , traditional gentlemen 's clubs often are referred to as `` men 's clubs '' or `` city clubs '' ( as opposed to country clubs ) or simply as `` private social clubs '' or just `` private clubs '' . Canada At Montreal , the Beaver Club was founded in 1785 and some of its members continued their traditions by establishing the still extant Canada Club at London in 1810 . The Montreal Hunt Club , founded in 1826 , is the oldest extant fox hunting club in North America . Montreal 's Golden Square Mile is home to several of the city 's clubs , including the St. James ' , which was founded in 1857 . At the end of the nineteenth century , twenty of its most influential members felt that the St James was becoming 'too overcrowded ' and founded the smaller Mount Royal Club in 1899 . Overnight it became the city 's most prestigious club , and in 1918 , Lord Birkenhead commented that it `` is one of the best clubs I know in the New World , with the indefinable atmosphere about it of a good London club '' . In 1908 the University Club , affiliated with McGill , opened . Quebec City has the its Literary and Historical Society ( 1824 ) ; the Stadacona Club ( 1860 ) ; and the Garrison Club , founded by officers of the Canadian Militia and opened to the public in 1879 . Toronto is home to The Toronto Club ( 1837 ) , The National Club ( 1874 ) , Albany Club ( 1882 ) and York Club ( 1909 ) , the University Club , the Faculty Club associated with the University of Toronto , and a number of other clubs . The Rideau Club was founded in 1865 at Ottawa . In 1908 , the Frontenac Club was established at Kingston . In 1913 The Waterloo Club was created by letters patent . The Halifax Club was founded in 1862 . In New Brunswick , the Union Club in Saint John was founded in 1884 through the merger of two earlier clubs , and the Fredericton Garrison Club was founded in 1969 by associate members of the area headquarters officers ' mess . The Manitoba Club is Western Canada 's oldest club , founded in 1874 at Winnipeg . The Union Club of British Columbia was founded in 1879 in Victoria . The Vancouver Club was founded in 1889 in Vancouver . Australia Australia has several gentlemen 's clubs . Sydney has the Union , University & Schools Club , the Royal Automobile Club of Australia and the Australasian Pioneers Club . Melbourne has the Melbourne Club , the Savage Club , Alexandra Club and the Athenaeum Club ( named after its counterpart in London ) . The Australian Club exists a separate club in each of Sydney and Melbourne . Adelaide has the Adelaide Club and the Naval , Military and Air Force Club of South Australia . Brisbane has Tattersalls Club , the Queensland Club , the Brisbane Club and the Brisbane Polo Club ( housed in the heritage listed Naldham House in the centre of the central business district ) . Perth has the Weld Club and the Western Australian Club . Canberra has the Commonwealth Club ; Hobart , Tasmania Club , The Athenaeum Club ; Newcastle , the Newcastle Club . The Commonwealth Club , Canberra Club , The Union , University and Schools Club , Newcastle Club , Brisbane Polo Club , the Kelvin Club in Melbourne , and both Royal Automobile Clubs mentioned above allow women to enjoy full membership . India Pakistan Pakistan has inherited most of its gentlemen 's clubs from before the partition of India . The clubs were established during the British Raj as a place for the white rulers , and racial segregation was an implicit part of this . For example , the Sind Club , founded in Karachi in 1871 , was infamous for a sign hanging outside the door reading `` Dogs and Locals not allowed '' . The Karachi Gymkhana , also known as the Karachi Club , dates from 1907 . At one point the city also supported the Hindu Gymkhana , for the commercial elite , but that 1925 building has been turned to other uses . Modern social clubs like the Karachi Boat Club , Karachi Yacht Club and Pavilion End Club serve as social clubs targeting specific interests . South Africa South Africa is home to the Rand Club in downtown Johannesburg , the Wanderers Club in Illovo , Johannesburg as well as the Inanda Club in Sandton and the Johannesburg Country Club . In Cape Town there is the spacious Kelvin Grove Club , the Cape Town Club and the Owl Club . In Durban is the Durban Club , founded in 1852 , and the Kimberley Club in Kimberley , founded in 1881 . South America Lima ( Peru ) has several traditional gentlemen clubs still in functions such as the Club Nacional ( 1855 ) , Club de la Unión ( 1868 ) , The Phoenix Club ( 1879 ) , and the Club de la Banca y Comercio ( 1951 ) . Buenos Aires ( Argentina ) is home to the Club del Progreso ( 1852 ; the oldest gentlemen 's club in South America ) , the Jockey Club ( 1882 ) founded by Carlos Pellegrini , and the Club Universitario de Buenos Aires ( 1918 ) . The Club 20 de Febrero was founded ( 1858 ) by General Rudecindo Alvarado in the city of Salta . The name is in honor to the Battle of Salta on February 20 , 1813 , during the Argentine War of Independence . Santiago ( Chile ) houses the Club de la Unión ( 1854 ) , originally a rich men 's only club . Viña del Mar has the Club de Viña del Mar ( 1901 ) . Sweden Of institutions that could possibly qualify as gentlemen 's clubs , there is the Military Society , the Royal Bachelors ' Club and Sällskapet ( club ) . New Zealand There are active gentlemen 's clubs in Nelson ( Hope ) , Auckland , Hastings , Wellington , Christchurch and Dunedin . Romania There is an active gentlemen 's club in Bucharest ( Romania ) . Quirks of membership While many clubs have requirements of entry , often including financial requirements or collegiate affiliations — The Yale Club and Penn Club of New York City are typical of university clubs : they are open to all who have a connection with their respective universities ( in this case Yale University or the University of Pennsylvania ) — some clubs have highly specific membership requirements . The Caledonian Club in London requires `` being of direct Scottish descent , that is to say , tracing descent from a Scottish father or mother , grandfather or grandmother '' or `` having , in the opinion of the Committee , the closest association with Scotland . '' The Travellers Club , from its foundation in 1819 , has excluded from membership anyone who has not met a very specific travelling requirement . Rule 6 of the club 's constitution states that `` no person be considered eligible to the Travellers ' Club , who shall not have travelled out of the British islands to a distance of at least 500 miles from London in a direct line '' . The Reform Club requires its potential members to attest that they would have supported the 1832 Reform Act , whilst certain members of the East India Club must have attended one of its affiliated public schools . Clubs also require high membership fees , which , along with the ongoing cost of meeting dress code , bar tabs and dining bills , tends to keep membership exclusive to gentlemen of means .

odql_3970--Gentlemen's_club.txt

In which gentlemen's club did Phineas Fogg make the bet that he could travel around the world in eighty days?

Gilbert and Sullivan refers to the Victorian-era theatrical partnership of the librettist W. S. Gilbert ( 1836–1911 ) and the composer Arthur Sullivan ( 1842–1900 ) and to the works they jointly created . The two men collaborated on fourteen comic operas between 1871 and 1896 , of which H.M.S . Pinafore , The Pirates of Penzance and The Mikado are among the best known.Davis , Peter G. [ http : //nymag.com/nymetro/arts/music/classical/reviews/5596/ Smooth Sailing ] , New York magazine , 21 January 2002 , accessed 6 November 2007 Gilbert , who wrote the words , created fanciful `` topsy-turvy '' worlds for these operas where each absurdity is taken to its logical conclusion—fairies rub elbows with British lords , flirting is a capital offence , gondoliers ascend to the monarchy , and pirates emerge as noblemen who have gone astray.Leigh , Mike . [ http : //books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0 , ,1938719,00.html `` True anarchists '' ] , The Guardian , 4 November 2007 , accessed 6 November 2007 Sullivan , six years Gilbert 's junior , composed the music , contributing memorable melodies that could convey both humour and pathos . Their operas have enjoyed broad and enduring international success and are still performed frequently throughout the English-speaking world . Hewett , Ivan . [ http : //www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/opera/5931987/The-magic-of-Gilbert-and-Sullivan.html `` The Magic of Gilbert and Sullivan '' ] . The Telegraph , 2 August 2009 , accessed 14 April 2010 . Gilbert and Sullivan introduced innovations in content and form that directly influenced the development of musical theatre through the 20th century . [ Downs , Peter . `` Actors Cast Away Cares '' , Hartford Courant , 18 October 2006 The operas have also influenced political discourse , literature , film and television and have been widely parodied and pastiched by humourists . Producer Richard D'Oyly Carte brought Gilbert and Sullivan together and nurtured their collaboration.Crowther , Andrew . [ http : //diamond.boisestate.edu/gas/articles/html/quarrel.html `` The Carpet Quarrel Explained '' ] , The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive , 28 June 1997 , accessed 6 November 2007 He built the Savoy Theatre in 1881 to present their joint works ( which came to be known as the Savoy Operas ) and founded the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company , which performed and promoted Gilbert and Sullivan 's works for over a century . Beginnings Gilbert before Sullivan Gilbert was born in London on 18 November 1836 . His father , William , was a naval surgeon who later wrote novels and short stories , some of which included illustrations by his son.Crowther , Andrew . [ http : //diamond.boisestate.edu/gas/gilbert/life/long_bio.html The Life of W. S. Gilbert , ] The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive , accessed 21 August 2012 . In 1861 , to supplement his income , the younger Gilbert began writing illustrated stories , poems and articles of his own , many of which would later be mined as inspiration for his plays and operas , particularly Gilbert 's series of illustrated poems , the Bab Ballads . In the Bab Ballads and his early plays , Gilbert developed a unique `` topsy-turvy '' style in which humour was derived by setting up a ridiculous premise and working out its logical consequences , however absurd . Director and playwright Mike Leigh described the `` Gilbertian '' style as follows : Gilbert developed his innovative theories on the art of stage direction , following theatrical reformer Tom Robertson . At the time Gilbert began writing , theatre in Britain was in disrepute . Gilbert helped to reform and elevate the respectability of the theatre , especially beginning with his six short family-friendly comic operas , or `` entertainments '' , for Thomas German Reed . At a rehearsal for one of these entertainments , Ages Ago ( 1869 ) , the composer Frederic Clay introduced Gilbert to his friend , the young composer Arthur Sullivan.Crowther , Andrew . [ http : //diamond.boisestate.edu/gas/gilbert/plays/ages_ago/crowther_analysis.html Ages Ago—Early Days , ] The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive , accessed 21 August 2012 Two years later , Gilbert and Sullivan would write their first work together . Those two intervening years continued to shape Gilbert 's theatrical style . He continued to write humorous verse , stories and plays , including the comic operas Our Island Home ( 1870 ) and A Sensation Novel ( 1871 ) , and the blank verse comedies The Princess ( 1870 ) , The Palace of Truth ( 1870 ) , and Pygmalion and Galatea ( 1871 ) . Sullivan before Gilbert Sullivan was born in London on 13 May 1842 . His father was a military bandmaster , and by the time Arthur had reached the age of eight , he was proficient with all the instruments in the band . In school he began to compose anthems and songs . In 1856 , he received the first Mendelssohn Scholarship and studied at the Royal Academy of Music and then at Leipzig , where he also took up conducting . His graduation piece , completed in 1861 , was a suite of incidental music to Shakespeare 's The Tempest . Revised and expanded , it was performed at the Crystal Palace in 1862 and was an immediate sensation . He began building a reputation as England 's most promising young composer , composing a symphony , a concerto , and several overtures , among them the Overture di Ballo , in 1870 . [ http : //diamond.boisestate.edu/gas/sullivan/interviews/lawrence.html `` An Illustrated Interview with Sir Arthur Sullivan , by Arthur H Lawrence , Part 1 '' ] , The Strand Magazine , Volume xiv , No.84 ( December 1897 ) . See also [ http : //diamond.boisestate.edu/gas/sullivan/letters/001.html Sullivan 's Letter to The Times ] , 27 October 1881 , Issue 30336 , pg . 8 col C His early major works for the voice included The Masque at Kenilworth ( 1864 ) ; an oratorio , The Prodigal Son ( 1869 ) ; and a dramatic cantata , On Shore and Sea ( 1871 ) . He composed a ballet , L'Île Enchantée ( 1864 ) and incidental music for a number of Shakespeare plays . Other early pieces that were praised were his Symphony in E , Concerto for Cello and Orchestra , and Overture in C ( In Memoriam ) ( all three of which premiered in 1866 ) . These commissions , however , were not sufficient to keep Sullivan afloat . He worked as a church organist and composed numerous hymns , popular songs , and parlour ballads . [ http : //web.archive.org/web/20060901130842/http : //diamond.boisestate.edu/gas/html/sullivan2a.html Stephen Turnbull 's Biography of W. S. Gilbert ] , The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive , accessed 22 November 2006 Sullivan 's first foray into comic opera was Cox and Box ( 1866 ) , written with librettist F. C. Burnand for an informal gathering of friends . Public performance followed , with W. S. Gilbert ( then writing dramatic criticism for the magazine Fun ) saying that Sullivan 's score `` is , in many places , of too high a class for the grotesquely absurd plot to which it is wedded . '' Nonetheless , it proved highly successful , and is still regularly performed today . Sullivan and Burnand 's second opera , The Contrabandista ( 1867 ) was not as successful . Operas First collaborations Thespis In 1871 , producer John Hollingshead brought Gilbert and Sullivan together to produce a Christmas entertainment , Thespis , at his Gaiety Theatre , a large West End house . The piece was an extravaganza in which the classical Greek gods , grown elderly , are temporarily replaced by a troupe of 19th-century actors and actresses , one of whom is the eponymous Thespis , the Greek father of the drama . Its mixture of political satire and grand opera parody mimicked Offenbach 's Orpheus in the Underworld and La belle Hélène , which ( in translation ) then dominated the English musical stage.Tillett , Selwyn and Spencer , Roderic . `` Forty Years of Thespis Scholarship '' , text of talk delivered at the Sir Arthur Sullivan Society Festival weekend , Cirencester , 21 September 2002 . Thespis opened on Boxing Day and ran for 63 performances . It outran five of its nine competitors for the 1871 holiday season , and its run was extended beyond the length of a normal run at the Gaiety , but no one at the time anticipated that this was the beginning of a great collaboration . Unlike the later Gilbert and Sullivan works , it was hastily prepared , and its nature was more risqué , like Gilbert 's earlier burlesques , with a broader style of comedy that allowed for improvisation by the actors . Two of the male characters were played by women , whose shapely legs were put on display in a fashion that Gilbert later condemned . The musical score to Thespis was never published and is now lost , except for one song that was published separately , a chorus that was re-used in The Pirates of Penzance , and the Act II ballet music . Over the next three years , Gilbert and Sullivan did not have occasion to work together again , but each man became more eminent in his field . Gilbert worked with Frederic Clay on Happy Arcadia ( 1872 ) and with Alfred Cellier on Topsyturveydom ( 1874 ) , and wrote The Wicked World ( 1873 ) Sweethearts ( 1874 ) and several other libretti , farces , extravaganzas , fairy comedies , dramas and adaptations . Sullivan completed his Festival Te Deum ( 1872 ) ; another oratorio , The Light of the World ( 1873 ) ; his only song cycle , The Window ; or , The Song of the Wrens ( 1871 ) ; incidental music to The Merry Wives of Windsor ( 1874 ) ; and more songs , parlour ballads , and hymns , including `` Onward , Christian Soldiers '' ( 1872 ) . At the same time , the audience for theatre was growing because of the rapidly expanding British population ; improvement in education and the standard of living , especially of the middle class ; improving public transportation ; and installation of street lighting , which made travel home from the theatre safer . The number of pianos manufactured in England doubled between 1870 and 1890 as more people began to play parlour music at home and more theatres and concert halls opened . Trial by Jury In 1874 , Gilbert wrote a short libretto on commission from producer–conductor Carl Rosa , whose wife would have played the leading role , but her death in childbirth cancelled the project . Not long afterwards , Richard D'Oyly Carte was managing the Royalty Theatre , and he needed a short opera to be played as an afterpiece to Offenbach 's La Périchole . Carte knew about Gilbert 's libretto for Rosa and suggested that Sullivan write a score for it . Gilbert read the piece to Sullivan in February 1875 , and the composer was delighted with it ; Trial by Jury was composed and staged in a matter of weeks . The piece is one of Gilbert 's humorous spoofs of the law and the legal profession , based on his short experience as a barrister . It concerns a breach of promise of marriage suit . The defendant argues that damages should be slight , since `` he is such a very bad lot , '' while the plaintiff argues that she loves the defendant fervently and seeks `` substantial damages . '' After much argument , the judge resolves the case by marrying the lovely plaintiff himself . With Sullivan 's brother , Fred , as the Learned Judge , the opera was a runaway hit , outlasting the run of La Périchole . Provincial tours and productions at other theatres quickly followed . Fred Sullivan was the prototype for the `` patter '' ( comic ) baritone roles in the later operas . F. C. Burnand wrote that he `` was one of the most naturally comic little men I ever came across . He , too , was a first-rate practical musician ... As he was the most absurd person , so was he the very kindliest ... '' Fred 's creation would serve as a model for the rest of the collaborators ' works , and each of them has a crucial comic little man role , as Burnand had put it . The `` patter '' baritone ( or `` principal comedian '' , as these roles later were called ) would often assume the leading role in Gilbert and Sullivan 's comic operas , and was usually allotted the speedy patter songs . After the success of Trial by Jury , Gilbert and Sullivan were suddenly in demand to write more operas together . Over the next two years , Richard D'Oyly Carte and Carl Rosa were two of several theatrical managers who negotiated with the team but were unable to come to terms . Carte proposed a revival of Thespis for the 1875 Christmas season , which Gilbert and Sullivan would have revised , but he was unable to obtain financing for the project . In early 1876 , Carte requested that Gilbert and Sullivan create another one-act opera on the theme of burglars , but this was never completed . Early successes The Sorcerer Carte 's real ambition was to develop an English form of light opera that would displace the bawdy burlesques and badly translated French operettas then dominating the London stage . He assembled a syndicate and formed the Comedy Opera Company , with Gilbert and Sullivan commissioned to write a comic opera that would serve as the centrepiece for an evening 's entertainment . Gilbert found a subject in one of his own short stories , `` The Elixir of Love , '' which concerned the complications arising when a love potion is distributed to all the residents of a small village . The leading character was a Cockney businessman who happened to be a sorcerer , a purveyor of blessings ( not much called for ) and curses ( very popular ) . Gilbert and Sullivan were tireless taskmasters , seeing to it that The Sorcerer opened as a fully polished production , in marked contrast to the under-rehearsed Thespis . While The Sorcerer won critical acclaim , it did not duplicate the success of Trial by Jury . Nevertheless , Carte and his syndicate were sufficiently encouraged to commission another full-length opera from the team . H.M.S . Pinafore Gilbert and Sullivan scored their first international hit with H.M.S . Pinafore ( 1878 ) , satirising the rise of unqualified people to positions of authority and poking good-natured fun at the Royal Navy and the English obsession with social status ( building on a theme introduced in The Sorcerer , love between members of different social classes ) . As with many of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas , a surprise twist changes everything dramatically near the end of the story . Gilbert oversaw the designs of sets and costumes , and he directed the performers on stage . He sought realism in acting , shunned self-conscious interaction with the audience , and insisted on a standard of characterisation where the characters were never aware of their own absurdity.Cox-Ife , William . W. S. Gilbert : Stage Director . Dobson , 1978 ISBN 0-234-77206-9 . Gilbert insisted that his actors know their words perfectly and obey his stage directions , which was something new to many actors of the day . Sullivan personally oversaw the musical preparation . The result was a new crispness and polish in the English musical theatre . As Jessie Bond wrote later : H.M.S . Pinafore ran in London for 571 performances , the second longest run of any musical theatre piece in history up to that time ( after the operetta Les cloches de Corneville ) . Hundreds of unauthorised , or `` pirated '' , productions of Pinafore appeared in America . During the run of Pinafore , Richard D'Oyly Carte split up with his former investors . The disgruntled former partners , who had invested in the production with no return , staged a public fracas , sending a group of thugs to seize the scenery during a performance . Stagehands successfully managed to ward off their backstage attackers . This event cleared the way for Carte , Gilbert and Sullivan to form the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company , which then produced all of their succeeding operas . The libretto of H.M.S . Pinafore relied on stock character types , many of which were familiar from European opera ( and some of which grew out of Gilbert 's earlier association with the German Reeds ) : the heroic protagonist ( tenor ) and his love-interest ( soprano ) ; the older woman with a secret or a sharp tongue ( contralto ) ; the baffled lyric baritone—the girl 's father ; and a classic villain ( bass-baritone ) . Gilbert and Sullivan added the element of the comic patter-singing character . With the success of H.M.S . Pinafore , the D'Oyly Carte repertory and production system was cemented , and each opera would make use of these stock character types . Before The Sorcerer , Gilbert had constructed his plays around the established stars of whatever theatre he happened to be writing for , as had been the case with Thespis and Trial by Jury . Building on the team he had assembled for The Sorcerer , Gilbert no longer hired stars ; he created them . He and Sullivan selected the performers , writing their operas for ensemble casts rather than individual stars . The repertory system ensured that the comic patter character who performed the role of the sorcerer , John Wellington Wells , would become the ruler of the Queen 's navy as Sir Joseph Porter in H.M.S . Pinafore , then join the army as Major-General Stanley in The Pirates of Penzance , and so on . Similarly , Mrs. Partlet in The Sorcerer transformed into Little Buttercup in Pinafore , then into Ruth , the piratical maid-of-all-work in Pirates . Relatively unknown performers whom Gilbert and Sullivan engaged early in the collaboration would stay with the company for many years , becoming stars of the Victorian stage . These included George Grossmith , the principal comic ; Rutland Barrington , the lyric baritone ; Richard Temple , the bass-baritone ; and Jessie Bond , the mezzo-soprano soubrette . The Pirates of Penzance The Pirates of Penzance ( New Year 's Eve , 1879 ) also poked fun at grand opera conventions , sense of duty , family obligation , the `` respectability '' of civilisation and the peerage , and the relevance of a liberal education . The story also revisits Pinafores theme of unqualified people in positions of authority , in the person of the `` modern Major-General '' who has up-to-date knowledge about everything except the military . The Major-General and his many daughters escape from the tender-hearted Pirates of Penzance , who are all orphans , on the false plea that he is an orphan himself . The pirates learn of the deception and re-capture the Major-General , but when it is revealed that the pirates are all peers , the Major-General bids them : `` resume your ranks and legislative duties , and take my daughters , all of whom are beauties ! '' The piece premiered first in New York rather than London , in an ( unsuccessful ) attempt to secure the American copyright , and was another big success with both critics and audiences . Gilbert , Sullivan and Carte tried for many years to control the American performance copyrights over their operas , without success . Nevertheless , Pirates was a hit both in New York , again spawning numerous imitators , and then in London , and it became one of the most frequently performed , translated and parodied Gilbert and Sullivan works , also enjoying successful 1981 Broadway and 1982 West End revivals by Joseph Papp that continue to influence productions of the opera . In 1880 , Sullivan wrote the cantata The Martyr of Antioch , presented at the Leeds Triennial Music Festival , with a libretto modified by Gilbert from an 1822 epic poem by Henry Hart Milman concerning the martyrdom of St. Margaret of Antioch in the 3rd century . Sullivan became the conductor of the Leeds festival beginning in 1880 and conducted the performance . It could be said that Martyr was the 15th opera of the partnership , since the Carl Rosa Opera Company presented the work as an opera in 1898 . Savoy Theatre opens Patience Patience ( 1881 ) satirised the aesthetic movement in general and its colourful poets , in particular , combining aspects of Algernon Charles Swinburne , Dante Gabriel Rossetti , Oscar Wilde , James McNeill Whistler and others in the rival poets Bunthorne and Grosvenor . Grossmith , who created the role of Bunthorne , based his makeup , wig and costume on Swinburne and especially Whistler , as seen in the adjacent photo . The work also lampoons male vanity and chauvinism in the military . The story concerns two rival `` aesthetic '' poets , who attract the attention of the young ladies of the village , who had been engaged to the members of a cavalry regiment . But both poets are in love with Patience , the village milkmaid , who detests one of them and feels that it is her duty to avoid the other despite her love for him . Richard D'Oyly Carte was the booking manager for Oscar Wilde , a then lesser-known proponent of aestheticism , and dispatched Wilde on an American lecture tour in conjunction with the opera 's U.S. run , so that American audiences might better understand what the satire was all about . During the run of Patience , Carte built the large , modern Savoy Theatre , which became the partnership 's permanent home . It was the first theatre ( indeed the world 's first public building ) to be lit entirely by electric lighting . Patience moved into the Savoy after six months at the Opera Comique and ran for a total of 578 performances , surpassing the run of H.M.S . Pinafore and becoming the second longest-running work of musical theatre up to that time in history.The longest was the operetta Les Cloches de Corneville , which held the title until Dorothy in 1886 . See [ http : //www.dgillan.screaming.net/stage/th-longr.html this article on longest runs in the theatre up to 1920 ] Iolanthe Iolanthe ( 1882 ) was the first of the operas to open at the Savoy . The fully electric Savoy made possible numerous special effects , such as sparkling magic wands for the female chorus of fairies . The opera poked fun at English law and the House of Lords and made much of the war between the sexes . The critics felt that Sullivan 's work in Iolanthe had taken a step forward . The Daily Telegraph wrote , `` The composer has risen to his opportunity , and we are disposed to account Iolanthe his best effort in all the Gilbertian series . '' Similarly , the Theatre asserted that `` the music of Iolanthe is Dr Sullivan 's chef d'oeuvre . The quality throughout is more even , and maintained at a higher standard , than in any of his earlier works ... '' Iolanthe is one of a number of Gilbert 's works , including The Wicked World ( 1873 ) , Broken Hearts ( 1875 ) , Princess Ida ( 1884 ) and Fallen Fairies ( 1909 ) , where the introduction of men and `` mortal love '' into a tranquil world of women wreaks havoc with the status quo . Gilbert had created several `` fairy comedies '' at the Haymarket Theatre in the early 1870s . These plays , influenced by the fairy work of James Planché , are founded upon the idea of self-revelation by characters under the influence of some magic or some supernatural interference . In 1882 , Gilbert had a telephone installed in his home and at the prompt desk at the Savoy Theatre so that he could monitor performances and rehearsals from his home study . Gilbert had referred to the new technology in Pinafore in 1878 , only two years after the device was invented and before London even had telephone service . Sullivan had one installed as well , and on 13 May 1883 , at a party to celebrate the composer 's 41st birthday , the guests , including the Prince of Wales ( later Edward VII ) , heard a direct relay of parts of Iolanthe from the Savoy . This was probably the first live `` broadcast '' of an opera . During the run of Iolanthe , in 1883 , Sullivan was knighted by Queen Victoria . Although it was the operas with Gilbert that had earned him the broadest fame , the honour was conferred for his services to serious music . The musical establishment , and many critics , believed that this should put an end to his career as a composer of comic opera—that a musical knight should not stoop below oratorio or grand opera . Sullivan , despite the financial security of writing for the Savoy , increasingly viewed his work with Gilbert as unimportant , beneath his skills , and repetitious . Furthermore , he was unhappy that he had to simplify his music to ensure that Gilbert 's words could be heard . But paradoxically , in February 1883 , just after Iolanthe opened , Sullivan had signed a five-year agreement with Gilbert and Carte requiring him to produce a new comic opera on six months ' notice . Princess Ida Princess Ida ( 1884 ) spoofed women 's education and male chauvinism and continued the theme from Iolanthe of the war between the sexes . The opera is based on Tennyson 's poem The Princess : A Medley . Gilbert had written a blank verse farce based on the same material in 1870 , called The Princess , and he reused a good deal of the dialogue from his earlier play in the libretto of Princess Ida . Ida is the only Gilbert and Sullivan work with dialogue entirely in blank verse and is also the only one of their works in three acts . Lillian Russell had been engaged to create the title role , but Gilbert did not believe that she was dedicated enough , and when she missed a rehearsal , he dismissed her . Princess Ida was the first of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas that , by the partnership 's previous standards , was not a success . A particularly hot summer in London did not help ticket sales . The piece ran for a comparatively short 246 performances and was not revived in London until 1919 . Sullivan had been satisfied with the libretto , but two months after Ida opened , Sullivan told Carte that `` it is impossible for me to do another piece of the character of those already written by Gilbert and myself . '' As Princess Ida showed signs of flagging , Carte realised that , for the first time in the partnership 's history , no new opera would be ready when the old one closed . On 22 March 1884 , he gave Gilbert and Sullivan contractual notice that a new opera would be required in six months ' time . In the meantime , when Ida closed , Carte produced a revival of The Sorcerer . Dodging the magic lozenge The Mikado The most successful of the Savoy Operas was The Mikado ( 1885 ) , which made fun of English bureaucracy , thinly disguised by a Japanese setting . Gilbert initially proposed a story for a new opera about a magic lozenge that would change the characters , which Sullivan found artificial and lacking in `` human interest and probability '' , as well as being too similar to their earlier opera , The Sorcerer . As dramatised in the film Topsy-Turvy , the author and composer were at an impasse until 8 May 1884 , when Gilbert dropped the lozenge idea and agreed to provide a libretto without any supernatural elements . The story focuses on a `` cheap tailor , '' Ko-Ko , who is promoted to the position of Lord High Executioner of the town of Titipu . Ko-Ko loves his ward , Yum-Yum , but she loves a musician , who is really the son of the emperor of Japan ( the Mikado ) , and who is in disguise to escape the attentions of the elderly and amorous Katisha . The Mikado has decreed that executions must resume

qb_3147--Gilbert_and_Sullivan.txt

‘The King of Barataria’ is the subtitle of which Gilbert and Sullivan operetta?

A rack of lamb or carré d'agneau ( though this may also refer to other cuts ) is a cut of lamb cut perpendicularly to the spine , and including 16 ribs or chops . At retail , it is usually sold 'single ' ( sawn longitudinally and including the 8 ribs on one side only ) , but may also be sold as a `` double rack of lamb '' , with the ribs on both sides . Alternatively two French trimmed racks may be placed together with the ribs interlinked , when configured this way it is often known as a 'Guard of Honour ' . Rack of lamb is usually roasted , sometimes first coated with an herbed breadcrumb persillade . The tips of the bones are sometimes decorated with paper frills called manchettes . __TOC__ Crown roast Two or three single racks of lamb tied into a circle make a `` crown roast of lamb '' . Crown roasts are sometimes cooked with ( ground-lamb ) stuffing in the middle . Frenching Rack of lamb is often `` frenched '' ( USA term ) , that is , the rib bones are exposed by cutting off the fat and meat covering them . Typically , three inches of bone beyond the main muscle ( the rib eye or Longissimus dorsi ) are left on the rack , with the top two inches exposed .

sfq_3310--Rack_of_lamb.txt

If you ordered carre d'agneau in a French restaurant, what would you be served?

Ayrshire ( , ) is a historic county in south-west Scotland , located on the shores of the Firth of Clyde . It is also , under the name the County of Ayr , a registration county . Its principal towns include Ayr , Kilmarnock and Irvine . Like the other counties of Scotland , it currently has no administrative function , instead being sub-divided into the council areas of North Ayrshire , South Ayrshire and East Ayrshire . It has a population of approximately 366,800 . The electoral and valuation area named Ayrshire covers the three council areas of South Ayrshire , East Ayrshire and North Ayrshire , therefore including the Isle of Arran , Great Cumbrae and Little Cumbrae . The three islands were part of the County of Bute until 1975 and are not always included when the term Ayrshire is applied to the region . The same area is known as Ayrshire and Arran in other contexts . Geography Ayrshire is one of the most agriculturally fertile regions of Scotland . Potatoes are grown in fields near the coast , using seaweed-based fertiliser , and in addition the region produces pork products , other root vegetables , and cattle ( see below ) ; and summer berries such as strawberries are grown abundantly . Ayrshire shares with Dumfries and Galloway some rugged hill country known as the Galloway Hills . These hill lie to the west of the A713 ( Ayr to Castle Douglas road ) and they run south from the Loch Doon area almost to the Solway Firth . To the east of this route through the hills lie the Carsphairn and Scaur Hills which lie to the south east of Dalmellington and south of New Cumnock . Glen Afton runs deep into these hills . Glasgow Prestwick International Airport , serving Glasgow , is located in Ayrshire . It has a niche in rock history as the only place in Britain visited by Elvis Presley , on his way home from Army service in Germany in 1960 . History The area that today forms Ayrshire was part of the area south of the Antonine Wall which was briefly occupied by the Romans during the reign of Emperor Antoninus Pius ( see : Roman Britain # Occupation and retreat from southern Scotland ) . It was inhabited by the Damnonii , who are presumed to have been Britons . Later , it formed part of the British Kingdom of Strathclyde , which was incorporated into the Kingdom of Scotland during the 11th century . In 1263 , the Scots successfully drove off of the Norwegian leidang-army in a skirmish known as the Battle of Largs . A notable historic building in Ayrshire is Turnberry Castle , which dates from the 13th century or earlier , and which may have been the birthplace of Robert the Bruce . The historic shire or sheriffdom of Ayr was divided into three districts or bailieries which later made up the county of Ayrshire . The three districts were : * Carrick in the south . It was situated between the Doon and the wild district of Galloway in the adjoining Stewartries , an area that was little else than a vast tract of hills and mosses . * Kyle in the centre , which included the royal burgh of Ayr , occupied the central district between the Irwine on the north , and the Doon on the south and south-west , an area that is partly mountainous . It was subdivided into `` Kyle Stewart '' , ( sometimes called `` Stewart Kyle '' or `` Walter 's Kyle '' ) and `` King 's Kyle , '' the former embracing the country between the Irvine and the Ayr ; and the latter , the triangular portion between the Ayr and the Doon , which is honoured as the birthplace and youthful home of Robert Burns . * Cunninghame in the north which included the royal burgh of Irvine was that part of the county which lay north of the Irvine water , and was in an area that is generally level and fertile . The area used to be heavily industrialised , with steel making , coal mining and in Kilmarnock numerous examples of production-line manufacturing , most famously Johnnie Walker whisky . In more recent history , Digital Equipment had a large manufacturing plant near Ayr from about 1976 until the company was taken over by Compaq in 1998 . Some supplier companies grew up to service this site and the more distant IBM plant at Greenock in Renfrewshire . Scotland 's aviation industry has long been based in and around Prestwick and its international airport , and although aircraft manufacture ceased at the former British Aerospace plant in 1998 , a significant number of aviation companies are still based on the Prestwick site . However , unemployment in the region ( excluding the more rural South Ayrshire ) is above the national average . Local Government The Local Government ( Scotland ) Act 1889 established a uniform system of county councils in Scotland and realigned the boundaries of many of Scotland 's counties . Subsequently , Ayr county council was created in 1890 . In 1930 the Local Government ( Scotland ) Act 1929 was implemented . This re-designated the Burghs into large burghs and small burghs . This new categorisation influenced the level of autonomy that the Burghs enjoyed from the county council . The act also abolished the parish as a unit of local government in Scotland . In Ayrshire in excess of 30 parishes were consolidated into ten district councils . The District Councils were Ayr , Cumnock , Dalmellington , Girvan , Irvine , Kilbirnie , Kilmarnock , Maybole , Newmilns and Saltcoats . In May 1975 the county council was abolished and its functions transferred to Strathclyde Regional Council . The county area was divided between four new districts within the two-tier Strathclyde region : Cumnock and Doon Valley , Cunninghame , Kilmarnock and Loudoun and Kyle and Carrick . The Cunninghame district included the Isle of Arran , Great Cumbrae and Little Cumbrae , which had until then been administered as part of the County of Bute . In 1996 the two-tier system of regions and districts was abolished and Ayrshire was divided between the unitary council areas of East Ayrshire ( covering the area of the former Kilmarnock & Loudon District and Cumnock & Doon Valley District ) , North Ayrshire ( covering the area of the former Cunninghame District Council ) and South Ayrshire ( covering the area of the former Kyle and Carrick District ) . Parliamentary constituencies There was an Ayrshire constituency of the House of Commons of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1708 to 1801 and of the Parliament of the United Kingdom from 1801 until 1868 , when the constituency was divided into Ayrshire North and Ayrshire South . During the whole of the 1708 to 1868 period , and until 1950 , the burghs of Ayr and Irvine were parliamentary burghs , represented as components of Ayr Burghs . In 1832 Kilmarnock became a parliamentary burgh , to be represented as a component of Kilmarnock Burghs until 1918 . Ayr Burghs and Kilmarnock Burghs were districts of burghs , and quite different in character from later Ayr and Kilmarnock constituencies . From 1918 to 1983 Ayrshire and Buteshire were treated as if a single area for purposes of parliamentary representation , with their combined area being divided into different constituencies at different times . Scottish local government counties were abolished in 1975 , in favour of regions and districts , but the next reform of constituency boundaries was not until 1983 . Constituencies covering Ayrshire may be listed by periods as below , but the story is somewhat more complicated than the lists may imply : until 1918 , Ayr Burghs and Kilmarnock Burghs included burghs lying outside both Ayrshire and Buteshire ; a particular constituency name may represent different boundaries in different periods ; in 1974 , there were boundary changes without the creation of any new constituency names . Towns and villages in Ayrshire * Ardrossan * Annbank * Auchentiber * Auchinleck * Ayr * Barr * Beith * Bellsbank * Catrine * Coylton * Crosshill * Crosshouse * Cumnock * Dailly * Dalmellington * Dalry * Dalrymple * Darvel * Drongan * Dreghorn * Drybridge * Dundonald * Dunlop * Dunure * Fairlie * Fenwick * Galston * Gatehead * Girvan * Glengarnock * Hurlford * Irvine * Kilbirnie * Kilmarnock * Kilmaurs * Kilwinning * Kirkmichael * Knockentiber * Largs * Logan * Lugton * Lugar * Mauchline * Maidens * Maybole * Monkton * Mossblown * Minishant * Muirkirk * New Cumnock * Newmilns * Ochiltree * Old Dailly * Prestwick * Saltcoats * Seamill * Skelmorlie * Sorn * Springside * Stair * Stevenston * Stewarton * Straiton * Tarbolton * Troon * West Kilbride Rivers in Ayrshire The main rivers flowing to the Clyde coast are , from north to south , the following : * River Garnock * River Irvine * River Ayr * River Doon * River Girvan * River Stinchar Places of interest * Auchenharvie Castle * Barony and Castle of Giffen * Cleeves Cove * Clyde Muirshiel Regional Park * Corsehill * Dalgarven Mill – Museum of Ayrshire Country Life and Costume * Eglinton Country Park * Laigh Milton viaduct * Thurgartstone * Ayr Seafront Playpark * Burns National Heritage Park * The Low Green , Ayr * Turnberry ( golf course ) People from Ayrshire * Hew Ainslie ( 1792–1878 ) , poet * Sir Thomas Brisbane ( 1773–1860 ) , Scottish soldier and colonial administrator , after whom the city of Brisbane is named . * John Boyd Orr ( 1880–1971 ) , Nobel Peace Prize winner * George Douglas Brown ( 1869–1902 ) , novelist , best known for The House with the Green Shutters * Robert the Bruce ( 1274–1329 ) , possibly at Turnberry Castle . * Robert Burns ( 1759–1796 ) , poet , in Alloway ; * Kenneth Campbell ( 1917–1941 ) , RAF pilot , posthumous recipient of the Victoria Cross , born in Ardrossan . * Robert Craufurd ( 1764–1812 ) , British Major-General ; * Thomas Craig ( 1855–1900 ) , professor of mathematics , editor , and author . * John Dunlop ( 1840–1921 ) , Scottish inventor of the pneumatic tire , in Dreghorn . * Robert Dunsmuir ( 1825-1889 ) Coal baron and industrial capitalist on Vancouver Island , Canada * Andrew Fisher ( 1862–1928 ) , 5th Prime Minister of Australia 1908-1909 , 1910–1913 , 1914–1915 ; * Sir Alexander Fleming ( 1881–1955 ) , inventor/discoverer of penicillin , in Darvel ; * John Galt ( 1779–1839 ) , author . * Drew Galloway ( 1985- ) , professional wrestler on WWE 's Raw brand as Drew McIntyre . * Air Chief Marshal Angus Houston , current Australian Chief of Defence Force Emigrated to Australia in 1968 * George Houston ( artist ) ( 1869–1947 ) , landscape painter of Scottish locales ; * Tom Hunter , entrepreneur and philanthropist * The MacDonald Brothers , recording artists and contestants on The X Factor * John McAdam ( 1756–1836 ) , engineer , responsible for a system of road design ; * James McCosh ( 1811–1894 ) , philosopher of the Scottish School of Common Sense and president of what would become Princeton University . * James McCosh Clark ( 1833–1898 ) , Mayor of Auckland * Jai McDowall ( 1986- ) , winner of Britain 's Got Talent in 2011 * William McIlvanney , writer . * Sir Thomas McKillop , ( 1943- ) CEO of AstraZeneca , born in Dreghorn * James Henry McLean ( 1806–1886 ) , born in Ayrshire , physician and United States Congressman from Missouri . * Colin Mochrie ( born 1957 ) Scottish /Canadian improvisational comedian and actor ( best known for being in Whose Line Is It Anyway ? ) * William Murdoch ( 1754–1839 ) , Inventor of gas lighting and Engineer . * Simon Neil ( 1979- ) , James Johnston , and Ben Johnston of Biffy Clyro . * Alexander Peden ( 1626 – 1686 ) , leading figure in the Covenanter movement * Bill Shankly ( 1913–1981 ) , football manager * Robert Simson ( 1687–1768 ) , mathematician and professor of mathematics for 50 years * Sam Torrance ( 1953- ) , professional golfer born in Largs . * Nicola Sturgeon ( 1970- ) , First Minister of Scotland ( SNP ) Born in Irvine .

sfq_18420--Ayrshire.txt

In which Ayrshire village will you find the cottage birthplace of poet Robert Bums which is now a museum?

The Governor of Texas is the head of the executive branch of Texas 's government and the commander-in-chief of the state 's military forces . The governor has the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the Texas Legislature , and to convene the legislature . The governor may grant pardons in cases other than impeachment ( but only when recommended by the Board of Pardons and Paroles ) or in the case of treason , with permission by the legislature . The current Governor is Greg Abbott . Compared to the governors of other U.S. states , the governorship of Texas is a fairly weak office . The Lieutenant Governor of Texas , who presides over the state Senate , is considered a more powerful political figure , being able to exercise greater personal prerogatives . The state 's first constitution in 1845 established the office of governor , to serve for two years , but no more than four years out of every six ( essentially a limit of no more than two consecutive terms ) . The 1861 secessionist constitution set the term start date at the first Monday in the November following the election . The 1866 constitution , adopted just after the American Civil War , increased terms to 4 years , but no more than 8 years out of every 12 , and moved the start date to the first Thursday after the organization of the legislature , or `` as soon thereafter as practicable '' . The Reconstruction constitution of 1869 removed the limit on terms , and to this day , Texas is one of 14 states with no gubernatorial term limit . The present constitution of 1876 shortened terms back to two years , but a 1972 amendment increased it again to four years . The gubernatorial election is held every four years on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November and does not coincide with the presidential elections . The governor is sworn in on the third Tuesday of January every four years along with the lieutenant governor , so Abbott and current Lieutenant Governor Dan Patrick both took office on January 20 , 2015 . Despite the lack of term limits , no Texas governor in the 19th or 20th centuries ever served more than seven and a half consecutive years in office ( Allan Shivers ) or eight years total service ( Bill Clements , in two non-consecutive four-year terms ) . Former Governor Rick Perry , who served from 2000 to 2015 , has now surpassed both these records , becoming the first Texas governor to serve three consecutive terms . When Perry won the general election on November 2 , 2010 , he joined Shivers , Price Daniel , and John Connally as the only Texas governors elected to three terms . In case of a vacancy in the office of governor , the lieutenant governor becomes governor . This rule was added only in a 1999 amendment , prior to which the lieutenant governor only acted as governor , except during the time of the 1861 constitution , which said that the lieutenant governor would be styled `` Governor of the State of Texas '' in case of vacancy .

sfq_2984--Governor_of_Texas.txt

Who was the Texas governor who was shot and wounded when John F Kennedy was assassinated?

Carl Edward Sagan ( ; November 9 , 1934 – December 20 , 1996 ) was an American astronomer , cosmologist , astrophysicist , astrobiologist , author , science popularizer , and science communicator in astronomy and other natural sciences . He is best known for his contributions to the scientific research of extraterrestrial life , including experimental demonstration of the production of amino acids from basic chemicals by radiation . Sagan assembled the first physical messages sent into space : the Pioneer plaque and the Voyager Golden Record , universal messages that could potentially be understood by any extraterrestrial intelligence that might find them . Sagan argued the now accepted hypothesis that the high surface temperatures of Venus can be attributed to and calculated using the greenhouse effect . [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id gJ1rDj2nR3EC & pg=PR14 Extract of page 14 ] He published more than 600 scientific papers and articles and was author , co-author or editor of more than 20 books . Sagan wrote many popular science books , such as The Dragons of Eden , Broca 's Brain and Pale Blue Dot , and narrated and co-wrote the award-winning 1980 television series Cosmos : A Personal Voyage . The most widely watched series in the history of American public television , Cosmos has been seen by at least 500 million people across 60 different countries . The book Cosmos was published to accompany the series . He also wrote the science fiction novel Contact , the basis for a 1997 film of the same name . His papers , containing 595,000 items , are archived at The Library of Congress . Sagan always advocated scientific skeptical inquiry and the scientific method , pioneered exobiology and promoted the Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence ( SETI ) . He spent most of his career as a professor of astronomy at Cornell University , where he directed the Laboratory for Planetary Studies . Sagan and his works received numerous awards and honors , including the NASA Distinguished Public Service Medal , the National Academy of Sciences Public Welfare Medal , the Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction for his book The Dragons of Eden , and , regarding Cosmos : A Personal Voyage , two Emmy Awards , the Peabody Award and the Hugo Award . He married three times and had five children . After suffering from myelodysplasia , Sagan died of pneumonia at the age of 62 , on December 20 , 1996 . Early life Carl Sagan was born in Brooklyn , New York.Poundstone 1999 , pp . 363–364 , 374–375 His father , Samuel Sagan , was an immigrant garment worker from Kamianets-Podilskyi , then Russian Empire , in today 's Ukraine . His mother , Rachel Molly Gruber , was a housewife from New York . Carl was named in honor of Rachel 's biological mother , Chaiya Clara , in Sagan 's words , `` the mother she never knew . '' He had a sister , Carol , and the family lived in a modest apartment near the Atlantic Ocean , in Bensonhurst , a Brooklyn neighborhood . According to Sagan , they were Reform Jews , the most liberal of North American Judaism 's four main groups . Both Sagan and his sister agreed that their father was not especially religious , but that their mother `` definitely believed in God , and was active in the temple ... and served only kosher meat . '' During the depths of the Depression , his father worked as a theater usher . According to biographer Keay Davidson , Sagan 's `` inner war '' was a result of his close relationship with both of his parents , who were in many ways `` opposites . '' Sagan traced his later analytical urges to his mother , a woman who had been extremely poor as a child in New York City during World War I and the 1920s . As a young woman she had held her own intellectual ambitions , but they were frustrated by social restrictions : her poverty , her status as a woman and a wife , and her Jewish ethnicity . Davidson notes that she therefore `` worshipped her only son , Carl . He would fulfill her unfulfilled dreams . '' However , he claimed that his sense of wonder came from his father . In his free time he gave apples to the poor or helped soothe labor-management tensions within New York 's garment industry . Although he was awed by Carl 's intellectual abilities , he took his son 's inquisitiveness in stride and saw it as part of his growing up . In his later years as a writer and scientist , Sagan would often draw on his childhood memories to illustrate scientific points , as he did in his book , Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors . Sagan describes his parents ' influence on his later thinking : My parents were not scientists . They knew almost nothing about science . But in introducing me simultaneously to skepticism and to wonder , they taught me the two uneasily cohabiting modes of thought that are central to the scientific method . 1939 World 's Fair Sagan recalls that one of his most defining moments was when his parents took him to the 1939 New York World 's Fair when he was four years old . The exhibits became a turning point in his life . He later recalled the moving map of the America of Tomorrow exhibit : `` It showed beautiful highways and cloverleaves and little General Motors cars all carrying people to skyscrapers , buildings with lovely spires , flying buttresses—and it looked great ! '' At other exhibits , he remembered how a flashlight that shone on a photoelectric cell created a crackling sound , and how the sound from a tuning fork became a wave on an oscilloscope . He also witnessed the future media technology that would replace radio : television . Sagan wrote : Plainly , the world held wonders of a kind I had never guessed . How could a tone become a picture and light become a noise ? He also saw one of the Fair 's most publicized events , the burial of a time capsule at Flushing Meadows , which contained mementos of the 1930s to be recovered by Earth 's descendants in a future millennium . `` The time capsule thrilled Carl , '' writes Davidson . As an adult , Sagan and his colleagues would create similar time capsules—capsules that would be sent out into the galaxy ; these were the Pioneer plaque and the Voyager Golden Record records , all of which were spinoffs of Sagan 's memories of the World 's Fair . World War II During World War II Sagan 's family worried about the fate of their European relatives . Sagan , however , was generally unaware of the details of the ongoing war . He wrote , `` Sure , we had relatives who were caught up in the Holocaust . Hitler was not a popular fellow in our household ... But on the other hand , I was fairly insulated from the horrors of the war . '' His sister , Carol , said that their mother `` above all wanted to protect Carl ... She had an extraordinarily difficult time dealing with World War II and the Holocaust . '' Sagan 's book , The Demon-Haunted World ( 1996 ) , included his memories of this conflicted period , when his family dealt with the realities of the war in Europe but tried to prevent it from undermining his optimistic spirit . Inquisitiveness about nature Soon after entering elementary school he began to express a strong inquisitiveness about nature . Sagan recalled taking his first trips to the public library alone , at the age of five , when his mother got him a library card . He wanted to learn what stars were , since none of his friends or their parents could give him a clear answer : I went to the librarian and asked for a book about stars ... And the answer was stunning . It was that the Sun was a star but really close . The stars were suns , but so far away they were just little points of light ... The scale of the universe suddenly opened up to me . It was a kind of religious experience . There was a magnificence to it , a grandeur , a scale which has never left me . Never ever left me . At about age six or seven , he and a close friend took trips to the American Museum of Natural History across the East River in Manhattan . While there , they went to the Hayden Planetarium and walked around the museum 's exhibits of space objects , such as meteorites , and displays of dinosaurs and animals in natural settings . Sagan writes about those visits : I was transfixed by the dioramas—lifelike representations of animals and their habitats all over the world . Penguins on the dimly lit Antarctic ice ; ... a family of gorillas , the male beating his chest , ... an American grizzly bear standing on his hind legs , ten or twelve feet tall , and staring me right in the eye . His parents helped nurture his growing interest in science by buying him chemistry sets and reading materials . His interest in space , however , was his primary focus , especially after reading science fiction stories by writers such as H. G. Wells and Edgar Rice Burroughs , which stirred his imagination about life on other planets such as Mars . According to biographer Ray Spangenburg , these early years as Sagan tried to understand the mysteries of the planets became a `` driving force in his life , a continual spark to his intellect , and a quest that would never be forgotten . '' In 1947 he discovered Astounding Science Fiction magazine , which introduced him to more hard science fiction speculations than those in Burroughs 's novels . That same year inaugurated the `` flying saucer '' mass hysteria with the young Carl suspecting the `` discs '' might be alien spaceships . High school years Sagan had lived in Bensonhurst where he went to David A. Boody Junior High School . He had his bar mitzvah in Bensonhurst when he turned 13 . The following year , 1948 , his family moved to the nearby town of Rahway , New Jersey for his father 's work , where Sagan then entered Rahway High School . He graduated in 1951 . Rahway was an older industrial town , and the Sagans were among its few Jewish families . Sagan was a straight-A student but was bored due to unchallenging classes and uninspiring teachers . His teachers realized this and tried to convince his parents to send him to a private school , the administrator telling them , `` This kid ought to go to a school for gifted children , he has something really remarkable . '' This they could n't do , partly because of the cost . Sagan was made president of the school 's chemistry club , and at home he set up his own laboratory . He taught himself about molecules by making cardboard cutouts to help him visualize how molecules were formed : `` I found that about as interesting as doing [ chemical ] experiments , '' he said . Sagan remained mostly interested in astronomy as a hobby , and in his junior year made it a career goal after he learned that astronomers were paid for doing what he always enjoyed : `` That was a splendid day­­­­—when I began to suspect that if I tried hard I could do astronomy full-time , not just part-time . '' Education and scientific career He attended the University of Chicago , where he participated in the Ryerson Astronomical Society , received a B.A . degree in self-proclaimed `` nothing '' with general and special honors in 1954 , a B.S . degree in physics in 1955 , and an M.S . degree in physics in 1956 , before earning a Ph.D. degree in 1960 with the dissertation `` Physical Studies of Planets '' submitted to the Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics . The title of Sagan 's thesis reflects his shared interests with Gerard Kuiper , his dissertation director , who throughout the 1950s had been president of the International Astronomical Union 's commission on `` Physical Studies of Planets and Satellites '' . In 1958 , the two worked on the classified military Project A119 , the secret Air Force plan to detonate a nuclear warhead on the Moon . During his time as an honors program undergraduate , Sagan worked in the laboratory of the geneticist H. J. Muller and wrote a thesis on the origins of life with physical chemist H. C. Urey . He used the summer months of his graduate studies to work with planetary scientist Gerard Kuiper , physicist George Gamow , and chemist Melvin Calvin . From 1960 to 1962 Sagan was a Miller Fellow at the University of California , Berkeley . From 1962 to 1968 , he worked at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory in Cambridge , Massachusetts . At the same time , he worked with geneticist Joshua Lederberg . Sagan lectured and did research at Harvard University as an assistant professor until 1968 , when he moved to Cornell University after being denied tenure at Harvard . It has been suggested that Sagan was denied tenure in part because of his publicized scientific advocacy , which some scientists perceived as being self-promotion ; Harold Urey wrote a letter to the tenure committee recommending against tenure for Sagan . Following two years as an associate professor , he became a full professor at Cornell in 1970 , and directed the Laboratory for Planetary Studies there . From 1972 to 1981 , Sagan was associate director of the Center for Radiophysics and Space Research ( CRSR ) at Cornell . In 1976 , he became the David Duncan Professor of Astronomy and Space Sciences , a position he held for the remainder of his life . Sagan was associated with the U.S. space program from its inception . From the 1950s onward , he worked as an advisor to NASA , where one of his duties included briefing the Apollo astronauts before their flights to the Moon . Sagan contributed to many of the robotic spacecraft missions that explored the Solar System , arranging experiments on many of the expeditions . He conceived the idea of adding an unalterable and universal message on spacecraft destined to leave the Solar System that could potentially be understood by any extraterrestrial intelligence that might find it . Sagan assembled the first physical message that was sent into space : a gold-anodized plaque , attached to the space probe Pioneer 10 , launched in 1972 . Pioneer 11 , also carrying another copy of the plaque , was launched the following year . He continued to refine his designs ; the most elaborate message he helped to develop and assemble was the Voyager Golden Record that was sent out with the Voyager space probes in 1977 . Sagan often challenged the decisions to fund the Space Shuttle and the International Space Station at the expense of further robotic missions . Sagan taught a course on critical thinking at Cornell University , until he died in 1996 from pneumonia , a few months after learning that he was in remission of myelodysplastic syndrome . Scientific achievements Former student David Morrison describes Sagan as `` an 'idea person ' and a master of intuitive physical arguments and 'back of the envelope ' calculations , '' and Gerard Kuiper said that `` Some persons work best in specializing on a major program in the laboratory ; others are best in liaison between sciences . Dr. Sagan belongs in the latter group . '' Sagan 's contributions were central to the discovery of the high surface temperatures of the planet Venus . In the early 1960s no one knew for certain the basic conditions of that planet 's surface , and Sagan listed the possibilities in a report later depicted for popularization in a Time–Life book , Planets . His own view was that Venus was dry and very hot as opposed to the balmy paradise others had imagined . He had investigated radio emissions from Venus and concluded that there was a surface temperature of 500 °C . As a visiting scientist to NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory , he contributed to the first Mariner missions to Venus , working on the design and management of the project . Mariner 2 confirmed his conclusions on the surface conditions of Venus in 1962 . Sagan was among the first to hypothesize that Saturn 's moon Titan might possess oceans of liquid compounds on its surface and that Jupiter 's moon Europa might possess subsurface oceans of water . This would make Europa potentially habitable . Europa 's subsurface ocean of water was later indirectly confirmed by the spacecraft Galileo . The mystery of Titan 's reddish haze was also solved with Sagan 's help . The reddish haze was revealed to be due to complex organic molecules constantly raining down onto Titan 's surface . He further contributed insights regarding the atmospheres of Venus and Jupiter as well as seasonal changes on Mars . He also perceived global warming as a growing , man-made danger and likened it to the natural development of Venus into a hot , life-hostile planet through a kind of runaway greenhouse effect . Sagan and his Cornell colleague Edwin Ernest Salpeter speculated about life in Jupiter 's clouds , given the planet 's dense atmospheric composition rich in organic molecules . He studied the observed color variations on Mars ' surface and concluded that they were not seasonal or vegetational changes as most believed but shifts in surface dust caused by windstorms . Sagan is best known , however , for his research on the possibilities of extraterrestrial life , including experimental demonstration of the production of amino acids from basic chemicals by radiation . He is also the 1994 recipient of the Public Welfare Medal , the highest award of the National Academy of Sciences for `` distinguished contributions in the application of science to the public welfare '' . He was denied membership in the Academy , reportedly because his media activities made him unpopular with many other scientists . Scientific and critical thinking advocacy Sagan 's ability to convey his ideas allowed many people to understand the cosmos better—simultaneously emphasizing the value and worthiness of the human race , and the relative insignificance of the Earth in comparison to the Universe . He delivered the 1977 series of Royal Institution Christmas Lectures in London . He hosted and , with Ann Druyan , co-wrote and co-produced the highly popular thirteen-part Public Broadcasting Service ( PBS ) television series Cosmos : A Personal Voyage . Cosmos covered a wide range of scientific subjects including the origin of life and a perspective of humans ' place in the Universe . The series was first broadcast by PBS in 1980 , winning an Emmy and a Peabody Award . It has been broadcast in more than 60 countries and seen by over 500 million people , making it the most widely watched PBS program in history . In addition , Time magazine ran a cover story about Sagan soon after the show broadcast , referring to him as `` creator , chief writer and host-narrator of the new public television series Cosmos , [ and ] takes the controls of his fantasy spaceship '' . However , Sagan was criticized for putting too much attention into the series , with several of his classes at Cornell being cancelled and complaints from his colleagues . Sagan was a proponent of the search for extraterrestrial life . He urged the scientific community to listen with radio telescopes for signals from potential intelligent extraterrestrial life-forms . Sagan was so persuasive that by 1982 he was able to get a petition advocating SETI published in the journal Science and signed by 70 scientists , including seven Nobel Prize winners . This signaled a tremendous increase in the respectability of a then-controversial field . Sagan also helped Frank Drake write the Arecibo message , a radio message beamed into space from the Arecibo radio telescope on November 16 , 1974 , aimed at informing potential extraterrestrials about Earth . Sagan was chief technology officer of the professional planetary research journal Icarus for twelve years . He co-founded The Planetary Society , the largest space-interest group in the world , with over 100,000 members in more than 149 countries , and was a member of the SETI Institute Board of Trustees . Sagan served as Chairman of the Division for Planetary Science of the American Astronomical Society , as President of the Planetology Section of the American Geophysical Union , and as Chairman of the Astronomy Section of the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) . At the height of the Cold War , Sagan became involved in public awareness efforts for the effects of nuclear war when `` Twilight at Noon '' , a 1982 mathematical climate model , suggested that a substantial nuclear exchange could trigger a nuclear twilight and upset the delicate balance of life on Earth by cooling the surface . In 1983 he was one of five authors—the `` S '' —in the follow-up `` TTAPS '' report ( as the research paper came to be known ) , which contained the first usage of the term `` nuclear winter '' which his colleague Richard P. Turco coined . In 1984 he co-authored the book The Cold and the Dark : The World after Nuclear War and in 1990 he co-authored the book A Path Where No Man Thought : Nuclear Winter and the End of the Arms Race , which explains the nuclear winter hypothesis and with that advocates nuclear disarmament . Sagan also wrote books to popularize science , such as Cosmos , which reflected and expanded upon some of the themes of A Personal Voyage and became the best-selling science book ever published in English ; The Dragons of Eden : Speculations on the Evolution of Human Intelligence , which won a Pulitzer Prize ; and Broca 's Brain : Reflections on the Romance of Science . Sagan also wrote the best-selling science fiction novel Contact in 1985 , based on a film treatment he wrote with his wife in 1979 , but he did not live to see the book 's 1997 motion picture adaptation , which starred Jodie Foster and won the 1998 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation . He wrote a sequel to Cosmos , Pale Blue Dot : A Vision of the Human Future in Space , which was selected as a notable book of 1995 by The New York Times . He appeared on PBS ' Charlie Rose program in January 1995 . Sagan also wrote the introduction for Stephen Hawking 's bestseller , A Brief History of Time . Sagan was also known for his popularization of science , his efforts to increase scientific understanding among the general public , and his positions in favor of scientific skepticism and against pseudoscience , such as his debunking of the Betty and Barney Hill abduction . To mark the tenth anniversary of Sagan 's death , David Morrison , a former student of Sagan 's , recalled `` Sagan 's immense contributions to planetary research , the public understanding of science , and the skeptical movement '' in Skeptical Inquirer . Following Saddam Hussein 's threats to light Kuwait 's oil wells on fire in response to any physical challenge to Iraqi control of the oil assets , Sagan and his `` TTAPS '' colleagues warned in January 1991 in the Baltimore Sun and Wilmington Morning Star newspapers that if the fires were left to burn over a period of several months , enough smoke from the 600 or so 1991 Kuwaiti oil fires `` might get so high as to disrupt agriculture in much of South Asia ... '' and that this possibility should `` affect the war plans '' ; these claims were also the subject of a televised debate between Sagan and physicist Fred Singer on 22 January , aired on the ABC News program Nightline . In the televised debate , Sagan argued that the effects of the smoke would be similar to the effects of a nuclear winter , with Singer arguing to the contrary . After the debate , the fires burnt for many months before extinguishing efforts were complete . The results of the smoke did not produce continental-sized cooling . Sagan later conceded in The Demon-Haunted World that the prediction did not turn out to be correct : `` it was pitch black at noon and temperatures dropped 4°–6 °C over the Persian Gulf , but not much smoke reached stratospheric altitudes and Asia was spared '' . In his later years Sagan advocated the creation of an organized search for asteroids/near-Earth objects ( NEO ) that might impact the Earth , and to postpone developing the technology to defend against them . He argued that the nuclear detonation , along with the other methods of deflection proposed as a means to alter the orbit of an asteroid , created a Deflection Dilemma : if the ability to deflect an asteroid away from the Earth exists , then one would also have the ability to divert a non-threatening object towards Earth , creating an immensely destructive weapon . In a 1994 paper , he co-authored , he ridiculed a 3-day long `` Near-Earth Object Interception Workshop '' held by LANL in 1993 that did not , `` even in passing '' state that such interception and deflection technologies could have these `` ancillary dangers '' . Sagan however was hopeful that the natural impact threat and the intrinsically double edged essence of the methods to prevent these threats , would serve as a `` new and potent motivation to maturing international relations '' . Later acknowledging that , with sufficient international oversight , in the future a `` work our way up '' approach to fielding nuclear explosive deflection methods could be fielded , and when sufficient knowledge was gained , to use them to aid in mining asteroids . His interest in the use of nuclear detonations in space grew out of his work in 1958 for the Armour Research Foundation 's Project A119 , concerning the possibility of detonating a nuclear device on the Lunar surface . Sagan was a critic of Plato , having said of the ancient Greek philosopher : `` Science and mathematics were to be removed from the hands of the merchants and the artisans . This tendency found its most effective advocate in a follower of Pythagoras named Plato '' and `` He ( Plato ) believed that ideas were far more real than the natural world . He advised the astronomers not to waste their time observing the stars and planets . It was better , he believed , just to think about them . Plato expressed hostility to observation and experiment . He taught contempt for the real world and disdain for the practical application of scientific knowledge . Plato 's followers succeeded in extinguishing the light of science and experiment that had been kindled by Democritus and the other Ionians . '' Popularizing science Speaking about his activities in popularizing science , Sagan said that there were at least two reasons for scientists to share the purposes of science and its contemporary state . Simple self-interest was one : much of the funding for science came from the public , and the public therefore had the right to know how the money was being spent . If scientists increased public admiration for science , there was a good chance of having more public supporters . The other reason was the excitement of communicating one 's own excitement about science to others . `` Billions and billions '' From Cosmos and his frequent appearances on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson , Sagan became associated with the catchphrase `` billions and billions '' . Sagan said that he never actually used the phrase in the Cosmos series . The closest that he ever came was in the book Cosmos , where he talked of `` billions upon billions '' : ( Richard Feynman , a precursor to Sagan , is observed to use the phrase `` billions and billions '' many times in his `` red books '' . ) However , Sagan 's frequent use of the word billions , and distinctive delivery emphasizing the `` b '' (

jp_3474--Carl_Sagan.txt

What Carl Sagan television series was resurrected in 2014 with Neil deGrasse Tyson as host?

Fast food , a type of mass-produced food that is prepared and served very quickly , was first popularized in the 1950s in the United States , and may be relatively less nutritionally valuable compared to other foods and dishes . While any meal with low preparation time can be considered fast food , typically the term refers to food sold in a restaurant or store with preheated or precooked ingredients , and served to the customer in a packaged form for take-out/take-away . Fast food restaurants are traditionally distinguished by their ability to serve food via a drive-through . The term `` fast food '' was recognized in a dictionary by Merriam–Webster in 1951 . Outlets may be stands or kiosks , which may provide no shelter or seating , or fast food restaurants ( also known as quick service restaurants ) . Franchise operations that are part of restaurant chains have standardized foodstuffs shipped to each restaurant from central locations . According to the National Institutes of Health ( NIH ) , fast foods are quick and cheap alternatives to home-cooked meals . They are also high in saturated fat , sugar , salt and calories . Eating too much fast food has been linked to , among other things , obesity and high cholesterol . The traditional family dinner is increasingly being replaced by the consumption of takeaway , or eating “ on the run ” . As a result , the time invested on food preparation is getting lower and lower , with an average couple in the United States spending 47 minutes and 19 minutes per day , carrying out food preparation . History The concept of ready-cooked food for sale is closely connected with urban development . In Ancient Rome , cities had street stands - a large counter with a receptacle in the middle from which food or drink would have been served . It was during post-WWII American economic boom that Americans began to spend more and buy more as the economy boomed and a culture of consumerism bloomed . As a result of this new desire to have it all , coupled with the strides made by women while the men were away , both members of the household began to work outside the home . Eating out , which had previously been considered a luxury , became a common occurrence , and then a necessity . Workers , and working families , needed quick service and inexpensive food for both lunch and dinner . This need is what drove the phenomenal success of the early fast food giants , which catered to the family on the go ( Franklin A. Jacobs ) . Fast food became an easy option for a busy family , as is the case for many families today . Pre-modern Europe In the cities of Roman antiquity , much of the urban population living in insulae , multi-story apartment blocks , depended on food vendors for much of their meals . In the mornings , bread soaked in wine was eaten as a quick snack and cooked vegetables and stews later in popina , a simple type of eating establishment . In the Middle Ages , large towns and major urban areas such as London and Paris supported numerous vendors that sold dishes such as pies , pasties , flans , waffles , wafers , pancakes and cooked meats . As in Roman cities during antiquity , many of these establishments catered to those who did not have means to cook their own food , particularly single households . Unlike richer town dwellers , many often could not afford housing with kitchen facilities and thus relied on fast food . Travellers , as well , such as pilgrims en route to a holy site , were among the customerssss . United Kingdom In areas with access to coastal or tidal waters , 'fast food ' frequently included local shellfish or seafood , such as oysters or , as in London , eels . Often this seafood was cooked directly on the quay or close by . The development of trawler fishing in the mid-nineteenth century led to the development of a British favourite , fish and chips , and the first shop in 1860 . A blue plaque at Oldham 's Tommyfield Market marks the origin of the fish and chip shop and fast food industries in Britain . British fast food had considerable regional variation . Sometimes the regionality of a dish became part of the culture of its respective area , such as the Cornish pasty and deep-fried Mars bar . The content of fast food pies has varied , with poultry ( such as chickens ) or wildfowl commonly being used . Since the Second World War , turkey has been used more frequently in fast food . The UK has adopted fast food from other cultures as well , such as pizza , kebab , and curry . More recently , healthier alternatives to conventional fast food have also emerged . United States As automobiles became popular and more affordable following World War I , drive-in restaurants were introduced . The American company White Castle , founded by Billy Ingram and Walter Anderson in Wichita , Kansas in 1921 , is generally credited with opening the second fast food outlet and first hamburger chain , selling hamburgers for five cents each . Walter Anderson had built the first White Castle restaurant in Wichita in 1916 , introducing the limited menu , high-volume , low-cost , high-speed hamburger restaurant . Among its innovations , the company allowed customers to see the food being prepared . White Castle was successful from its inception and spawned numerous competitors . Franchising was introduced in 1921 by A & W Root Beer , which franchised its distinctive syrup . Howard Johnson 's first franchised the restaurant concept in the mid-1930s , formally standardizing menus , signage and advertising . Curb service was introduced in the late 1920s and was mobilized in the 1940s when carhops strapped on roller skates . The United States has the largest fast food industry in the world , and American fast food restaurants are located in over 100 countries . Approximately 4.7 million U.S. workers are employed in the areas of food preparation and food servicing , including fast food in the USA . Worries of an obesity epidemic and its related illnesses have inspired many local government officials in the United States to propose to limit or regulate fast-food restaurants . Yet , US adults are unwilling to change their fast food consumption even in the face of rising costs and unemployment characterized by the great recession , suggesting an inelastic demand . However , some areas are more affected than others . In Los Angeles County , for example , about 45 % of the restaurants in South Central Los Angeles are fast-food chains or restaurants with minimal seating . By comparison , only 16 % of those on the Westside are such restaurants . Working conditions The National Employment Law Project wrote in 2013 , `` according to a study by researchers at the university of California-Berkeley , more than half ( 52 percent ) of front-line fast-food workers must rely on at least one public assistance program to support their families . As a result , the fast-food-industry business model of low wages , non-existent benefits , and limited work hours costs taxpayers an average of nearly $ 7 billion every year '' . They claim this funding allows these workers to `` afford health care , food , and other basic necessities '' On the go Fast food outlets are take-away or take-out providers that promise quick service . Such fact food outlets often come with a `` drive-through '' service that lets customers order and pick up food from their vehicles . Others have indoor or outdoor seating areas where customers can eat on-site . In recent times , the boom in IT services has allowed customers to order food from their homes through their smart phone apps . Nearly from its inception , fast food has been designed to be eaten `` on the go , '' often does not require traditional cutlery , and is eaten as a finger food . Common menu items at fast food outlets include fish and chips , sandwiches , pitas , hamburgers , fried chicken , french fries , onion rings , chicken nuggets , tacos , pizza , hot dogs , and ice cream , though many fast food restaurants offer `` slower '' foods like chili , mashed potatoes , and salads . Filling stations Convenience stores located within many petrol/gas stations sell pre-packaged sandwiches , doughnuts , and hot food . Many gas stations in the United States and Europe also sell frozen foods , and have microwave ovens on the premises in which to prepare them . Petrol Stations in Australia sell hot pies , sandwiches , chocolate bars which is easy for a customer to access while on their journey . Petrol stations are a place that are often open long hours and are open before and after shop trading hours therefore it makes it easy to access for consumers . Street vendors and concessions Traditional street food is available around the world , usually though small and independent vendors operating from a cart , table , portable grill or motor vehicle . Common examples include Vietnamese noodle vendors , Middle Eastern falafel stands , New York City hot dog carts , and taco trucks . Turo-Turo vendors ( Tagalog for point point ) are a feature of Philippine life . Commonly , street vendors provide a colorful and varying range of options designed to quickly captivate passers-by and attract as much attention as possible . Depending on the locale , multiple street vendors may specialize in specific types of food characteristic of a given cultural or ethnic tradition . In some cultures , it is typical for street vendors to call out prices , sing or chant sales-pitches , play music , or engage in other forms of `` street theatrics '' to engage prospective customers . In some cases , this can garner more attention than the food . Cuisine Modern commercial fast food is often highly processed and prepared in an industrial fashion , i.e. , on a large scale with standard ingredients and standardized cooking and production methods . It is usually rapidly served in cartons or bags or in a plastic wrapping , in a fashion that minimizes cost . In most fast food operations , menu items are generally made from processed ingredients prepared at a central supply facility and then shipped to individual outlets where they are reheated , cooked ( usually by microwave or deep frying ) or assembled in a short amount of time . This process ensures a consistent level of product quality , and is key to being able to deliver the order quickly to the customer and eliminate labor and equipment costs in the individual stores . Because of commercial emphasis on quickness , uniformity and low cost , fast food products are often made with ingredients formulated to achieve a certain flavor or consistency and to preserve freshness . Variants Chinese takeaways/takeout restaurants are particularly popular in Western countries such as the US and UK . They normally offer a wide variety of Asian food ( not always Chinese ) , which has normally been fried . Most options are some form of noodles , rice , or meat . In some cases , the food is presented as a smörgåsbord , sometimes self service . The customer chooses the size of the container they wish to buy , and then is free to fill it with their choice of food . It is common to combine several options in one container , and some outlets charge by weight rather than by item . In large cities , these restaurants may offer free delivery for purchases over a minimum amount . Sushi has seen rapidly rising popularity recently in the Western world . A form of fast food created in Japan ( where bentō is the Japanese variety of fast food ) , sushi is normally cold sticky rice flavored with a sweet rice vinegar and served with some topping ( often fish ) , or , as in the most popular kind in the West , rolled in nori ( dried laver ) with filling . The filling often includes fish , seafood , chicken or cucumber . Pizza is a common fast food category in the United States , with nationwide chains including Papa John 's , Domino 's Pizza , Sbarro and Pizza Hut . It trails only the burger industry in supplying children 's fast food calories . Menus are more limited and standardized than in traditional pizzerias , and pizza delivery is offered . Kebab houses are a form of fast food restaurant from the Middle East , especially Turkey and Lebanon . Meat is shaven from a rotisserie , and is served on a warmed flatbread with salad and a choice of sauce and dressing . These doner kebabs or shawarmas are distinct from shish kebabs served on sticks . Kebab shops are also found throughout the world , especially Europe , New Zealand and Australia but they generally are less common in the US . Fish and chip shops are a form of fast food popular in the United Kingdom , Australia and New Zealand . Fish is battered and then deep fried , and served with deep fried potato strips . The Dutch have their own types of fast food . A Dutch fast food meal often consists of a portion of french fries ( called friet or patat ) with a sauce and a meat product . The most common sauce to accompany french fries is fritessaus . It is a sweet , vinegary and low fat mayonnaise substitute , that the Dutch nevertheless still call `` mayonnaise '' . When ordering it is very often abbreviated to met ( literally `` with '' ) . Other popular sauces are ketchup or spiced ketchup ( `` curry '' ) , Indonesian style peanut sauce ( `` satésaus '' or `` pindasaus '' ) or piccalilli . Sometimes the fries are served with combinations of sauces , most famously speciaal ( special ) : mayonnaise , with ( spiced ) ketchup and chopped onions ; and oorlog ( literally `` war '' ) : mayonnaise and peanut sauce ( sometimes also with ketchup and chopped onions ) . The meat product is usually a deep fried snack ; this includes the frikandel ( a deep fried skinless minced meat sausage ) , and the kroket ( deep fried meat ragout covered in breadcrumbs ) . In Portugal , there are some varieties of local fast-food and restaurants specialized in this type of local cuisine . Some of the most popular foods include frango assado ( Piri-piri grilled chicken previously marinated ) , francesinha , francesinha poveira , espetada ( turkey or pork meat on two sticks ) and bifanas ( pork cutlets in a specific sauce served as a sandwich ) . This type of food is also often served with french fries ( called batatas fritas ) , some international chains started appearing specialized in some of the typical Portuguese fast food such as Nando 's . An example of a local form of fast food in Poland is pasztecik szczeciński , a deep-fried yeast dough stuffed with meat or vegetarian filling , typical fast food dish of the city of Szczecin well known in many other cities in the country . A dish is on Polish List of traditional products . The first bar serving pasztecik szczeciński , Bar `` Pasztecik '' founded in 1969 , is located on Wojska Polskiego Avenue 46 in Szczecin . A fixture of East Asian cities is the noodle shop . Flatbread and falafel are today ubiquitous in the Middle East . Popular Indian fast food dishes include vada pav , panipuri and dahi vada . In the French-speaking nations of West Africa , roadside stands in and around the larger cities continue to sell—as they have done for generations—a range of ready-to-eat , char-grilled meat sticks known locally as brochettes ( not to be confused with the bread snack of the same name found in Europe ) . Business In the United States , consumers spent $ 160 billion on fast food in 2012 ( up from $ 6 billion in 1970 ) . In total the US restaurant industry had projected sales of $ 660.5 billion in 2013 . Fast food has been losing market share to fast casual dining restaurants , which offer more robust and expensive cuisines . Due to this competition , fast food giants have seen dramatic drops in their sales . While overall fast food sales have fallen , the amount of Americans who eat in these restaurants `` once a month or ' a few times a year ' '' has risen . In contrast to the rest of the world , American citizens spend a much smaller amount of their income on food — largely due to various government subsidies that make fast food cheap and easily accessible . Calorie for calorie , foods sold in fast food restaurants , costs less and is more energy-dense , and is made mostly of products that the government subsidizes heavily : corn , soy , and beef . The Australian fast food market is valued at more that 2.7 billion GPB and is composed of 1.4 billion fast food meals . This includes meals serviced at 17,000 fast food outlets . The fast food market has experienced an average annual growth rate of 6.5 percent , which is the most rapidly growing sector of the retail food market . Employment According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics , about 4.1 million U.S. workers are employed in food preparation and serving ( including fast food ) as of 2010 . The BLS 's projected job outlook expects average growth and excellent opportunity as a result of high turnover . However , in April 2011 , McDonald 's hired approximately 62,000 new workers and received a million applications for those positions—an acceptance rate of 6.2 % . The median age of workers in the industry in 2013 was 28 . Obtaining Human Resource Management diploma or diploma in Fast Food Management can help to get a job in major fast food restaurants since it is one of the most desired . The employment rate for Australians working in the fast food industry is increasingly high with 17 % of people working within the fast food sector in Australia . In 2007 17.000 Australian fast food outlets sold approximately 1.64 billion take away meals in that year . incredibly there are now more than 1250 Subways , 845 Domino ’ s , 780 McDonald ’ s , 300 Hungry Jacks and 600 KFCs in Australia and New Zealand . It is expected that more than $ 37 billion will be spent in takeaway food in Australia this year , making Australia the 11th biggest-spending fast-food nation in the world . This figure is an increase of $ 4 billion in just 3 years ( primeskills statistics , 2015 ) Globalization In 2006 , the global fast-food market grew by 4.8 % and reached a value of £102.4 billion and a volume of 80.3 billion transactions . Global fast-food sales are projected to reach $ 239.7 billion in 2014 . In India alone the fast-food industry is growing by 41 % a year . McDonald 's has outlets in 126 countries on 6 continents and operates over 31,000 restaurants worldwide . On January 31 , 1990 McDonald 's opened a restaurant in Moscow and broke opening-day records for customers served . The Moscow restaurant is the busiest in the world . The largest McDonald 's in the world , with 25,000 feet of play tubes , an arcade and play center , is located in Orlando , Florida , United States There are numerous other fast food restaurants located all over the world . Burger King has more than 11,100 restaurants in more than 65 countries . KFC is located in 25 countries . Subway is one of the fastest growing franchises in the world with approximately 39,129 restaurants in 90 countries as of May 2009 , the first non-US location opening in December 1984 in Bahrain . Wienerwald has spread from Germany into Asia and Africa . Pizza Hut is located in 97 countries , with 100 locations in China . Taco Bell has 278 restaurants located in 14 countries besides the United States . Criticism Fast-food chains have come under criticism over concerns ranging from claimed negative health effects , alleged animal cruelty , cases of worker exploitation , and claims of cultural degradation via shifts in people 's eating patterns away from traditional foods . The intake of fast food is increasing worldwide . A study done in Jeddah has shown that current fast food habits are related to the increase of overweight and obesity among adolescents in Saudi Arabia . In 2014 , the World Health Organization published a study which claims that deregulated food markets are largely to blame for the obesity crisis , and suggested tighter regulations to reverse the trend . In America local governments are restricting fast food chains by limiting the number of restaurants found in certain geographical areas . To combat criticism , fast food restaurants are starting to offer more health-friendly menu items . In addition to health critics , there are suggestions for the fast food industry to become more eco-friendly . The chains have responded by `` reducing packaging waste '' . Despite so much popularity , fast foods and fast food chains have adverse impacts not only on the job and social skills , but on the health and academic performance of students . The researcher of Fast Food Nation , Eric Schlosser , highlights this fact , arguing that this is not only a financial but also a psychological bait . The students are lured towards this early employment opportunity knowing little that the time spent on this no-skill-learning job is wasted . Two other researchers Charles Hirschman and Irina Voloshin highlight their dangerous impacts and consequences regarding hiring and firing of teenager school-goers in the fast food industry . Kelly Brownwell of The Atlantic Times has further supported this argument that another dangerous practice was adopted by Burger King and McDonald 's for marketing to the innocent children . It has been found out in a research study conducted by two eminent professors , Professors Purtell Kelly and Gershoff . They found that the students of fifth grades , who ate fast foods as compared to the students of the same age after some other social factors were controlled . Also , the percentage of the students having consumed fast food and showed poor grades was around 11 % than those who used organic foods . They are of the view that other social factors such as television watching , video games and playing were controlled to assess the real impacts of the fast foods . There have been books and films designed to highlight the potential dangers of fast food as it is mentioned heavily in regard to obesity . The film Supersize Me ( 2004 ) showed the negative health effects of excessive fast food consumption .

qg_3523--Fast_food.txt

Oct 5, 1902 saw the birth of Ray Kroc, who started which ubiquitous food source, the most successful fast food operation in the world?

Victoria may refer to : Given name * Victoria ( name ) , a female given name ( includes a list of people with this name ) * Queen Victoria ( 1819–1901 ) , Queen of the United Kingdom ( 1837–1901 ) , Empress of India ( 1876–1901 ) * Victoria , Crown Princess of Sweden ( born 1977 ) * Victoria of Baden ( 1862–1930 ) , queen-consort of Sweden as wife of King Gustaf V * Victoria ( Gallic Empire ) ( died 271 ) , 3rd century figure in the Gallic Empire * Victoria , Lady Welby ( 1837–1912 ) , English philosopher of language , musician and artist Surname * Guadalupe Victoria ( died 1843 ) , first president of Mexico and hero of the Independence War * Manuel Victoria ( died 1833 ) , Mexican governor of Alta California in 1831 * Tomás Luis de Victoria ( c. 1548–1611 ) , Renaissance-era composer Places Argentina * Victoria , Buenos Aires * Victoria , Entre Ríos * Victoria Department Australia * Victoria ( Australia ) , the state * Victoria Settlement or New Victoria , alternate names for Port Essington , Northern Territory Brazil * Former spelling of Vitória , Espírito Santo Cameroon * Limbe , Cameroon , known as `` Victoria '' until 1982 Canada * Victoria , British Columbia , provincial capital * * Greater Victoria , British Columbia , metropolitan around the provincial capital * * Victoria Harbour ( British Columbia ) * Victoria Trail , Edmonton * Victoria , Manitoba * Victoria , New Brunswick in Glenelg Parish * Victoria , Newfoundland and Labrador * * Victoria River ( Newfoundland ) * Victoria , Nova Scotia * Victoria Island ( Canada ) , Nunavut/Northwest Territories * Victoria , Prince Edward Island Canadian electoral districts * Victoria ( electoral districts ) , a list of other provincial and former federal electoral districts * Victoria ( electoral district ) , a federal electoral district in British Columbia * Victoria City ( electoral district ) , historical federal electoral constituency in Canada * Victoria City ( provincial electoral district ) , historical provincial electoral constituency * Victoria ( Alberta electoral district ) * Victoria ( Alberta provincial electoral district ) * Victoria ( New Brunswick electoral district ) ( 1867-1914 ) * Victoria ( Nova Scotia electoral district ) * Victoria ( Ontario electoral district ) ( 1903-1966 ) * Canadian Senate divisions named Victoria ( in Quebec , Ontario , British Columbia , Nova Scotia , New Brunswick ) and Victoria-Carelton ( in New Brunswick ) Chile * Victoria , Chile , a city in Malleco Province , southern Chile Colombia * La Victoria , Valle del Cauca , a town and municipality in the Department of Valle del Cauca * Victoria , Caldas , a town and municipality in the Department of Caldas Grenada * Victoria , Grenada , a town in Saint Mark Parish Guyana * Victoria , Guyana Honduras * Victoria , Yoro Hong Kong * Victoria , Hong Kong * Victoria Harbour * Victoria Peak Malaysia * Victoria , Labuan , the capital of the Federal Territory of Labuan , Malaysia Malta * Victoria , Malta , capital of Gozo Mexico * Victoria , Guanajuato * Victoria Municipality , Guanajuato * Victoria Municipality , Tamaulipas Moldova * Victoria , Sărăteni , Leova district New Zealand * Victoria , New Zealand , a suburb of Gisborne Philippines * Victoria , Laguna * Victoria , Northern Samar * Victoria , Oriental Mindoro * Victoria , Tarlac * Victorias City , Negros Occidental * Victoria , Roxas , Oriental Mindoro , Philippines , a barangay Romania * Victoria , Braşov , a town in Braşov County * Victoria , Brăila , a commune in Brăila County * Victoria , Iași , a commune in Iaşi County * Victoria , a village in Hlipiceni Commune , Botoşani County * Victoria , a village in Stăuceni Commune , Botoşani County * Victoria , a village in Nufăru Commune , Tulcea County South Africa * Victoria , Gauteng , South Africa Seychelles * Victoria , Seychelles , the capital city of the Seychelles United Kingdom * Victoria ( Hackney ward ) * Victoria ( Sefton ward ) * Victoria , ward of Newbury , Berkshire * Victoria , Newport , Wales * Victoria , London , a district named after Queen Victoria * Victoria , Roman name of Comrie , Scotland United States * Victoria , Arkansas * Victoria , Illinois * Victoria , Indiana * Victoria , Greene County , Indiana * Victoria , Kansas * Victoria , Louisiana * Victoria , Michigan * Victoria , Minnesota * Victoria , Mississippi * Victoria ( Charlotte , North Carolina ) , listed on the National Register of Historic Places in Mecklenburg County , North Carolina * Victoria , Texas * Victoria , Virginia * Victoria , West Virginia Other * Lake Victoria * Victoria Land , Antarctica Transport Aviation * Vickers Victoria , troop transport aircraft of the British Royal Air Force Automotive * Crown Victoria , an American full-size car Rail * Victoria station ( disambiguation ) , several railway stations * London Victoria station , the second busiest rail terminus in London * GWR Victoria Class , type of steam locomotive Road * Victoria ( carriage ) , open carriage named after Queen Victoria * Victoria ( body ) , designation for several automobile body styles and automobile model designations ( e.g . Adams-Farwell , Packard One-Twenty , Packard Eight ) * Victoria ( motorcycle ) , a now defunct German bicycle and motorcycle manufacturer Maritime * Victoria ( ship ) ( also known as Nao Victoria and Vittoria ) , the first ship to circumnavigate the world * HMCS Victoria ( SSK 876 ) , a Canadian submarine * HMS Victoria , four ships of the British Royal Navy * HMVS Victoria , two ships of the Victorian Naval Force * Lake Victoria ferries of Kenya , Tanzania and Uganda * MV Princess Victoria , a ferry that sank on 31 January 1953 * Queen Victoria ( ship ) ( disambiguation ) * , a Lake Victoria ferry now called MV Victoria * Spanish frigate Victoria ( F82 ) , a Spanish frigate * Victoria , a ferry that sank 24 May 1881 in London , Ontario ( see List of Canadian disasters by death toll ) * Victoria ( sternwheeler ) a paddle steamer from the upper Fraser River * SS Victoria ( Liberty ) , a Panamanian liberty ship in service 1947-50 * SS Victoria ( 1870 ) , a coastal passenger liner operated by the Alaska Steamship Company * SS Victoria ( 1907 ) , a Cross-Channel and Isle of Man ferry * Victoria Class ( disambiguation ) , various ship classes named Victoria * Victoria class submarine , a class of Canadian military submarines * Victoria-class battleship , a class of British battleships Sports * C.D . Victoria , Honduran football team * Northwich Victoria F.C. , Cheshire , England * Victorian Bushrangers , Australian cricket team * Victoria Jaworzno , a Polish boxing and football team * Victoria Libertas Pesaro , Italian basketball team * Victoria National Golf Club , Indiana , U.S . * Victoria Rosport , Luxembourg football team * Victoria Vikes , the athletic program of the University of Victoria in Canada Titles , brands and popular culture * Victoria ( 3D figure ) , the articulated 3D figure by DAZ 3D * Victoria ( 1972 film ) , a 1972 Mexican film based on Washington Square ( novel ) * Victoria ( 1979 film ) , a 1979 Swedish film * Victoria ( 2008 film ) , a 2008 French-Canadian film * Victoria ( 2013 film ) , a 2013 Norwegian film * Victoria ( 2015 film ) , a 2015 German film * Victoria ( miniseries ) , a 2016 British miniseries * Victoria : An Empire Under the Sun , computer game by Paradox Interactive * Victoria II , the sequel from Paradox Interactive * Victoria ( novel ) , an 1898 novel by Knut Hamsun * Victoria ( Sami Michael novel ) , 1993 , novel by Sami Michael * Victoria ( Colombian telenovela ) , a Colombian soap opera * Victoria ( theatre company ) , Belgian theatre company * Victoria ( birthing simulator ) , a medical-education simulator by Gaumard Scientific Music * `` Victoria '' ( Magnus Uggla song ) , 1993 Magnus Uggla song * `` Victoria '' ( song ) , a 1969 song about Queen Victoria by The Kinks * `` Victoria '' ( Dance Exponents song ) ( 1982 ) Beverages * Victoria ( soda ) a fruit-flavored soda available in Querétaro ( México ) and owned by The Coca-Cola Company * Victoria Bitter , a bitter Australian lager * Victoria ( Cervecería Centro Americana ) , a pale Guatemalan lager * Victoria ( Grupo Modelo ) , a dark Mexican lager Characters * Victoria Lord , the principal character in the long-running soap opera One Life to Live * Victoria the White Cat from Andrew Lloyd Webber 's musical Cats * Victoria , a fictional character in Zip Zip * Victoria ( Twilight ) , an antagonist from the Twilight series by Stephenie Meyer * Victoria Winters , the young governess in Dark Shadows * Victoria Regina Phibes ( played by Caroline Munro ) in The Abominable Dr. Phibes Species * Victoria ( moth ) , a moth genus in the family Geometridae * Victoria ( plant ) , a waterlily genus in the family Nymphaeaceae * Victoria perch ( Lates niloticus ) , a fish species found in Africa * Victoria plum ( disambiguation ) Other uses * Province of Victoria , Anglican ecclesiastical province in Australia * Victoria ( mythology ) , Roman goddess of Victory * Victoria ( grape ) , another name for the German/Italian wine grape Trollinger * 12 Victoria , asteroid * Victoria ( crater ) , in the Meridiani Planum , Mars , named after one of Ferdinand Magellan 's ships * The Victoria , Bayswater , London pub * The Victoria , Great Harwood , Lancashire pub

bb_6744--Victoria.txt

What regal name is capital of Seychelles, and British Columbia (Canada), and is an Australian state?

The Turner Prize , named after the English painter J. M. W. Turner , is an annual prize presented to a British visual artist under the age of 50 . Awarding the prize is organised by the Tate gallery and staged at Tate Britain . Since its beginnings in 1984 it has become the United Kingdom 's most publicised art award . The award represents all media . As of 2004 , the monetary award was established at £40,000 . There have been different sponsors , including Channel 4 television and Gordon 's Gin . The prize has been awarded by various distinguished celebrities : in 2006 this was Yoko Ono , and in 2012 the award was presented by Jude Law . It is a controversial event , mainly for the exhibits , such as The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living , a shark in formaldehyde by Damien Hirst and My Bed , a dishevelled bed by Tracey Emin . Controversy has also come from other directions , including a Culture Minister ( Kim Howells ) criticising exhibits , a guest of honour ( Madonna ) swearing , a prize judge ( Lynn Barber ) writing in the press , and a speech by Sir Nicholas Serota ( about the purchase of a trustee 's work ) . Background Each year after the announcement of the four nominees and during the build-up to the announcement of the winner , the Prize receives intense attention from the media . Much of this attention is critical and the question is often asked , `` Is this art ? `` [ http : //news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/547310.stm `` Head to Head : Turner Prize — Is It Art ? '' ] BBC , 2 December 1999 . Retrieved 22 March 2006 . [ http : //news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/talking_point/2380393.stm `` Turner Prize : Is It Art ? '' ] BBC , 4 November 2002 . Retrieved 22 March 2006 . Artists are chosen based upon a showing of their work that they have staged in the preceding year . Nominations for the prize are invited from the public , although this was widely considered to have negligible effect—a suspicion confirmed in 2006 by Lynn Barber , one of the judges.Barber , Lynn ( 2006 ) [ http : //arts.guardian.co.uk/turnerprize2006/story/0 , ,1884682,00.html `` How I suffered for art 's sake '' ] The Observer , 1 October 2006 . Retrieved 15 January 2006 . Typically , there is a three-week period in May for public nominations to be received ; the short-list ( since 1991 , four artists ) is announced in July ; a show of the nominees ' work opens at Tate Britain in late October ; the prize itself is announced at the beginning of December . The exhibition remains on view until January . The prize is officially not judged on the Tate show , however , but on the earlier exhibition for which the artist was nominated . The exhibition and prize rely on commercial sponsorship . By 1987 , money for the prize was provided by Drexel Burnham Lambert ; its withdrawal after its demise led to the cancellation of the prize for 1990 . Channel 4 , an independent television channel , stepped in for 1991 , doubling the prize money to £20,000 , and supporting the event with documentaries and live broadcasts of the prize-giving . In 2004 , they were replaced as sponsors by Gordon 's Gin , doubling the prize money to £40,000 , with £5,000 going to each of the shortlisted artists , and £25,000 to the winner . As much as the shortlist of artists reflects the state of British Art , the composition of the panel of judges , which includes curators and critics , provides some indication of who holds influence institutionally and internationally , as well as who are rising stars . Tate Director Sir Nicholas Serota has been the Chair of the jury since his tenure at the Tate ( with the exception of the current year when chairman is the Director of Tate Liverpool , where the prize is being staged ) . There are conflicting reports as to how much personal sway he has over the proceedings . The media success of the Turner Prize contributed to the success of ( and was in turn helped by ) the late 1990s phenomena of Young British Artists ( several of whom were nominees and winners ) , Cool Britannia , and exhibitions such as the Charles Saatchi-sponsored Sensation exhibition . Most of the artists nominated for the prize selection become known to the general public for the first time as a consequence . Some have talked of the difficulty of the sudden media exposure . Sale prices of the winners have generally increased.Kennedy , Maev ( 2004 ) , [ http : //arts.guardian.co.uk/turnerprize2004/story/0 , ,1368060,00.html `` Turner prize shock : out of four serious competitors , the best artist wins '' ] The Guardian , 7 December 2004 . Retrieved 15 January 2007 . Chris Ofili , Anish Kapoor and Jeremy Deller later became trustees of the Tate . Some artists , notably Sarah Lucas , have declined the invitation to be nominated . Winners and nominees History 1984 The first Turner Prize was awarded to Malcolm Morley , an English artist living in the United States . Other nominees included sculptor Richard Deacon , graphic-styled collaborative duo Gilbert & George , abstract painter Howard Hodgkin and sculpture/installation artist Richard Long . 1985 Howard Hodgkin is awarded the Turner Prize for A Small Thing But My Own . Other nominees included Terry Atkinson , sculptor Tony Cragg , Ian Hamilton Finlay , Milena Kalinovska and painting/printing artist John Walker . The prize was awarded by celebrity presenter Sir Richard Attenborough . 1986 The controversial art duo Gilbert & George were awarded after a previous nomination in 1984 . Other nominees included Art & Language ( collaborative group composed of Michael Baldwin and Mel Ramsden ) , sculpture/printing artist Victor Burgin , painter Derek Jarman , painter Stephen McKenna and sculptor Bill Woodrow . 1987 Sculpture artist Richard Deacon is awarded . Other nominees included graphic-style painter/printer Patrick Caulfield , Helen Chadwick , Richard Long , Declan McGonagle and Thérèse Oulton . The prize was presented by George Melly . 1988 Sculpture artist Tony Cragg is awarded . Other nominees included figurative/portrait painter Lucian Freud , Pop artist Richard Hamilton , Richard Long , David Mach ( graduate of Duncan of Jordanstone College of Art ) , printer Boyd Webb , sculptor Alison Wilding and Richard Wilson . The appointment of Tate Director , Nicholas Serota , led to many changes such as the introduction of an annual rehang of the Collection and giving priority to modern and contemporary art . During this period the future of the Prize was uncertain . The Turner Prize was modified to be an artist-only prize without a published shortlist and a solo exhibition was awarded to the winner , Tony Cragg . 1989 Sculpture and installation artist Richard Long is presented the prize after three previous nominations . Controversially , Long is awarded for his lifetime body of work rather than an exhibition of work in 1989 . Other nominees included painter Gillian Ayres , figurative painter Lucian Freud , Italian-born sculptor Giuseppe Penone , painter Paula Rego , abstract painter Sean Scully and Richard Wilson . 1990 No prize due to lack of sponsorship . Under Tate Director and Turner Prize chairman Nicholas Serota , changes are made to involve the public in the viewing of the nominated artist such as a published shortlist , a nomination of four shortlisted artists and an individual exhibition of nominated work within the Tate . 1991 Anish Kapoor received the prize for an untitled piece in sandstone and pigment . Other nominees included abstract painters Ian Davenport , Fiona Rae and sculptor Rachel Whiteread . 1992 Grenville Davey received the prize for Entitled HAL , a work consisting of two abstract steel objects , each measuring 244 x 122 cm ( 96 x 48 in ) . Other nominees included the Young British Artist ( yBA ) Damien Hirst for his installations , photographer David Tremlett and sculptor Alison Wilding . 1993 Rachel Whiteread was the winner for House , a concrete cast of a house on the corner of Grove Road and Roman Road , London E3 . Jimmy Cauty and Bill Drummond of the K Foundation received media coverage for the award of the `` Anti-Turner Prize '' , £40,000 to be given to the `` worst artist in Britain '' , voted from the real Turner Prize 's short-list . Rachel Whiteread was awarded their prize . She refused to accept the money at first , but changed her mind when she heard the cash was to be burned instead , and gave £30,000 of it to artists in financial need and the other £10,000 to the housing charity , Shelter . The K Foundation went on to make a film in which they burned £1 million of their own money ( Watch the K Foundation Burn a Million Quid ) . Other nominees included painter Sean Scully , Laotian-born Vong Phaophanit and printer Hannah Collins . 1994 Popular sculptor Antony Gormley was awarded the 1994 Turner Prize . Other nominees included video artist Northern Irish-born Willie Doherty , whose work The Only Good One Is A Dead One was the first video piece to be nominated for the prize , painter Peter Doig and multi-media Shirazeh Houshiary . 1995 Damien Hirst is awarded the 1995 Turner Prize , which included his notorious sculpture Mother and Child , Divided . Other nominees included Lebanese-born installation/video artist Mona Hatoum , abstract painter Callum Innes and multi-media artist Mark Wallinger . 1996 Douglas Gordon becomes the first video artist to win the Turner Prize . Other nominees included photographer Craigie Horsfield , painter Gary Hume and installation artist Simon Patterson . 1997 The winner , Gillian Wearing , showed a video 60 minutes of Silence ( 1996 ) , where a group of actors were dressed in police uniforms and had to stand still for an hour ( occasional surreptitious scratching could be observed ) . A drunken Tracey Emin walked out of a live Channel 4 discussion programme , presented as part of the coverage of the award . The discussion was chaired by Tim Marlow and also included Roger Scruton , Waldemar Januszczak , Richard Cork , David Sylvester and Norman Rosenthal . Emin 'wrote ' about the incident in her 2005 book Strangeland , describing her shock at reading The Guardian writeup the following day . This was the only time in history with an all-female shortlist including sculptor Christine Borland , Angela Bulloch and sculptor Cornelia Parker . 1998 The talking point was Chris Ofili 's use of balls of elephant dung attached to his mixed media images on canvas , as well as being used as supports on the floor to prop them up . An illustrator deposited dung on the steps in protest against his work . Ofili won the prize and it was the first time in twelve years that a painter had done so ; it was presented by French fashion designer agnès b . [ http : //news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/226000.stm `` Elephant dung artist scoops award '' ] , BBC , 3 December 1998 . Retrieved 9 April 2008 . Ofili joked , `` Oh man . Thank God ! Where 's my cheque ? '' and said : `` I do n't know what to say . I am just really happy . I ca n't believe it . It feels like a film and I will watch the tape when I get home . '' One of Ofili 's works , No Woman No Cry is based on the murder of Stephen Lawrence , killed in a race attack . The jury included musician Neil Tennant , author Marina Warner , curator Fumio Nanjo and British Council officer Ann Gallagher , chaired by Nicholas Serota . Other nominees included installation artist Tacita Dean , sculptor Cathy de Monchaux and video artist Sam Taylor-Wood . Ofili became the first painter to win the Turner Prize since Howard Hodgkin in 1985 . 1999 The Prize was given to Steve McQueen for his video based on a Buster Keaton film . Some media attention was given to Tracey Emin 's exhibit My Bed , which was a double bed in a dishevelled state with stained sheets , surrounded by detritus such as soiled underwear , condoms , slippers and empty drink bottles . Two artists , Yuan Chai and Jian Jun Xi , jumped onto the bed , stripped to their underwear , and had a pillow fight . Police detained the two , who called their performance Two Naked Men Jump into Tracey 's Bed . Other nominees included Steven Pippin and collaborative sibling duo Jane and Louise Wilson . 2000 The prize was won by Wolfgang Tillmans . Other entries included a large painting by Glenn Brown based very closely on a science fiction illustration some years previously . Michael Raedecker and Tomoko Takahashi were also nominated . The Stuckist art group staged their first demonstration against the prize , dressed as clowns , describing it as an `` ongoing national joke '' and `` a state-funded advertising agency for Charles Saatchi '' , adding `` the only artist who would n't be in danger of winning the Turner Prize is Turner '' , and concluding that it `` should be re-named The Duchamp Award for the destruction of artistic integrity '' . The Guardian announced the winner of Turner Prize with the headline `` Turner Winner Riles the Stuckists '' . [ http : //arts.guardian.co.uk/turnerpeoplespoll/story/0 , ,1067793,00.html `` Turner Winner Riles the Stuckists '' , The Guardian , 29 November 2000 ] Retrieved 26 March 2000 . 2001 Controversy was caused by winner Martin Creed 's installation Work No . 227 : the lights going on and off consisting of an empty room whose lighting periodically came on and went off . Artist Jacqueline Crofton threw eggs at the walls of the room containing Creed 's work as a protest.Youngs , Ian ( 2002 ) [ http : //news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/arts/2382373.stm `` The art of Turner protests '' , BBC ] www.bbc.co.uk , 31 October 2002 . Retrieved 8 January 2007 At the prize ceremony , Madonna gave him the prize and said , `` At a time when political correctness is valued over honesty I would also like to say `` Right on , motherfuckers ! '' . '' This was on live TV before the 9 pm watershed and an attempt to `` bleep '' it out was too late . Channel 4 were subsequently given an official rebuke by the Independent Television Commission . Other nominees included Richard Billingham , video/installation artist ( and now film director ) Isaac Julien and installation artist Mike Nelson . 2002 The media focused on a large display by Fiona Banner whose wall-size text piece , Arsewoman in Wonderland , described a pornographic film in detail . The Guardian asked , `` It 's art . But is it porn ? '' calling in `` Britain 's biggest porn star '' , Ben Dover , to comment . Culture Minister Kim Howells made a scathing criticism of the exhibits as `` conceptual bullshit '' . Prince Charles wrote to him : `` It 's good to hear your refreshing common sense about the dreaded Turner prize . It has contaminated the art establishment for so long . '' Graffiti artist Banksy stencilled `` Mind the crap '' on the steps of the Tate , who called in emergency cleaners to remove it . The prize was won by Keith Tyson . Other nominees included Liam Gillick and Catherine Yass . 2003 Jake and Dinos Chapman caused press attention for a sculpture , Death , that appeared to be two cheap plastic blow-up sex dolls with a dildo . It was in fact made of bronze , painted to look like plastic . Attention was also given to Grayson Perry who exhibited pots decorated with sexual imagery , and was the prize winner . He wore a flouncy skirt to collect the prize , announced by Sir Peter Blake , who said , after being introduced by Sir Nicholas Serota , `` Thank you very much Nick . I 'm quite surprised to be here tonight , because two days ago I had a phone call asking if I would be a judge for the Not the Turner Prize . And two years ago I was asked by the Stuckists to dress as a clown and come and be on the steps outside , so I am thrilled and slightly surprised to be here . '' Other nominees included Willie Doherty ( his second nomination since 1994 ) and Anya Gallaccio . 2004 The media focused on a large computer simulation of a former hideout of Osama bin Laden by Ben Langlands and Nikki Bell , as well as the fact that one of their exhibits , a film in a Kabul courtroom was withdrawn as it related to an ongoing trial of a suspected Afghan warlord . Betting favourite Jeremy Deller won the prize with his film Memory Bucket , documenting both George W. Bush 's hometown Crawford , Texas – and the siege in Waco nearby . The prize money was increased this year with £25,000 to the winner , and , for the first time , other nominees were rewarded ( with £5,000 each ) . Other nominees included Kutluğ Ataman and installation/photograph/sculpture artist Yinka Shonibare , who was tipped as the public 's favourite among the other nominees . 2005 A great deal was made in the press about the winning entry by Simon Starling , which was a shed that he had converted into a boat , sailed down the River Rhine and turned back into a shed again . Two newspapers bought sheds and floated them to parody the work . The prize was presented by Culture Minister , David Lammy . Before introducing him , Sir Nicholas Serota , in an `` unusual , possibly unprecedented '' move , took the opportunity to make `` an angry defence '' of the Tate 's purchase of The Upper Room . [ http : //www.telegraph.co.uk/opinion/main.jhtml ? xml /opinion/2005/12/07/do0705.xml Notebook by Andrew Marr ( 2nd item ) ] , The Daily Telegraph , 7 December 2005 Retrieved 24 March 2006 [ http : //arts.guardian.co.uk/turnerprize2005/story/0,16063,1659056,00.html ? gusrc rss `` It 's a shed , it 's collapsible , it floats and ( with help from a bike ) it 's the winner '' ] , The Guardian , 6 December 2005 . Retrieved 24 March 2006 . 2006 The nominees were announced on 16 May 2006 . The exhibition of nominees ' work opened at Tate Britain on 3 October . Yoko Ono , the celebrity announcer chosen for the year , declared Tomma Abts the winner on 4 December during a live Channel 4 broadcast , although this was part of the evening news broadcast , rather than in a dedicated programme as in recent years . The total prize money was £40,000 . £25,000 awarded to the winner and £5,000 to each of the other 3 nominees . The prize was sponsored by the makers of Gordon 's Gin . Under the Freedom of Information Act , The Sunday Telegraph obtained emails between the Tate and judge Lynn Barber , which revealed that the judges had been sent a list of shows by artists too late to be able to see them and instead were being supplied with catalogues and photographs of work.Hastings , Chris ( 2006 ) , [ http : //www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml ? xml /news/2006/04/30/nturner30.xml `` Shows missed by judges , questions over artists… It must be the Turner Prize '' ] , The Sunday Telegraph , 30 April 2006 . Retrieved 20 May 2006 . More controversy ensued when Barber wrote in The Observer about her troubles as a judge , even asking , `` Is it all a fix ? `` , a comment subsequently displayed on a Stuckist demonstration placard , much to her chagrin . The Judges were : Lynn Barber , journalist , The Observer Margot Heller , director , South London Gallery Matthew Higgs , Director and Chief Curator , White Columns , New York Andrew Renton , writer and Director of Curating , Goldsmiths College Nicholas Serota , director , Tate and Chairman of the Jury 2007 The winner of the £25,000 Prize was Mark Wallinger.Higgins , Charlotte . [ http : //arts.guardian.co.uk/turnerprize2007/story/0 , ,2221321,00.html `` Bear man walks away with Turner Prize '' ] , The Guardian , 3 December 2007 . Retrieved 3 December 2007 . His display at the Turner Prize show was Sleeper , a film of him dressed in a bear costume wandering around an empty museum , but the prize was officially given for State Britain , which recreated all the objects in Brian Haw 's anti-war display in Parliament Square , London . The judges commended Wallinger 's work for its `` immediacy , visceral intensity and historic importance '' , and called it `` a bold political statement with art 's ability to articulate fundamental human truths . '' The prize was presented by Dennis Hopper . For the first time in its 23-year history , the Turner Prize was held outside London , in Tate Liverpool ( in support of Liverpool being the European Capital of Culture in 2008 ) . Concurrently there was an exhibition of previous winners at Tate Britain in London . Unlike recent years , Sir Nicholas Serota was not the jury chairman ; instead , the chairman was Christoph Grunenberg , the Director of Tate Liverpool . The panel was : [ http : //www.tate.org.uk/liverpool/exhibitions/turnerprize2007/default.shtm `` Turner Prize 07 '' ] tate.org . Retrieved 21 May 2007 Fiona Bradley , Director of the Fruitmarket Gallery , Edinburgh Michael Bracewell , critic and writer Thelma Golden , Director and Chief Curator of the Studio Museum , Harlem Miranda Sawyer , writer and broadcaster Christoph Grunenberg , Director of Tate Liverpool ( Chairman of the Jury ) The nominees were : Mark Wallinger for his Tate Britain installation , State Britain Nathan Coley , a Glasgow artist , who makes installations based on buildings Zarina Bhimji , a Ugandan Asian photographer and filmmaker Mike Nelson , an installation artist Nelson and Wallinger had both previously been nominated for the prize . The Stuckists announced that they were not demonstrating for the first time since 2000 , because of `` the lameness of this year 's show , which does not merit the accolade of the traditional demo '' . Instead , art group AAS re-enacted previous Stuckist demonstrations in protest against their own practice at the Royal Standard Turner Prize Extravaganza . 2008 Mark Leckey was the winner of the Turner Prize of 2008 . For the second year running , Sir Nicholas Serota did not chair the Turner Prize jury ; instead Stephen Deuchar , director of Tate Britain , was the chair . The other members were Jennifer Higgie , editor of frieze , Daniel Birnbaum , rector of the Städelschule international art academy , Frankfurt , architect David Adjaye , and Suzanne Cotter , senior curator , Modern Art Oxford.Gayford , Martin . [ http : //www.bloomberg.com/apps/news ? pid 20601088 & sidatked90EZ9lw & refer home `` Leckey , Wilkes , Islam , Macuga on U.K. Turner Prize Shortlist `` ] , bloomberg.com , 13 May 2008 . Retrieved 14 May 2008 . The prize winner received £25,000 and the other three nominees £5,000 each . In recent years the prize has attracted commercial sponsorship , but did not have any during the 2008 events . The nominees were Runa Islam , Mark Leckey , Goshka Macuga , and Cathy Wilkes ; the Prize exhibition opened at Tate Britain on 30 September and the winner was announced on 1 December . 2009 The winner of the £25,000 Prize was Richard Wright . Stephen Deuchar again chaired the jury . The other shortlisted artists were Enrico David , Roger Hiorns and Lucy Skaer . 2010 The winner was Susan Philipsz who graduated from Duncan of Jordanstone College of Art & Design in Dundee . She was the first artist ever to win with a purely aural work , having made an installation under three bridges in Glasgow in which she sang folklorised versions of the sea shanty `` Lowlands Away '' . For the Turner Prize , the work consisted simply of loudspeakers installed along the walls in a gallery room . The other artists nominated were Dexter Dalwood , Angela de la Cruz , and the Otolith Group . 2011 The 2011 Turner Prize took place in Gateshead at the Baltic Centre for Contemporary Art , away from the Tate in London for the first time since 2007 . The winner was Martin Boyce . The other nominees were Karla Black , Hilary Lloyd and George Shaw . The prize ceremony was interrupted by the international streaker Mark Roberts who was hired by the artist Benedikt Dichgans . 149,770 people visited the exhibition in Gateshead making it the most visited Turner Prize exhibition ever . 2012 The nominees for the 2012 prize were Spartacus Chetwynd , Luke Fowler ( graduate of Duncan of Jordanstone College of Art ) , Paul Noble and Elizabeth Price . Former Talulah Gosh member Elizabeth Price was awarded the £25,000 prize . 2013 The 2013 Turner Prize were held at Ebrington in Derry~Londonderry , the first-time the prize was awarded outside England , as part of the UK City of Culture celebrations . The prize jury was chaired by Penelope Curtis , Director of Tate Britain . The nominees for the 2013 award were Laure Prouvost , Tino Sehgal , David Shrigley , and Lynette Yiadom-Boakye . The winner of the 2013 prize was Laure Prouvost . 2014 The nominees for the 2014 award were Duncan Campbell , Ciara Phillips , James Richards and Tris Vonna-Michell . The winner of the 2014 prize was Duncan Campbell . 2015 The nominees for the 2015 award were Bonnie Camplin , Janice Kerbel , Nicole Wermers , and Assemble . The winner of the 2015 prize was Assemble . The exhibition was held in Glasgow , Scotland , in the Tramway , a contemporary art , theatre and dance space . Criticism For * Critic Richard Cork said , `` there will never be a substitute for approaching new art with an open mind , unencumbered by rancid clichés . As long as the Turner Prize facilitates such engagement , the buzz surrounding it will remain a minor distraction . '' * In 2006 , newspaper columnist Janet Street-Porter condemned the Stuckists ' `` feeble knee-jerk reaction '' to the prize and said , `` The Turner Prize and Becks Futures both entice thousands of young people into art galleries for the first time every year . They fulfil a valuable role '' . * Sarah Thornton said that the Turner Prize `` has a reputation for being a reliable indicator of an artist 's ability to sustain a vibrant art practice over the long term , but perhaps it is a self-fulfilling prophecy . The personal confidence gained from being nominated can galvanize an artist 's ambitions , while the museum 's public endorsement leads to further exhibition opportunities . '' * Dan Fox , associate editor of frieze , said that the Turner Prize should be considered a barometer for the mood of the nation . Against * The Evening Standard critic Brian Sewell wrote `` The annual farce of the Turner Prize is now as inevitable in November as is the pantomime at Christmas '' . * Critic Matthew Collings wrote : `` Turner Prize art is based on a formula where something looks startling at first and then turns out to be expressing some kind of banal idea , which somebody will be sure to tell you about . The ideas are never important or even really ideas , more notions , like the notions in advertising . Nobody pursues them anyway ,

odql_8804--Turner_Prize.txt

What first name is shared by Turner Prize winning artists Wallinger and Leckey?

Arabs ( , ‘ arab ) are a panethnicity of peoples of various ancestral origins , religious backgrounds , and historic identities whose native language is Arabic . They primarily inhabit Western Asia , North Africa , and parts of the Horn of Africa . Before the spread of Islam , Arab referred to any of the largely nomadic ancient Semitic-speaking peoples inhabiting the northern and central Arabian Peninsula . In modern usage Arab refers to a heterogeneous collection of Arabic-speaking peoples in Western Asia and North Africa . The ties that bind Arabs are linguistic , cultural , political , and ethnic , with Arabized Arabs displaying genetic admixture from the Arabian peninsula as well as indigenous elements . As such , Arab identity is based on one or more of genealogical , linguistic or cultural grounds , Francis Mading Deng [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id iAPLHidx8MkC & pg=PA405 War of Visions : Conflict of Identities in the Sudan ] , Brookings Institution Press , 1995 , ISBN 0-8157-1793-8 p. 405 although with competing identities often taking a more prominent role , based on considerations including regional , national , clan , kin , sect , and tribe affiliations and relationships . Not all people who could be considered Arab identify as such . If the Arab pan-ethnicity is regarded as a single population , then it constitutes the world 's second largest group of people after the Han Chinese . The Arabian Peninsula itself was not entirely Arab linguistically or culturally before the spread of Islam . Arabization occurred in the southern and eastern regions of the peninsula . For example , the language shift to Arabic displaced the distinct Old South Arabian languages from what is now modern-day Yemen and southern Oman . These were the languages spoken in the civilizations of Sheba , Magan , and Dilmun . Name Originally , `` Arabs '' were synonymous with the tribes of Arabia , until the Arabization of people outside the Arabian peninsula , mostly during the Abassid era . Therefore , all uses of the word `` Arab '' before the sixth century , and most of those before the 13th century , refer specifically to Arabians . Later uses of the word `` Arab '' could refer to any individual whose familial ancestry corresponds to the wider linguistic and panethnic definitions of Arabs . The earliest documented use of the word `` Arab '' to refer to a people appears in the Kurkh Monoliths , an Akkadian language record of the ninth century BCE Assyrian conquest of Aram , which referred to Bedouins of the Arabian Peninsula under King Gindibu , who fought as part of a coalition opposed to Assyria. , pages 105 , 119 , 125-127 . Listed among the booty captured by the army of king Shalmaneser III of Assyria in the Battle of Qarqar are 1000 camels of `` Gi-in-di-bu ' u the ar-ba-a-a '' or `` [ the man ] Gindibu belonging to the arab ( ar-ba-a-a being an adjectival nisba of the noun ʿarab ) . The related word ʾaʿrāb is still used to refer to Bedouins today , in contrast to ʿarab which refers to Arabs in general . The oldest surviving indication of an Arab national identity is an inscription made in an archaic form of Arabic in 328 using the Nabataean alphabet , which refers to Imru ' al-Qays ibn 'Amr as `` King of all the Arabs '' . Herodotus refers to the Arabs in the Sinai , southern Palestine , and the frankincense region , but inscriptions of Yemen start the use of the term 'Arab ' only in the second century BC . The most popular Arab account holds that the word Arab came from an eponymous father called Ya'rub who was supposedly the first to speak Arabic . Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani had another view ; he states that Arabs were called Gharab ( `` West '' ) by Mesopotamians because Bedouins originally resided to the west of Mesopotamia ; the term was then corrupted into Arab . Yet another view is held by al-Masudi that the word Arabs was initially applied to the Ishmaelites of the `` Arabah '' valley . In Biblical etymology , `` Arab '' ( in Hebrew Arvi ) comes both from the desert origin of the Bedouins it originally described ( Arava means wilderness ) . The root ʿ-r-b has several additional meanings in Semitic languages—including `` west/sunset , '' `` desert , '' `` mingle , '' `` merchant , '' and `` raven '' —and are `` comprehensible '' with all of these having varying degrees of relevance to the emergence of the name . It is also possible that some forms were metathetical from `` moving around '' ( Arabic `` traverse '' ) , and hence , it is alleged , `` nomadic . '' Identity Arab identity is defined independently of religious identity , and pre-dates the spread of Islam , with historically attested Arab Christian kingdoms and Arab Jewish tribes . Today , however , most Arabs are Muslim , with a minority adhering to other faiths , largely Christianity , but also Druze and Baha ' i . Arabs are generally Sunni , Shia or Sufi Muslims , but currently , 7.1 percent to 10 percent of Arabs are Arab Christians . This figure includes only Christians whose primary community language is today a variety of Arabic , and who identify as Arab . Arab ethnic identity does not include Christian , Jewish and other ethnic groups that retain non-Arabic languages and/or identities within the expanded Arab World . These include the Jews , Assyrian people of Iraq , north east Syria , north west Iran and south east Turkey , the Syriac Christians of western Syria , Armenians around the entire Near East , and Mandaeans in Iraq and Iran—though many of these peoples speak Arabic as a first or second language . In addition , Copts and Maronites espouse an ancient Egyptian and Phoenician identity respectively , rather than an Arab one . A number of other indigenous peoples living in the Arab World are equally non-Arab , such as Berbers , Kurds , Turks , Iranians , Azeris , Yezidis , Circassians , Shabaks , Turcomans , Romani , Chechens , Kawliya , Mhallami , Samaritans , nor migrant groups from Sub-Saharan Africa , South Asia and Southeast Asia . Today , the main unifying characteristic among Arabs is Arabic , a South Semitic language from the Afroasiatic language family . Modern Standard Arabic serves as the standardized and literary variety of Arabic used in writing , as well as in most formal speech , although it is not used in daily speech by the overwhelming majority of Arabs . Most Arabs who are functional in Modern Standard Arabic acquire it through education and use it solely for writing and formal settings . While various varieties of Arabic are spoken as vernaculars by each distinct Arab group , these varieties are often regarded as dialects rather than independent languages . Most of these dialects are mutually intelligible , although not all of them . The Arabs are first mentioned in the mid-ninth century BCE as a tribal people dwelling in the central Arabian Peninsula subjugated by Upper Mesopotamia-based state of Assyria . The Arabs appear to have remained largely under the vassalage of the Neo-Assyrian Empire ( 911-605 BCE ) , and then the succeeding Neo-Babylonian Empire ( 605-539 BCE ) , Persian Achaemenid Empire ( 539-332 BCE ) , Greek Macedonian/Seleucid Empire and Parthian Empire . Arab tribes , most notably the Ghassanids and Lakhmids begin to appear in the south Syrian deserts and southern Jordan from the mid 3rd century CE onwards , during the mid to later stages of the Roman Empire and Sasanian Empire . The Nabataeans of Jordan appear to have been an Aramaic speaking ethnic mix of Canaanites , Arameans and Arabs . Thus , although a more limited diffusion of Arab culture and language was felt in some areas by these migrant minority Arabs in pre-Islamic times through [ Arab Christian kingdoms and Arab Jewish tribes , it was only after the rise of Islam in the mid-7th century that Arab culture , people and language began their wholesale spread from the central Arabian Peninsula ( including the south Syrian desert ) through conquest and trade . At the time of the early Muslim conquests of the seventh and eighth centuries , the population of Mesopotamia , the Levant and nearby regions was primarily Aramaic speakers with a minority such as Persians , Jews , Greeks , Armenians , Romans , Samaritans . Egypt was largely populated by natives of ancient Egyptian heritage with a Greek minority , the Maghreb by Carthaginians and Berbers as well as a small minority of Germanic peoples such as the Vandals and Visigoths ruling kingdoms . Arab cultures went through a mixing process . Therefore , every Arab country has cultural specificities that form a cultural mix that incorporates local novelties acquired after arabization . However , all Arab countries do also share a common culture in arts ( music , literature , poetry , calligraphy ... ) , cultural products ( handicrafts , carpets , henne , bronze carving ... ) , social behavior , and relations ( hospitality , codes of conduct among friends and family ... ) , customs and superstitions , some dishes ( shorba , mloukhia ) , traditional clothing , and architecture . Non-Arab Muslims , who are about 80 percent of the world 's Muslim population do not form part of the Arab world , but instead constitute what is the geographically larger , and more diverse , Muslim World . In the USA , Arabs are classified as white by the U.S. Census , and have been since before 1977 . Arabic , the main unifying feature among Arabs , is a Semitic language . During the early Muslim conquests , Arabic language , culture , and people spread across most of West Asia and North Africa , resulting in the acculturation of their inhabitants as Arabs . Arabization , a culturo-linguistic shift , was often , though not always , in conjunction with Islamization , a religious shift . With the rise of Islam in the seventh century , and as the language of the Qur'an , Arabic became the lingua franca of the Islamic world . It was in this period that Arabic language and culture was widely disseminated with the early Islamic expansion , both through conquest and cultural contact . Arab culture and language , however , began a more limited diffusion before the Islamic Golden Age , first spreading in West Asia beginning in the second century as Arab Christians such as the Ghassanids , Lakhmids and Banu Judham began migrating north from Arabia into the Syrian Desert , south western Iraq and the Levant . In the modern era , defining who is an Arab is done on the grounds of one or more of the following two criteria : * Genealogical : someone who can trace his or her ancestry to the original inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula and the Syrian Desert ( tribes of Arabia ) . This was the definition used until medieval times , for example by Ibn Khaldun , but has decreased in importance over time , as a portion of those of Arab ancestry lost their links with their ancestors ' motherland . In the modern era , however , DNA tests have at times proved reliable in identifying those of Arab genealogical descent . For example , it has been found that the frequency of the `` Arab marker '' Haplogroup J1 collapses suddenly at the borders of Arabic speaking countries . * Linguistic : someone whose first language , and by extension cultural expression , is Arabic , including any of its varieties . This definition covers more than 420 million people ( 2014 estimate ) . Certain groups that fulfill this criterion reject this definition on the basis of non-Arab ancestry ; such an example may be seen in the way that Egyptians identified themselves in the early 20th century.Jankowski , James . `` Egypt and Early Arab Nationalism '' in Rashid Kakhlidi , ed. , Origins of Arab Nationalism , pp . 244–245Quoted in Dawisha , Adeed . [ https : //books.google.com/books ? idPjhqEusGs0UC & pg PA99 Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth Century . Princeton University Press . 2003 , ISBN 0-691-12272-5 , p. 99 ] The relative importance of these factors is estimated differently by different groups and frequently disputed . Some combine aspects of each definition , as done by Palestinian Habib Hassan Touma,1996 , p.xviii who defines an Arab `` in the modern sense of the word '' , as `` one who is a national of an Arab state , has command of the Arabic language , and possesses a fundamental knowledge of Arab tradition , that is , of the manners , customs , and political and social systems of the culture . '' Most people who consider themselves Arab do so based on the overlap of the political and linguistic definitions . The Arab League , a regional organization of countries intended to encompass the Arab world , defines an Arab as : According to Sadek Jawad Sulaimanis the former Ambassador of Oman to the United States : The relation of ' and ' is complicated further by the notion of `` lost Arabs '' ' mentioned in the Qur'an as punished for their disbelief . All contemporary Arabs were considered as descended from two ancestors , Qahtan and Adnan . Versteegh ( 1997 ) is uncertain whether to ascribe this distinction to the memory of a real difference of origin of the two groups , but it is certain that the difference was strongly felt in early Islamic times . Even in Islamic Spain there was enmity between the Qays of the northern and the Kalb of the southern group . The so-called Sabaean or Himyarite language described by Abū Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdānī ( died 946 ) appears to be a special case of language contact between the two groups , an originally north Arabic dialect spoken in the south , and influenced by Old South Arabian . During the early Muslim conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries , the Arabs forged the Rashidun and then Umayyad Caliphate , and later the Abbasid Caliphate , whose borders touched southern France in the west , China in the east , Anatolia in the north , and the Sudan in the south . This was one of the largest land empires in history . In much of this area , the Arabs spread Islam and Arab culture , science , and language through conversion and cultural assimilation . Subgroups While Pan-Arabism and Arab nationalism subsume all Arabic-speaking populations under the notion of `` Arabs '' , there are numerous sub-divisions , not all of which necessarily identify as ethnically Arab . Arabians form a strict subset of the ethnolinguistic group of `` Arabs '' discussed here . The name of Arab historically was synonymous with Bedouin . In some parts of the Arab World , the term Arab may still carry connotations of being from the Arabian Peninsula , conflicting with the Pan-Arabist concept of ethnicity . Arabians are most prevalent in the Arabian Peninsula , but are also found in large numbers in Mesopotamia ( Arab tribes in Iraq ) , the Levant and Sinai ( Negev Bedouin , Tarabin bedouin ) , as well as the Maghreb ( Libya , South Tunisia and South Algeria ) and the Sudan region . Arabian Peninsula Arabs in the narrow sense are the indigenous Arabians ( who trace their roots back to the tribes of Arabia ) and their immediate descendant groups in the Levant and North Africa . Within the people of the Arabian Peninsula , distinction is made between : * Pure Arabs or Qahtanites ( ) from Yemen , taken to be descended from Ya ‘ rub ibn Yashjub ibn Qahtan and further from either Ishmael or Hud . * Arabized Arabs or Adnanites ( ) , taken to be the descendants of Ishmael son of Abraham . This traditional division of the Arabs of Arabia may have arisen at the time of the First Fitna . Of the Arabian tribes that interacted with Muhammad , the most prominent was the Quraysh . The Quraysh subclan , the Banu Hashim , was the clan of Muhammad . During the early Muslim conquests and the Islamic Golden Age , the political rulers of Islam were exclusively members of the Quraysh . Iraq The 150 Arab tribes in Iraq are grouped into federations ( qabila ) , and divided into clans ( fukhdh ) . The so-called Marsh Arabs of southern Iraq consist of numerous tribes , partly within the large al-Muntafiq tribal alliance . Iran Iranian Arabs form a 2 % minority in Iran . The largest group are the Ahwazi Arabs , including Banu Ka ' b , Bani Turuf and the Musha'sha'iyyah sect . Smaller groups are the Khamseh nomads in Fars Province and the Arabs in Khorasan . The Levant The Arabs of the Levant are traditionally divided into Qays and Yaman tribes . This tribal division is likewise taken to date to the Umayyad period . The Yaman trace their origin to South Arabia or Yemen ; they include Banu Kalb , Kindah , Ghassanids , and Lakhmids . Since the 1834 Peasants ' revolt in Palestine , the Arabic-speaking population of Palestine has shed its formerly tribal structure and emerged as the Palestinians , the same can be said about most of the inhabitants of the Levant who no longer determine their identity in tribal and clan lineages . Egypt and Africa The Bedouin of western Egypt and eastern Libya are traditionally divided into Saʿada and Murabtin , the Saʿada having higher social status . This may derive from a historical feudal system in which the Murabtin were vassals to the Saʿada . In the Sudan , there are numerous Arab tribes , including the Shaigya , Ja'alin , Shukria , Rashaida , etc . in addition , there are Arabized or partially Arabized ethnic groups such as the Nubians , Copts , or Beja ; they are sometimes united under the umbrella term of Sudanese Arabs . Arab slave trade in the Sudan region and West Africa created a clean division between Arabs and indigenous populations , and slavery in contemporary Africa substantially persists along these lines , contributing to ethnic conflict in the region , such as the Sudanese conflict in South Kordofan and Blue Nile , Northern Mali conflict , or the Boko Haram insurgency . Maghreb The Arabs of the Maghreb are descendants of Arabian tribes of Banu Hilal , the Banu Sulaym and the Maqil native of Middle East and of other tribes native to Saudi Arabia , Yemen and Iraq . Arabs and Arabic-speakers inhabit plains and cities . Outside of this region , haplogroup J-M304 has a presence in North Africa : Morocco ( about 20 % ) , Algeria ( about 35 % ) and Tunisia ( about 31 % ) . Moroccan Arabs are 30 % E-V65 , 30 % E-M81 , 20 % J-M304 and 7 % E-V22 , . The Banu Hilal spent almost a century in Egypt before moving to Libya , Tunisia and Algeria , and another century later some moves to Morocco , it is logical to think that they are mixed with inhabitants of Egypt and with Libya . Demographics The total number of Arabic speakers living in the Arab nations is estimated at 366 million by the CIA Factbook ( as of 2014 ) . The estimated number of Arabs in countries outside the Arab League is estimated at 17.5 million , yielding a total of close to 384 million . According to the International Organization for Migration , there are 13 million first-generation Arab migrants in the world , of which 5.8 million reside in Arab countries , yielding a total of about 7 million people in the Arab diaspora . The populations of the Arab countries are comparatively young . `` Over 40 percent of the region 's population is under 15 . Only 4 nations - Bahrain , Kuwait , UAE , and Qatar have an under 15 population less than 35 percent . '' Arab world and Israel According to the Charter of the Arab League ( also known as the Pact of the League of Arab States ) , the League of Arab States is composed of independent Arab states that are signatories to the Charter . The Arab world consists largely of populations that are Arabized in varying degrees . Ethnically Arab populations are predominant in the Arab states of the Arabian peninsula . In the Levant , local populations mainly descend from the ancient Phoenicians and other early non-Arabic-speaking Semitic groups . Populations of Hamitic origin form the majorities in the Arab states of North Africa and the Horn of Africa . In Mauritania , native communities consist of peoples of Hamitic , Arab and West African descent . Sudan and Chad are likewise inhabited by ethnic groups of Nilotic , Arab and Hamitic extraction . In Comoros , populations are primarily of Bantu and Arab heritage . The table below shows the distribution of populations in the Arab world and Israel , as well as the official language ( s ) within the various Arab states . Migration and diaspora Arab diaspora refers to descendants of the Arab immigrants who , voluntarily or as refugees , emigrated from their native lands in non-Arab countries , primarily in East Africa , South America , Europe , North America , and parts of South Asia , Southeast Asia , the Caribbean , and West Africa . According to the International Organization for Migration , there are 13 million first-generation Arab migrants in the world , of which 5.8 million reside in Arab countries . Arab expatriates contribute to the circulation of financial and human capital in the region and thus significantly promote regional development . In 2009 , Arab countries received a total of 35.1 billion USD in remittance in-flows and remittances sent to Jordan , Egypt and Lebanon from other Arab countries are 40 to 190 per cent higher than trade revenues between these and other Arab countries . The 250,000 strong Lebanese community in West Africa is the largest non-African group in the region . Arab traders have long operated in Southeast Asia and along the East Africa 's Swahili coast . Zanzibar was once ruled by Omani Arabs . Most of the prominent Indonesians , Malaysians , and Singaporeans of Arab descent are Hadhrami people with origins in southern Yemen in the Hadramawt coastal region . Central Asia and Caucasus In 1728 , a Russian officer described a group of Sunni Arab nomads who populated the Caspian shores of Mughan ( in present-day Azerbaijan ) and spoke a mixed Turkic-Arabic language.Genko , A . The Arabic Language and Caucasian Studies . USSR Academy of Sciences Publ . Moscow-Leningrad . 8–109 It is believed that these groups migrated to the Caucasus in the 16th century . The 1888 edition of Encyclopædia Britannica also mentioned a certain number of Arabs populating the Baku Governorate of the Russian Empire.Baynes , Thomas Spencer ( ed ) . `` Transcaucasia . '' Encyclopædia Britannica . 1888. p. 514 They retained an Arabic dialect at least into the mid-19th century , [ http : //www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus2/Bakihanov/framevved.htm Golestan-i Iram ] by Abbasgulu Bakikhanov . Translated by Ziya Bunyadov . Baku : 1991 , p. 21 but since then have fully assimilated with the neighbouring Azeris and Tats . Today in Azerbaijan alone , there are nearly 30 settlements still holding the name Arab ( for example , Arabgadim , Arabojaghy , Arab-Yengija , etc . ) . From the time of the Arab conquest of the Caucasus , continuous small-scale Arab migration from various parts of the Arab world occurred in Dagestan , which influenced local culture . Until the mid-20th century , some individuals in Dagestan still claimed Arabic as their native language . The majority of these lived in the village of Darvag , to the north-west of Derbent . The latest of these accounts dates to the 1930s . Most Arab communities in southern Dagestan underwent linguistic Turkicisation , thus nowadays Darvag is a majority-Azeri village.Seferbekov , Ruslan . [ http : //www.tabasaran.com/modules.php ? nameNews & file print & sid171 Characters Персонажи традиционных религиозных представлений азербайджанцев Табасарана . ] Stephen Adolphe Wurm et al . [ https : //books.google.com/books ? idglU0vte5gSkC & pg PA966 Atlas of languages of intercultural communication ] . Walter de Gruyter , 1996 ; p. 966 According to the History of Ibn Khaldun , the Arabs that were once in Central Asia have been either killed or have fled the Tatar invasion of the region , leaving only the locals.History of Ibn Khaldun However , today many people in Central Asia identify as Arabs . Most Arabs of Central Asia are fully integrated into local populations , and sometimes call themselves the same as locals ( for example , Tajiks , Uzbeks ) but they use special titles to show their Arabic origin such as Sayyid , Khoja or Siddiqui.Arabic As a Minority Language By Jonathan Owens , pg . 184 Iranian Arab communities are also found in Khuzestan Province . South Asia There are only two communities with the self-identity Arab in India , the Chaush of the Deccan region and the Chavuse of Gujarat , who are by and large descended of Hadhrami migrants who settled in these two regions in the 18th Centuries . However , both these communities no longer speak Arabic , although with the Chaush , there has been re-immigration to Persian Gulf countries , and re-adoption of Arabic by these immigrants . In South Asia , claiming Arab ancestry is considered prestigious , and many communities have origin myths with claim to an Arab ancestry . Examples include the Mappilla of Kerala , Labbai of Tamil Nadu . These communities all allege an Arab ancestry , but none speak Arabic and follow the customs and traditions of the Hindu majority . Among Muslims of North India and Pakistan there are groups who claim the status of Sayyid , have origin myths that allege descent from the Prophet Mohammad . None of these Sayyid families speak Arabic or follow Arab customs or traditions . Iraqi biradri can be considered as an Arab because the record of their ancestors who migrated from Iraq exists in historical documents . History Pre-Islamic Pre-Islamic Arabia refers to Arabic civilization in the Arabian Peninsula before the rise of Islam in the 630s . The study of Pre-Islamic Arabia is important to Islamic studies as it provides the context for the development of Islam . Origins and early history Old Arabic diverges from Central Semitic by the beginning of the 1st millennium BC . The first written attestation of the ethnonym `` Arab '' occurs in an Assyrian inscription of 853 BCE , where Shalmaneser III lists a King Gindibu of mâtu arbâi ( Arab land ) as among the people he defeated at the Battle of Karkar . Some of the names given in these texts are Aramaic , while others are the first attestations of Ancient North Arabian dialects . In fact several different ethnonyms are found in Assyrian texts that are conventionally translated `` Arab '' : Arabi , Arubu , Aribi and Urbi . Many of the Qedarite queens were also described as queens of the aribi . The Hebrew Bible occasionally refers to Aravi peoples ( or variants thereof ) , translated as `` Arab '' or `` Arabian . '' The scope of the term at that early stage is unclear , but it seems to have referred to various desert-dwelling Semitic tribes in the Syrian Desert and Arabia . Arab tribes came into conflict with the Assyrians during the reign of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal , and he records military victories against the powerful Qedar tribe among others . Medieval Arab genealogists divided Arabs into three groups : * `` Ancient Arabs '' , tribes that had vanished or been destroyed , such as ʿĀd and Thamud , often mentioned in the Qur'an as examples of God 's power to vanquish those who fought his prophets . * `` Pure Arabs '' of South Arabia , descending from Qahtan . The Qahtanites ( Qahtanis ) are said to have

qw_6477--Arabs.txt

Which city, since the 14th century BC, has been controlled by Israelites, Judaeans, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, Hasmoneans, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Mamluks, Turks, and the British and for a short time after World War II was occupied by Israel and Jordan?

Jules François Archibald , known as J. F. Archibald , ( 14 January 1856 – 10 September 1919 ) , Australian journalist and publisher , was co-owner and editor of The Bulletin during the days of its greatest influence in Australian politics and literary life . He was also the founder and namesake of the annual Archibald Prize art award . Biography Born to an Irish Catholic family in Kildare , now known as Geelong West , Victoria , he was baptised John Feltham Archibald , but changed his forenames in later life `` when he became an enthusiast in everything French '' .McKay , Claude [ http : //trove.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/18518065 J. F. Archibald Was A Living Legend ] The Sunday Herald , Sydney , 5 November 1942 , at Trove Contemporary associates affectionately knew him as `` Archie '' and expressed admiration for his journalistic flair , literary perspicacity and culinary talents . He was also a target of humour because of his pretentious name change ( pronounced `` Jules Frankwa '' ) and false pretensions to having a part-Scottish father and a French Jewish mother . After working as an accountant , journalist ( with the Melbourne Daily Telegraph ) , public servant and miner in Victoria and Queensland , Archibald arrived in Sydney in 1878 , where he formed a partnership with John Haynes and William Mackenzie McLeod , and on 31 January 1880 they launched The Bulletin as a weekly paper of political , business and literary news . William Henry Traill became a partner in 1882 , and the following year Archibald left for two years in London . When he returned in 1886 , the magazine was struggling , and Archibald bought out the other partners . Under Archibald 's sole control , and with A. G. Stephens as his literary editor , The Bulletin became Australia 's leading outlet for poets , cartoonists , short-stories and comic writers . Archibald had no life outside the magazine and devoted his every waking hour to it . It was his decision to open The Bulletins pages to contributions from readers , and his brand of radical , republican , xenophobic politics that the magazine reflected for the 16 years he controlled its content . In 1902 , Archibald 's health broke down and he resigned the editorship , though retaining overall control . Unable to rest , he launched a new monthly magazine , The Lone Hand . But soon afterwards , he had a complete collapse and spent several years in the Callan Park Hospital for the Insane . Even from there , he kept writing , and in 1907 published The Genesis of The Bulletin , an important source for the history of the magazine . Archibald 's health never really recovered , and , in 1914 , he sold his interest in The Bulletin . He died in Sydney on 10 September 1919 and is buried in Waverley Cemetery . In his will , he made the two bequests by which he is best remembered by the general public : funds for the Archibald Fountain in Sydney 's Hyde Park , which he specified must be designed by a French sculptor , and the Archibald Prize for portraiture , now Australia 's most prestigious art prize .

qw_5610--J._F._Archibald.txt

What Australian weekly magazine founded by two Sydney journalists, J.F. Archibald and John Haynes, which first appeared on 31 January 1880, ceased publication on 23 January 2008?

Marc Bolland ( born 28 March 1959 ) is a Dutch businessman , who was the CEO of Marks & Spencer , after having been CEO of UK supermarket company Morrisons Biography Early life He received a bachelor 's degree from the Hotelschool The Hague , and then an MBA at the University of Groningen . Heineken He began as a graduate at Amsterdam-based Heineken International NV , the third largest brewer in the world , in 1987 . Bolland worked in various international management positions in Africa and Central Europe before joining the Heineken board in 2001 . He became chief operating officer in 2005 . Bolland has been credited with both building and rolling out the Heineken brand internationally . Morrisons In September 2006 , he was appointed CEO of the UK supermarket chain Morrisons . Morrisons had acquired Safeway in 2004 creating a 130,000 people strong retail conglomerate in the UK . The merger initially proved unsuccessful . Bolland joined after five profit warnings with a brief to turn round the company . By 2008 Morrisons had achieved strong growth in both market share and profits , and in 2008 , Bolland was announced as The Times `` Businessman of the year '' . Under his guidance , Morrisons `` ... gained significant market share from rivals '' . Marks & Spencer In November 2009 , it was announced that Bolland would become CEO of Marks & Spencer Group PLC . In May 2010 , he took over from the then chairman & CEO Sir Stuart Rose . Bolland launched a plan to grow M & S into an international multi-channel retailer . The Evening Standard named Bolland as one of `` London 's 1000 most influential people '' for 2010 . During September 2011 , he announced a new look store environment for M & S 's UK stores , with a plan to complete the roll out to the entire UK estate by mid-2013 . In 2011 , M & S returned to France after a 10-year absence and also started the development of a new digital platform that was launched in February 2014 . In 2011 , Bolland received an honorary doctorate from York St John University . He was named as `` Most Admired Leader '' at Management Today magazine 's `` Britain 's Most Admired Companies 2011 '' awards having been nominated by his peers in the FTSE 100 . In 2014 Bolland was appointed as the Prince of Wales National Ambassador for Business in the Community and in Feb 2015 Bolland joined the board of Coca Cola as a Director . In January 2016 , it was announced that Bolland would be retiring as CEO of Marks and Spencer effective April 2016 , and would be replaced by Steve Rowe . In June 2016 , it was announced that Bolland was appointed as a non-executive director of IAG ( International Airlines Group ) .

sfq_25215--Marc_Bolland.txt

Marc Bolland has announced that he is to stand down as Chief Executive of which Major High Street Store?

Little House on the Prairie is an American western drama television series , starring Michael Landon , Melissa Gilbert , and Karen Grassle , about a family living on a farm in Walnut Grove , Minnesota , in the 1870s and 1880s . The show is an adaptation of Laura Ingalls Wilder 's best-selling series of Little House books . Television producer and NBC executive Ed Friendly became aware of the story in the early 1970s . He asked Michael Landon to direct the pilot movie . Landon agreed on the condition that he could also play Charles Ingalls . The regular series was preceded by the two-hour pilot movie , which first aired on March 30 , 1974 . The series premiered on the NBC network on September 11 , 1974 , and last aired on May 10 , 1982 . During the 1982–83 television season , with the departure of Landon and Grassle , the series was broadcast with the new title Little House : A New Beginning . In 1997 , TV Guide ranked the two-part episode `` I 'll Be Waving As You Drive Away '' at 97 on its 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time list . Premise Although based on the biographical `` Little House '' stories , many of the characters and situations differ from the original books . The central characters are Charles Ingalls ( farmer and mill worker ) , his wife Caroline , and their four daughters , Mary , Laura , Carrie , and Grace ; in later seasons , they adopt three children , Albert , Cassandra , and James . Other essential characters include the Oleson family : Nels , proprietor of the town 's general store , Oleson 's Mercantile ; his malicious , gossiping wife , Harriet ; and their two spoiled children , Nellie and Willie , and later , their adopted daughter , Nancy ; Isaiah Edwards , Grace Snider Edwards and their three adopted children ; the Garvey family , Jonathan , Alice , and Andy ; Rev . Robert Alden ; Lars Hanson , the town 's founder and proprietor of the town 's mill ; and Dr. Hiram Baker , the town 's physician . In season five , Mary Ingalls meets teacher-turned-husband , Adam Kendall . In the season seven premiere , Laura marries Almanzo Wilder . Cast and characters Melissa Gilbert has the most appearances of the series , a total of 190 of the 204 episodes . Michael Landon appeared in all but four episodes of seasons one through eight , but departed from being a regular part of the cast when the show was retooled as Little House : A New Beginning ( season nine ) . Main cast * Michael Landon as Charles Ingalls * Karen Grassle as Caroline Quiner Ingalls ( seasons 1–8 ) * Melissa Gilbert as Laura Ingalls Wilder * Melissa Sue Anderson as Mary Ingalls Kendall ( seasons 1–8 ) * Lindsay and Sidney Greenbush as Carrie Ingalls ( seasons 1–8 ) * Matthew Laborteaux as Albert ( Quinn ) Ingalls ( seasons 5–9 ) * Richard Bull as Nels Oleson * Katherine MacGregor as Harriet Oleson * Alison Arngrim as Nellie Oleson Dalton ( seasons 1-7 , 9 ) * Jonathan Gilbert as Willie Oleson * Victor French as Isaiah Edwards ( seasons 1–3 , 6 , 8–9 ) * Bonnie Bartlett as Grace Snider Edwards ( seasons 1–3 , 5–6 ) * Kevin Hagen as Dr. Hiram Baker * Dabbs Greer as Rev . Robert Alden * Charlotte Stewart as Eva Beadle Simms ( seasons 1–4 ) * Karl Swenson as Lars Hanson ( seasons 1–5 ) * Radames Pera as John ( Sanderson , Jr. ) Edwards ( seasons 2 & 3 ) * Brian Part as Carl ( Sanderson ) Edwards ( seasons 2 & 3 ) * Kyle Richards as Alicia ( Sanderson ) Edwards ( seasons 2 & 3 ) * Merlin Olsen as Jonathan Garvey ( seasons 4–7 ) * Hersha Parady as Alice Garvey ( seasons 4–6 ) * Patrick Laborteaux as Andrew `` Andy '' Garvey ( seasons 4–7 ) * Linwood Boomer as Adam Kendall ( seasons 4–8 ) * Ketty Lester as Hester-Sue Terhune ( seasons 5–9 ) * Wendi and Brenda Turnbaugh as Grace Ingalls ( seasons 5–8 ) * Dean Butler as Almanzo Wilder ( seasons 6–9 ) * Lucy Lee Flippin as Eliza Jane Wilder ( seasons 6–8 ) * Allison Balson as Nancy Oleson ( seasons 8 & 9 ) * Jason Bateman as James ( Cooper ) Ingalls ( seasons 7 & 8 ) * Missy Francis as Cassandra ( Cooper ) Ingalls ( seasons 7 & 8 ) * Shannen Doherty as Jenny Wilder ( season 9 ) Notable guest stars Many actors , who were either well-known or went on to become famous , guest-starred on the show . Production crew Of the 204 episodes , Michael Landon directed the largest number at 90 ; producer William F. Claxton handled the majority of the remaining shows at 68 , while co-star Victor French helmed 18 . Maury Dexter ( who was often an assistant director ) and Leo Penn directed the remaining episodes at 21 and 3 episodes respectively . The series theme song was titled The Little House and was written and conducted by David Rose . The ending theme music , also written by Rose , originally appeared as a piece of incidental music in a later-season episode of Michael Landon 's previous long-running series , Bonanza . Themes Little House explored many different themes including frequently portrayed ones of adoption , alcoholism , faith , poverty , blindness , and prejudice of all types including racism . Some plots also include subjects such as drug addiction ( i.e . morphine ) , leukemia , child abuse , and even rape . Although predominantly a drama , the program has many lighthearted and comedic moments as well . Some of the episodes written by Michael Landon were recycled storylines from ones that he had written for Bonanza . Season two 's `` A Matter of Faith '' was based on the Bonanza episode `` A Matter of Circumstance '' ; season five 's `` Someone Please Love Me '' was based on the Bonanza episode `` A Dream To Dream '' ; season seven 's `` The Silent Cry '' was based on the Bonanza episode `` The Sound of Sadness '' ; season eight 's `` He Was Only Twelve '' was based on the Bonanza episode `` He Was Only Seven '' ; and season nine 's `` Little Lou '' was based on the Bonanza episode `` It 's A Small World '' . Spin-offs and sequels Little House : A New Beginning When Michael Landon decided to leave the show ( though he stayed on as executive producer and occasional writer and director ) , season nine was renamed , the focus was put on the characters of Laura and Almanzo , and more characters were added to the cast . A new family , the Carters ( Stan Ivar as John , Pamela Roylance as Sarah , Lindsay Kennedy as older son Jeb , and David Friedman as younger son Jason ) , move into the Ingalls house . Meanwhile , Almanzo and Laura take in their niece , Jenny Wilder , when Almanzo 's brother dies and raise her alongside their daughter , Rose . The Wilders appear prominently in some episodes , while in others they appear only in early scenes used to introduce the story or its characters . The explanation given for the original characters ' absence was that they moved to Burr Oak , Iowa , to pursue a promising life . The show lost viewers , and this version of the series was canceled after nineteen episodes . However , the show lived on for another 1.5 years in movie format . Movie specials Three made-for-television post-series movies followed during the 1983-84 television season : Little House on the Prairie : A Look Back to Yesterday ( 1983 ) , Little House : The Last Farewell ( 1984 ) , and Little House : Bless All the Dear Children ( 1984 ) . In The Last Farewell , Charles and Caroline decide to visit Walnut Grove . They learn that a railroad tycoon actually holds the deed to the township , and he wants to take it over for his own financial gain . Despite their best efforts , the townspeople are unable to drive the businessman away . At a town meeting , John Carter offers a supply of explosives that he has . Each man takes turn blowing up his own building . When asked why the set was blown up , the show 's producer , Kent McCray , said that when the series started , he made an agreement with the property owners that at the end of the series he would put the acreage back to its original state . When the production crew were estimating the cost of dismantling all the buildings , Michael Landon thought for a while and said , `` What if we blow up the town ? That would get the buildings all in pieces and you can bring in your equipment to pick up the debris and cart it away . '' He then said that he would write it where they blow up all the buildings , except for the little house and the church . Both McCray and Landon wept as the town blew up . Bless All The Dear Children was filmed prior to The Last Farewell , but ended up being the last of the three movies to air . Two other Little House movies were made in conjunction with the Landon series : the 1974 pilot for the program and Little House Years ( 1979 ) , a Thanksgiving special/clip show that aired in the middle of season six . Broadcast history For the first two seasons , the show was aired on Wednesday nights at 8pm ET/7pm CT , to moderate ratings . In 1976 , the series became a Monday night staple on NBC ; after the move , it remained in the top 30 for the rest of its run . Reception Nielsen ratings * Season 1 ( 1974–75 ) : # 13 * Season 2 ( 1975–76 ) : Not in top 30 * Season 3 ( 1976–77 ) : # 15 * Season 4 ( 1977–78 ) : # 7 * Season 5 ( 1978–79 ) : # 14 * Season 6 ( 1979–80 ) : # 16 * Season 7 ( 1980–81 ) : # 10 * Season 8 ( 1981–82 ) : # 24 ( Tied with : The Facts of Life ) * Season 9 ( 1982–83 ) : # 28 Accolades * 1976 : TP de Oro , Spain , Mejor Actriz Extranjera ( Best Foreign Actress ) , Karen Grassle * 1976 : TP de Oro , Spain , Mejor Serie Extranjera ( Best Foreign Series ) * 1978 : Emmy Award for Outstanding Cinematography in Entertainment Programming for a Series , Ted Voigtlander , episode `` The Fighter '' * 1979 : Emmy Award for Outstanding Cinematography for a Series , Ted Voigtlander , episode `` The Craftsman '' * 1979 : Emmy Award for Outstanding Music Composition for a Series , David Rose , episode `` The Craftsman '' * 1980 : TP de Oro , Spain , Mejor Actriz Extranjera ( Best Foreign Actress ) , Melissa Sue Anderson * 1981 : Western Writers of America Spur Award for Best TV Script , Michael Landon , episode `` May We Make Them Proud '' * 1982 : Emmy Award for Outstanding Achievement in Music Composition for a Series ( Dramatic Underscore ) , David Rose , episode `` He Was Only Twelve '' ( Part 2 ) * 1983 : Young Artist Award for Best Young Actress in a Drama Series , Melissa Gilbert * 1984 : Young Artist Award for Best Young Actress in a Drama Series , Melissa Gilbert Popularity in Spain In the late 1970s and early 1980s , La Casa de la Pradera ( Little House on the Prairie ) was one of Spanish Television 's most popular series . In 1976 Karen Grassle ( Caroline Quiner Ingalls ) won Spanish television 's prestigious TP de Oro award for best foreign actress , and the series itself won for best foreign series ; Melissa Sue Anderson ( Mary Ingalls ) won the TP de Oro in 1980 thanks in part to the enhanced profile she received as a result of her visit to Spain and her appearance on Spanish Television 's 625 Lineas program in early 1979 . The continued popularity of the show led to the appearance of Katherine MacGregor ( Harriet Oleson ) on 625 Lineas and Ding Dong in 1980 . Other media Syndication The show remains popular in syndicated reruns and has been on the air in the U.S. continuously since its original run . In addition to airing on local stations , it has been airing multiple times each day on INSP and Hallmark Channel . In the past , it has aired on TV Land and TBS . In the U.S. , television syndication rights are currently owned by CBS Television Distribution . Originally , NBC licensed these rights to Worldvision Enterprises , since networks could not own syndication arms at the time . As a result of corporate changes , Paramount Domestic Television and CBS Paramount Domestic Television would inherit the rights , finally passing to CTD in 2007 . In Canada , reruns of the series began airing weeknights on CTS , a Christian-based network , as of September 1 , 2008 . Because of its historical context and its connection to the book series , it is deemed acceptable for use by the FCC to meet federal E/I programming guidelines . The show is typically stripped ( run five days a week ) in syndication , which is enough to completely cover a TV station 's E/I requirements and more . NBC owns ancillary rights and thus is the worldwide licensor for DVD rights as well . Sister company NBC Universal International Television distributes the series internationally . DVD , Blu-ray & Digital Copy releases The entire series has been released on standard-definition DVD , high-definition Blu-ray , and on both standard and high-definition Digital Copy . Starting with Season 7 , the Blu-ray 's are only available exclusively through Amazon.com . There are multiple DVD sets which are noticeably different from one another . The original DVD sets sold in the U.S. and Canada were released under license from NBCUniversal by Imavision Distribution , a company based in Quebec . A majority of the episodes in the original North American DVD versions had scenes cut from the episodes—these were derived from the syndicated television versions by Worldvision Enterprises , the series ' former distributor . Other episodes were time-compressed ; these are NTSC-converted video prints from UK PAL masters , while others were derived from 16MM syndication prints , also from Worldvision . Only a handful of episodes in the original sets were in their original uncut versions . The episodes in these original sets are also known to have relatively poor video quality , such as tracking lines , as well as audio problems , though the quality issues are not as pronounced in the first few seasons as they are in the later seasons . The first three seasons of the old sets notably are also missing closed-captioning . These original North American DVD sets included interviews with former cast members Alison Arngrim , Dabbs Greer and Dean Butler . For the original movies & complete series sets , Imavision provided numerous additional special features including additional interviews with many of the cast members such as Melissa Gilbert and Melissa Sue Anderson and specials highlighting Michael Landon , the casting of the show , and more . Imavision also released a French-language version of the series . Both versions are in NTSC color and coded for all regions . Later copies of these original sets were distributed by Lionsgate Home Entertainment following their acquisition of Imavision , but these should not be confused with the Lionsgate re-releases described below . The DVD sets sold in the United Kingdom were released by Universal Playback ( a Universal Studios Home Entertainment label ) ; this version is in PAL color and coded for region 2 . Unlike the original North American DVD sets , the UK version contains mostly uncut episodes . In 2014 , Lionsgate Home Entertainment began re-releasing the series in North America on DVD , and also for the first time , in high definition on Blu-ray , as well as Digital Copy through providers such as Vudu and Amazon Video . These new releases , which are stated to come direct from the original broadcast masters , contain almost entirely uncut episodes and are remastered to have superior picture and sound . The Blu-rays , with their high bitrate , high definition 1080p picture ( as opposed to standard definition picture on the DVD 's ) currently provide the best viewing experience of the show that is commercially available . The first six seasons on Blu-ray notably also contain lossless audio as opposed to the compressed audio on the DVD 's . Starting with Season 7 , Lionsgate chose to only release the remaining Blu-ray 's exclusively through Amazon.com . In the process , they made several other changes to the Blu-ray 's including compressing the audio ( though with a relatively high bitrate ) , simplifying the on-screen disc menus , and eliminating the slipcovers and included Digital Copy codes that had been present for the previous seasons . The new Lionsgate sets do not include the special features present on the earlier releases , but rather seasons 1 through 6 each contain a roughly 15 minute segment of a special called `` The Little House Phenomenon '' . Season 1 also contains the original Pilot movie . Season 7 contains no special features . Seasons 8 & 9 contain the three post-series movie specials as extras , with `` Look Back to Yesterday '' and `` The Last Farewell '' appearing on Season 8 , and `` Bless All The Dear Children '' appearing on Season 9 . Some fans of the show have been perplexed as to why Lionsgate did this , both because all of the movies take place after the Season 9 timeline , and also because they included `` The Last Farewell '' on Season 8 when that is considered by fans to be the end to the show given its significant and memorable ending . Lionsgate 's decision as to which movies to include on which season appears to have been based on broadcast order rather than production order , since `` Bless All The Dear Children '' was the last episode broadcast even though `` The Last Farewell '' was the last one produced . The Digital Copy release does not include the three post-series movie specials . Prior to official full season DVD releases , some single Little House episodes were released on both DVD and VHS by GoodTimes Entertainment . Episodes were also available on VHS through a Columbia House club subscription , with two unedited episodes per tape . None of the available releases of the series contain `` Little House Years '' , which was a three-hour Thanksgiving special primarily consisting of flashback clips that originally aired during Season 6 .

jp_2785--Little_House_on_the_Prairie_(TV_series).txt

"What actor played the father on ""Little House on the Prairie""?"

Buffy the Vampire Slayer is an American television series created by Joss Whedon under his production tag , Mutant Enemy Productions with later co-executive producers being Jane Espenson , David Fury , David Greenwalt , Doug Petrie , Marti Noxon , and David Solomon . The series premiered on March 10 , 1997 , on The WB and concluded on May 20 , 2003 , on UPN . The series narrative follows Buffy Summers ( played by Sarah Michelle Gellar ) , the latest in a line of young women known as `` Vampire Slayers '' , or simply `` Slayers '' . In the story , Slayers are `` called '' ( chosen by fate ) to battle against vampires , demons , and other forces of darkness . Like previous Slayers , Buffy is aided by a Watcher , who guides , teaches , and trains her . Unlike her predecessors , Buffy surrounds herself with a circle of loyal friends who become known as the `` Scooby Gang '' . The series received critical and popular acclaim and usually reached between four and six million viewers on original airings . Although such ratings are lower than successful shows on the `` big four '' networks ( ABC , CBS , NBC , and Fox ) , they were a success for the relatively new and smaller WB Television Network . The show was ranked 41st on TV Guides list of 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time , second on Empires `` 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time '' , 27th on The Hollywood Reporters `` Hollywood 's 100 Favorite TV Shows '' , voted third in 2004 and 2007 on TV Guides `` Top Cult Shows Ever '' and listed in Time magazine 's `` 100 Best TV Shows of All-Time '' . In 2013 , TV Guide also included it in its list of `` The 60 Greatest Dramas of All Time '' and ranked it # 38 on its list of the `` 60 Best Series of All Time '' . Buffy was also named the third Best School Show of All Time by AOL TV . It was nominated for Emmy and Golden Globe awards , winning a total of three Emmys . However , snubs in lead Emmy categories resulted in outrage among TV critics and the decision by the academy to hold a tribute event in honor of the series after it had gone off the air in 2003 . Buffys success has led to hundreds of tie-in products , including novels , comics , and video games . The series has received attention in fandom ( including fan films ) , parody , and academia , and has influenced the direction of other television series . Premise Characters Buffy Summers ( played by Sarah Michelle Gellar ) is `` the Slayer '' , one in a long line of young women chosen by fate to battle evil forces . This mystical calling endows her with dramatically increased physical strength , endurance , agility , accelerated healing , intuition , and a limited degree of clairvoyance , usually in the form of prophetic dreams . Buffy receives guidance from her Watcher , Rupert Giles ( Anthony Stewart Head ) . Giles , rarely referred to by his first name ( it is later revealed that in his misspent younger days he was called `` Ripper '' ) , is a member of the Watchers ' Council , whose job is to train and assist the Slayers . Giles researches the supernatural creatures that Buffy must face , offering insights into their origins and advice on how to defeat them . Buffy is also helped by friends she meets at Sunnydale High : Willow Rosenberg ( Alyson Hannigan ) and Xander Harris ( Nicholas Brendon ) . Willow is originally a wallflower who excels at academics , providing a contrast to Buffy 's outgoing personality and less-than-stellar educational record . They share the social isolation that comes with being different , and especially from being exceptional young women . As the series progresses , Willow becomes a more assertive character and a powerful witch , and comes out as a lesbian . In contrast , Xander , with no supernatural skills but very athletic , provides comic relief and a grounded perspective . It is Xander who often provides the heart to the series , and in season six , becomes the hero in place of Buffy who defeats the `` Big Bad . '' Buffy and Willow are the only characters who appear in all 144 episodes ; Xander is missing in only one . The cast of characters grew over the course of the series . Buffy first arrives in Sunnydale with her mother , Joyce Summers ( portrayed by Kristine Sutherland ) , who functions as an anchor of normality in the Summers ' lives even after she learns of Buffy 's role in the supernatural world ( `` Becoming , Part Two '' ) . Buffy 's younger sister Dawn Summers ( Michelle Trachtenberg ) is introduced in season five . A vampire with a soul , Angel ( portrayed by David Boreanaz ) , is Buffy 's love interest throughout the first three seasons . He leaves Buffy as he believes he is n't good enough for her . He goes on to make amends for his sins and to search for redemption in his own spin-off , Angel . He makes several guest appearances in the remaining seasons , including the last episode . At Sunnydale High , Buffy meets several other students besides Willow and Xander willing to join her fight for good , an informal group eventually tagged the `` Scooby Gang '' or `` Scoobies . '' Cordelia Chase ( Charisma Carpenter ) , the archetypal shallow cheerleader , reluctantly becomes involved , and Daniel `` Oz '' Osbourne ( Seth Green ) , a fellow student , rock guitarist and werewolf , joins the group through his relationship with Willow . Jenny Calendar ( Robia LaMorte ) , Sunnydale 's computer science teacher , joins the group after helping destroy a demon trapped in cyberspace during season 1 . She later becomes Giles ' love interest . Anya ( Emma Caulfield ) , a former vengeance demon ( Anyanka ) who specialized in avenging scorned women , becomes Xander 's lover after losing her powers and joins the group in season four . In Buffy 's senior year at high school , she meets Faith ( Eliza Dushku ) , the other current Slayer , who was brought forth when Slayer Kendra Young ( Bianca Lawson ) was killed by vampire Drusilla ( Juliet Landau ) , in season two . Although she initially fights on the side of good with Buffy and the rest of the group , she comes to stand against them and sides with Mayor Richard Wilkins ( Harry Groener ) after accidentally killing a human in season three . She reappears briefly in the fourth season , looking for vengeance , and moves to Angel where she voluntarily goes to jail for her murders . Faith reappears in season seven of Buffy , after having helped Angel and his crew , and fights alongside Buffy against The First Evil . Buffy gathers other allies : Spike ( James Marsters ) , a vampire , is an old companion of Angelus and one of Buffy 's major enemies in early seasons , although they later become allies and lovers . At the end of season six , Spike regains his soul . Spike is known for his Billy Idol-style peroxide blond hair and his black leather coat , stolen from a previous Slayer , Nikki Wood ; her son , Robin Wood ( D. B. Woodside ) , joined the group in the final season . Tara Maclay ( Amber Benson ) is a fellow member of Willow 's Wicca group during season four , and their friendship eventually turns into a romantic relationship . Buffy became involved personally and professionally with Riley Finn ( Marc Blucas ) , a military operative in `` the Initiative , '' which hunts demons using science and technology . The final season sees geeky wannabe-villain Andrew Wells ( Tom Lenk ) come to side with the Scoobies , who regard him more as a nuisance than an ally . Buffy featured dozens of recurring characters , both major and minor . For example , the `` Big Bad '' ( villain ) characters were featured for at least one season ( for example , Glorificus was a character who appeared in 12 episodes , spanning much of season five ) . Similarly , characters who allied themselves to the group and characters which attended the same institutions were sometimes featured in multiple episodes . Setting and filming locations The show is set in the fictional California town of Sunnydale , whose suburban Sunnydale High School sits on top of a `` Hellmouth , '' a gateway to demon realms . The Hellmouth , located beneath the school library , is a source of mystical energies as well as a nexus for a wide variety of evil creatures and supernatural phenomena . In addition to being an open-ended plot device , Joss Whedon has cited the Hellmouth and `` High school as Hell '' as one of the primary metaphors in creating the series . Most of Buffy was shot on location in Los Angeles , California . The main exterior set of the town of Sunnydale , including the `` sun sign , '' was in a lot on Olympic Boulevard in Santa Monica , California . The high school used in the first three seasons is actually Torrance High School , in Torrance , California . In addition to the high school and its library , scenes take place in the town 's cemeteries , a local nightclub ( The Bronze ) , and Buffy 's home ( located in Torrance ) , where many of the characters live at various points in the series . Some of the exterior shots of the college Buffy attends , UC Sunnydale , were filmed at UCLA . Several episodes include shots from the Oviatt Library at CSUN . Format Buffy is told in a serialized format , with each episode involving a self-contained story while contributing to a larger storyline , which is broken down into season-long narratives marked by the rise and defeat of a powerful antagonist , commonly referred to as the `` Big Bad '' . While the show is mainly a drama with frequent comic relief , most episodes blend different genres , including horror , martial arts , romance , melodrama , farce , science fiction , comedy , and even , in one episode , musical comedy . The series ' narrative revolves around Buffy and her friends , collectively dubbed the `` Scooby Gang , '' who struggle to balance the fight against supernatural evils with their complex social lives . The show mixes complex , season-long storylines with a villain-of-the-week format ; a typical episode contains one or more villains , or supernatural phenomena , that are thwarted or defeated by the end of the episode . Though elements and relationships are explored and ongoing subplots are included , the show focuses primarily on Buffy and her role as an archetypal heroine . In the first few seasons , the most prominent monsters in the Buffy bestiary are vampires , which are based on traditional myths , lore , and literary conventions . As the series continues , Buffy and her companions fight an increasing variety of demons , as well as ghosts , werewolves , zombies , and unscrupulous humans . They frequently save the world from annihilation by a combination of physical combat , magic , and detective-style investigation , and are guided by an extensive collection of ancient and mystical reference books . Storylines Season one exemplifies the `` high school is hell '' concept . Buffy Summers has just moved to Sunnydale after burning down her old school 's gym , and hopes to escape her Slayer duties . Her plans are complicated by Rupert Giles , her new Watcher , who reminds her of the inescapable presence of evil . Sunnydale High is built atop a Hellmouth , a portal to demon dimensions that attracts supernatural phenomena to the area . Buffy befriends two schoolmates , Xander Harris and Willow Rosenberg , who help her fight evil throughout the series , but they must first prevent The Master , an ancient and especially threatening vampire , from opening the Hellmouth and taking over Sunnydale . The emotional stakes are raised in season two . Vampires Spike and Drusilla ( weakened from a mob in Prague , which , it is implied , caused her debilitating injury ) , come to town along with a new slayer , Kendra Young , who was activated as a result of Buffy 's brief death in the season one finale . Xander becomes involved with Cordelia , while Willow becomes involved with witchcraft and Daniel `` Oz '' Osbourne , who is a werewolf . The romantic relationship between Buffy and the vampire Angel develops over the course of the season , but after they sleep together , Angel 's soul , given to him by a Gypsy curse in the past , is lost , and he once more becomes Angelus , a sadistic killer . Kendra is killed by a restored Drusilla . Angelus torments much of the `` Scooby Gang '' throughout the rest of the season and murders multiple innocents and Giles 's new girlfriend Jenny Calendar , a gypsy who was sent to maintain Angel 's curse . To avert an apocalypse , Buffy is forced to banish Angelus to a demon dimension just moments after Willow has restored his soul . The ordeal leaves Buffy emotionally shattered , and she leaves Sunnydale . After attempting to start a new life in Los Angeles , Buffy returns to town in season three . Angel has mysteriously been released from the demon dimension , but is close to insanity due to the torment he suffered there , and is nearly driven to suicide by the First Evil . He and Buffy realize that a relationship between them can never happen ; he eventually leaves Sunnydale at the end of the season . A new watcher named Wesley is put in Giles 's place when Giles is fired from the Watcher 's Council because he has developed a `` father 's love '' for Buffy ; and towards the end of the season , Buffy announces that she will no longer be working for the Council . Early in the season , she meets Faith , the Slayer activated after Kendra 's death . She also encounters the affable Mayor Richard Wilkins , who secretly has plans to `` ascend '' ( become a `` pure '' demon ) on Sunnydale High 's Graduation Day . Although Faith initially works well with Buffy , she becomes increasingly unstable after accidentally killing a human and forms a relationship with the paternal yet manipulative Mayor , eventually landing in a coma after a fight with Buffy . At the end of the season , after the Mayor becomes a huge snake-like demon , Buffy and the entire graduating class destroy him by blowing up Sunnydale High . Season four sees Buffy and Willow enroll at UC Sunnydale , while Xander joins the workforce and begins dating Anya , a former vengeance demon . Spike returns as a series regular and is abducted by The Initiative , a top-secret military installation based beneath the UC Sunnydale campus . They implant a microchip in his head that punishes him whenever he tries to harm a human . He makes a truce with the Scooby Gang and begins to fight on their side , for the joy of fighting , upon learning that he can still harm other demons . Oz leaves town after realizing that he is too dangerous as a werewolf , and Willow falls in love with Tara Maclay , another witch . Buffy begins dating Riley Finn , a graduate student and member of The Initiative . Although appearing to be a well-meaning anti-demon operation , The Initiative 's sinister plans are revealed when Adam , a monster secretly built from parts of humans , demons and machinery , escapes and begins to wreak havoc on the town . Adam is destroyed by a magical composite of Buffy and her three friends , and The Initiative is shut down . During season five , a younger sister , Dawn , suddenly appears in Buffy 's life ; although she is new to the series , to the characters it is as if she has always been there . Buffy is confronted by Glory , an exiled Hell God who is searching for a `` Key '' that will allow her to return to her Hell dimension and in the process blur the lines between dimensions and unleash Hell on Earth . It is later discovered that the Key 's protectors have turned the Key into human form – Dawn – concurrently implanting everybody with lifelong memories of her . The Watcher 's Council aids in Buffy 's research on Glory , and she and Giles are both reinstated on their own terms . Riley leaves early in the season after realizing that Buffy does not love him and joins a military demon-hunting operation . Spike , still implanted with the Initiative chip , realizes he is in love with Buffy and increasingly helps the Scoobies in their fight . Buffy 's mother Joyce dies of a brain aneurysm , while at the end of the season , Xander proposes to Anya . Glory finally discovers that Dawn is the key and kidnaps her . To save Dawn , Buffy sacrifices her own life by diving into the portal to the Hell dimension and thus closes it with her death . At the beginning of season six , Buffy has been dead for 147 days , but Buffy 's friends resurrect her through a powerful spell , believing they have rescued her from the Hell dimension . Buffy returns in a deep depression , explaining that she had been in Heaven and is devastated to be pulled back to earth . Giles returns to England because he has concluded that Buffy has become too reliant on him , while Buffy takes up a fast-food job to support herself and Dawn , and develops a secret , mutually abusive relationship with Spike . Dawn suffers from kleptomania and feelings of alienation , Xander leaves Anya at the altar ( after which she once again becomes a vengeance demon ) , and Willow becomes addicted to magic , causing Tara to temporarily leave her . They also begin to deal with The Trio , a group of nerds led by Warren Mears who use their proficiency in technology and magic to attempt to kill Buffy and take over Sunnydale . Warren is shown to be the only competent villain of the group and , after Buffy thwarts his plans multiple times and the Trio breaks apart , he becomes unhinged and attacks Buffy with a gun , killing Tara in the process . This causes Willow to descend into a nihilistic darkness and unleash all of her dark magical powers , killing Warren and attempting to kill his friends . Giles returns to face her in battle and infuses her with light magic , tapping into her remaining humanity . This overwhelms Willow with guilt and pain , whereupon she attempts to destroy the world to end everyone 's suffering , although it eventually allows Xander to reach through her pain and end her rampage . Late in the season , after losing control and trying to rape Buffy , Spike leaves Sunnydale and travels to see a demon and asks him to `` return him to what he used to be '' so that he can `` give Buffy what she deserves . '' After Spike passes a series of brutal tests , the demon restores his soul . During season seven , it is revealed that Buffy 's second resurrection caused an instability that is allowing the First Evil to begin tipping the balance between good and evil . It begins by hunting down and killing inactive Potential Slayers , and soon raises an army of ancient , powerful Turok-Han vampires . After the Watchers ' Council is destroyed , a number of Potential Slayers ( some brought by Giles ) take refuge in Buffy 's house . Faith returns to help fight the First Evil , and the new Sunnydale High School 's principal , Robin Wood , also joins the cause . The Turok-Han vampires and a sinister , misogynistic preacher known as Caleb begin causing havoc for the Scoobies . As the Hellmouth becomes more active , nearly all of Sunnydale 's population – humans and demons alike – flee . In the series finale , Buffy kills Caleb , and Angel returns to Sunnydale with an amulet , which Buffy gives to Spike ; the Scoobies then surround the Hellmouth and the Potential Slayers descend into its cavern , while Willow casts a spell that activates their Slayer powers . Anya dies in the fight , as do some of the new Slayers . Spike 's amulet channels the power of the sun to destroy the Hellmouth and all the vampires within it , including himself . The collapse of the cavern creates a crater that swallows all of Sunnydale , while the survivors of the battle escape in a school bus . In the final scene , as the survivors survey the crater , Dawn asks , `` What are we going to do now ? '' Buffy slowly begins to enigmatically smile as she contemplates the future ahead of her , ending the series on a hopeful note . Production Origins Writer Joss Whedon says that `` Rhonda the Immortal Waitress '' was really the first incarnation of the Buffy concept , `` the idea of some woman who seems to be completely insignificant who turns out to be extraordinary . '' This early , unproduced idea evolved into Buffy , which Whedon developed to invert the Hollywood formula of `` the little blonde girl who goes into a dark alley and gets killed in every horror movie . '' Whedon wanted `` to subvert that idea and create someone who was a hero . '' He explained , `` The very first mission statement of the show was the joy of female power : having it , using it , sharing it . '' The idea was first visited through Whedon 's script for the 1992 movie Buffy the Vampire Slayer , which featured Kristy Swanson in the title role . The director , Fran Rubel Kuzui , saw it as a `` pop culture comedy about what people think about vampires . '' Whedon disagreed : `` I had written this scary film about an empowered woman , and they turned it into a broad comedy . It was crushing . '' The script was praised within the industry , but the movie was not . Several years later , Gail Berman ( later a Fox executive , but at that time President and CEO of the production company Sandollar Television , who owned the TV rights to the movie ) approached Whedon to develop his Buffy concept into a television series . Whedon explained that `` They said , 'Do you want to do a show ? ' And I thought , 'High school as a horror movie . ' And so the metaphor became the central concept behind Buffy , and that 's how I sold it . '' The supernatural elements in the series stood as metaphors for personal anxieties associated with adolescence and young adulthood . Early in its development , the series was going to be simply titled Slayer . Whedon went on to write and partly fund a 25-minute non-broadcast pilot that was shown to networks and eventually sold to the WB Network . The latter promoted the premiere with a series of History of the Slayer clips , and the first episode aired on March 10 , 1997 . Executive producers Joss Whedon was credited as executive producer throughout the run of the series , and for the first five seasons ( 1997–2001 ) he was also the showrunner , supervising the writing and all aspects of production . Marti Noxon took on the role for seasons six and seven ( 2001–2003 ) , but Whedon continued to be involved with writing and directing Buffy alongside projects such as Angel , Fray , and Firefly . Fran Rubel Kuzui and her husband , Kaz Kuzui , were credited as executive producers but were not involved in the show . Their credit , rights , and royalties over the franchise relate to their funding , producing , and directing of the original movie version of Buffy . Writing Script-writing was done by Mutant Enemy , a production company created by Whedon in 1997 . The writers with the most writing credits are Joss Whedon , Steven S. DeKnight , Jane Espenson , David Fury , Drew Goddard , Drew Greenberg , David Greenwalt , Rebecca Rand Kirshner , Marti Noxon and Doug Petrie . Other authors with writing credits include Dean Batali , Carl Ellsworth , Tracey Forbes , Ashley Gable , Howard Gordon , Diego Gutierrez , Elin Hampton , Rob Des Hotel , Matt Kiene , Ty King , Thomas A. Swyden , Joe Reinkemeyer , Dana Reston and Dan Vebber . Jane Espenson has explained how scripts came together . First , the writers talked about the emotional issues facing Buffy Summers and how she would confront them through her battle against evil supernatural forces . Then the episode 's story was `` broken '' into acts and scenes . Act breaks were designed as key moments to intrigue viewers so that they would stay with the episode following the commercial break . The writers collectively filled in scenes surrounding these act breaks for a more fleshed-out story . A whiteboard marked their progress by mapping brief descriptions of each scene . Once `` breaking '' was done , the credited author wrote an outline for the episode , which was checked by Whedon or Noxon . The writer then wrote a full script , which went through a series of drafts , and finally a quick rewrite from the show runner . The final article was used as the shooting script . Broadcast history and syndication Buffy the Vampire Slayer first aired on March 10 , 1997 , ( as a mid season replacement for the show Savannah ) on the WB network , and played a key role in the growth of the Warner Bros. television network in its early years . After five seasons , it transferred to the United Paramount Network ( UPN ) for its final two seasons . In 2001 , the show went into syndication in the United States on local stations and on cable channel FX ; the local airings ended in 2005 , and the FX airings lasted until 2008 but returned to the network in 2013 . Beginning in January 2010 , it began to air in syndication in the United States on Logo . Reruns also briefly aired on MTV . In March 2010 , it began to air in Canada on MuchMusic and MuchMore . On November 7 , 2010 , it began airing on Chiller with a 24-hour marathon ; the series airs weekdays . Chiller also aired a 14-hour Thanksgiving Day marathon on November 25 , 2010 . In 2011 , it began airing on Oxygen and TeenNick . On June 22 , 2015 , it began airing on ABC Family . While the seventh season was still being broadcast , Sarah Michelle Gellar told Entertainment Weekly she was not going to sign on for an eighth year ; `` When we started to have such a strong year this year , I thought : 'This is how I want to go out , on top , at our best . ' '' Whedon and UPN gave some considerations to production of a spin-off series that would not require Gellar , including a rumored Faith series , but nothing came of those plans . The Buffy canon continued outside the television medium in the Dark Horse Comics series , Buffy Season Eight . This was produced starting March 2007 by Whedon , who also wrote the first story arc , `` The Long Way Home '' . As of July 15 , 2008 , Buffy the Vampire Slayer episodes are available to download for PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable video game consoles via the PlayStation Network . In the United Kingdom , the entire series aired

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When did the US TV series, Buffy the Vampire Slayer, begin its six years of seasons?

The Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation ( BMC ) also known as . Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai is the civic body that governs the capital city of Mumbai in Maharashtra and is India 's richest municipal organization . The BMC 's annual budget is more than that of some of the small states of India . Established under the Bombay Municipal Corporation Act 1888 , it is responsible for the civic infrastructure and administration of the city and some suburbs of Mumbai . In 2014 , Trishna Vishwasrao became the first female corporator to be leader of the Corporation 's house . Administration The Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation is headed by a Municipal commissioner , an IAS officer . The commissioner wields the executive power of the house . A quinquennial election is held to elect corporators to power . The corporators are responsible for overseeing that their constituencies have the basic civic infrastructure in place , and that there is no lacuna on the part of the authorities . The mayor is the head of the house , who is usually from the majority party . As of June 2008 , all administrative business in the BMC is conducted in Marathi . Legislative As of 2009 , the Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation 's legislature , also known as the Corporation Council , consists of 227 members . Corporation Election 2012 Political Performance in Election 2012

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Which famous city has the official website domain www.mcgm.gov.in?

Gamesmanship is the use of dubious ( although not technically illegal ) methods to win or gain a serious advantage in a game or sport . It has been described as `` Pushing the rules to the limit without getting caught , using whatever dubious methods possible to achieve the desired end '' ( Lumpkin , Stoll and Beller , 1994:92 ) . It may be inferred that the term derives from the idea of playing for the game ( i.e. , to win at any cost ) as opposed to sportsmanship , which derives from the idea of playing for sport . The term originates from Stephen Potter 's humorous 1947 book , The Theory and Practice of Gamesmanship ( or the Art of Winning Games without Actually Cheating ) . Origins Potter cites the origin of gamesmanship to be a tennis match in which he and the philosopher C. E. M. Joad competed against two younger and fitter men who were outplaying them fairly comfortably . On returning a serve , Joad hit the ball straight into the back-netting twelve feet behind the back-line . While the opponents were preparing for the next serve , Joad 'called across the net , in an even tone : `` Kindly state clearly , please , whether the ball was in or out '' ' . Being young , polite university students , their opponents offered to replay the point , but Joad declined . Because they were young and polite , the slight suggestion by Joad that their etiquette and sportsmanship were in question was extremely off-putting , and distracted them for the rest of the contest . Potter and Joad went on to win the match . Techniques Common techniques of gamesmanship include : # Breaking the flow of an opponent 's play ( Potter insisted 'There is only one rule ; BREAK THE FLOW . ' ) # Causing an opponent to take the game less seriously or to overthink his or her position # Intentionally making a `` mistake '' which gains an advantage over an opponent While the first method is more common at higher levels of sports , the last two are more powerful in amateur games . Breaking the flow Examples of `` flow-breaking '' methods include : * In darts , a player intentionally taking a long time to take their darts out of the dartboard * Feigning injury to delay the game , or reduce advertised ability . The skilled gamesman can counter this tactic by waiting until the game has been in play for some time , before revealing that he or she suffers from a far more serious condition , such as a heart defect * In billiards or snooker , intentionally standing in the opponent 's line of sight , and then suddenly moving when the opponent is about to shoot under the guise of getting out of their sight line . `` More or less at the last moment , leaping into the correct position with exaggerated agility , and stand rigidly with head bowed . '' * Distracting the opposing player by complaining about other people who might be ( but were not ) distracting the opposing player . Potter , who always insisted that the good gamesman must give the appearance of being a good sportsman , recommended this approach . For example , if an opponent is about to take a shot at billiards , it is bad gamesmanship to fidget and whistle but good gamesmanship to distract him by loudly requesting silence from spectators : 'Simulate annoyance , on the opponent 's behalf , with the onlookers ' . * When winning a point maintain direct eye contact with opponent , but when losing one always avoid direct eye contact . * In cricket , coming out to bat with two right-handed gloves and then wasting time sorting out the problem . * In baseball , a batter disrupting a pitcher 's flow by calling time just before he delivers the pitch . * When losing an outdoor game , feigning a deep , informed and more than amateur interest in e.g . botany or ornithology , in order to convey a breadth of interests and suggest to the opponent that losing is not of concern . This can cause the opponent to relax their attention , or at any rate rob them of the satisfaction of winning . Potter termed this 'the natural hampette ... See Gardens for Gamesmen , or When to be Fond of Flowers ( 15s . ) ' . * In amateur ice hockey , intentionally icing the puck , lining up at the wrong face-off dot , or shooting the puck over the glass ( in professional hockey , the team that ices the puck is not allowed a line change , while shooting the puck over the glass leads to a two-minute penalty ) . * In tennis ( when serving ) taking a long time between serves and making the receiver wait . * In rugby league : * * Taking too long to pack down in a scrum , thus wasting time ; * * Taking too long to take to the field before a match or after half-time , thus forcing the opposition team to wait for a prolonged period before the match starts or resumes . * In American football , calling a time out the instant before a game-winning or game-tying field goal or PAT to break the normal flow of play . This is known as `` icing '' or `` freezing '' the kicker . Causing the opponent to overthink Examples of methods designed to cause the opponent to overthink or to not take the game seriously enough include : * Giving intentionally vague advice in the hope of making the opponent focus on his play . In such `` Advicemanship '' , 'the advice must be vague , to make certain it is not helpful ' , although Potter also noted that 'according to some authorities the advice should be quite genuine and perfectly practical ' . * Asking one 's opponent 's advice for a ( fictitious ) match the following day , against an implied stronger opponent . * Claiming that the game being played `` just is n't my sport '' , or claiming less expertise than the player actually possesses ( a mild form of hustling ) . * In American football , the very common practice of taking one or more timeouts to give an opposing kicker an excessive amount of time to think about a critical kick ; most often a field goal or extra point but sometimes a potential on-side kick . The intent is to cause the kicker to get overly stressed about making a mistake and hopefully create a self-fulfilling prophecy . This is commonly referred to as `` icing the kicker . '' A common variant of this strategy is to attempt to call the timeout right before the ball is snapped , so that there is not enough time to stop the play and the opposing kicker has to attempt the same kick twice . * `` Icing '' is also used , albeit less frequently , in basketball . In late-game situations with a player shooting free throws , it is not uncommon for the opposing team to take a timeout . This is commonly referred to as `` icing the shooter '' . * The converse approach , suggesting a level of expertise far higher than the player actually possesses , can also be effective . For example , although gamesmanship frowns on simple distractions like whistling loudly while an opponent takes a shot , it is good gamesmanship to do so when taking a shot oneself , suggesting as it does a level of carefree detachment which the opponent does not possess . Other * If the players personally know and/or have experience with each other , lies and other conversation topics can be used . In wrestling or many combat sports , it could be targeting a limb which the opponent has been carrying an injury . Intentional `` mistakes '' Examples of intentional `` mistakes '' designed to gain an advantage : * In bridge , intentionally misdealing and then engaging in chaotic bidding , knowing that the hand will be void anyway , in the hope that 'opponents will…be unable to form a working judgement of the opponents ' bidding form ' . * In poker , intentionally raising out of turn , to induce players to give a free card . * In baseball , intentionally dropping a caught ball , to create a force play on the baserunners ( hence the infield fly rule ) . All of the above are considered very close to cheating , and the abuser of gamesmanship techniques will find himself penalized in most serious sports and games tournaments , as well as being deemed ( if caught ) a `` bad sport '' . The rules of the International Defensive Pistol Association for its practical shooting matches specifically state that any illegal action taken with the intent of gaining a competitive advantage is penalized as a `` Failure to Do Right '' , adding 20 seconds to the competitor 's time . This penalty is rarely given , partly because of its highly subjective nature . Football/soccer In association football ( soccer ) , it is considered good sportsmanship to kick the ball out of play if a player on the opposing side is injured ; when the ball is to be thrown in , it is also considered to be good sportsmanship in this situation to kick it ( or throw it ) back to the other team who had intentionally kicked it out . Gamesmanship arises in this situation when , rather than passing the ball back to the side who kicked the ball out , the injured player 's teammates keep the ball after the throw-in . Whilst not illegal or against the rules of the sport , it is heavily frowned upon . A high-profile example occurred during the game Portugal vs. Netherlands in round 16 of FIFA World Cup 2006 , where the game , already marred by numerous cautions and even red cards , further deteriorated because of such an incident . Also , in a 1999 English FA Cup fifth round tie between Arsenal and Sheffield United , Arsenal 's winning goal scored under these circumstances was so contentious the Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger offered to replay the match . Sheffield United accepted , though Arsenal went on to win the second game by the same margin , 2-1 . Feigning injury to cause the ball to be kicked out is another example of gamesmanship intended to break the flow of play , though if detected , it may be regarded as ungentlemanly conduct , which is a breach of the laws and hence is no longer gamesmanship . In response to claims of feigned injuries during the 2006 World Cup , the Premier League has asked players , managers and referees to end the custom as of the 06/07 season , instead preferring a referee alone to determine whether a break in play is needed . When a free kick is awarded , members of the defending team will often pick up the ball and drop it back behind them as they retreat . Whilst not throwing the ball away , which would be an infringement , the purpose is to prevent a swiftly taken free kick . Usage outside of games The term `` gamesmanship '' is also used for similar techniques used in non-game situations , such as negotiations and elections . Each form is frequently used as a means of describing dubious methods of winning and/or psychological tricks used to intimidate or confuse one 's opponent . Technically speaking , these tactics are One-upmanship , defined in a later book by Potter as the art of being one-up on somebody else . The term also appears in art theory to mean playfulness , as in `` literary gamesmanship '' . [ http : //www.complete-review.com/reviews/ugresicd/jaws.htm ] [ http : //www.mcsweeneys.net/authorpages/eggers/eggers15.html ] The gamesman versus the pure player Potter 's double-edged ironies did not spare the gamesman himself ( he slyly named one prominent protagonist 'Bzo , U. , holder ( 1947 ) Yugo-Slav Gamesmanship Championship ' , for example ) . Potter acknowledged repeatedly that 'the way of the gamesman is hard , his training strict , his progress slow , his disappointments many ' , and recognised that as a result 'the assiduous student of gamesmanship has little time for the minutiae of the game itself - little opportunity for learning how to play the shots , for instance ' . Yet one of his `` correspondents '' owlishly admits , 'there is no doubt that a knowledge of the game itself sometimes helps the gamesman ' . Hence 'perhaps the most difficult type for the gamesman to play is the man who indulges in pure play . He gets down to it , he gets on with it , he plays each shot according to its merits , and his own powers , without a trace of exhibitionism , and no by-play whatever ' . The book gloomily concludes , 'we amateurs have to fight against the growing menace of young people who insist on playing their various games for the fun of the thing ... indulging rather too freely , if the truth were known , in pure play ' .

sfq_7603--Gamesmanship.txt

Who wrote One-upmanship and The Theory and Practice of Gamesmanship?

Brandy ( from brandywine , derived from Dutch brandewijn , `` gebrande wijn '' `` burned wine '' ) is a spirit produced by distilling wine . Brandy generally contains 35–60 % alcohol by volume ( 70–120 US proof ) and is typically taken as an after-dinner drink . Some brandies are aged in wooden casks , some are coloured with caramel colouring to imitate the effect of aging , and some brandies are produced using a combination of both aging and colouring . In broader sense , the term `` brandy '' also denotes liquors obtained from distillation of pomace ( pomace brandy ) or mash or wine of any other fruit ( fruit brandy ) . These products are also named eaux-de-vie . Varieties of wine brandy can be found across the winemaking world . Among the most renowned are Cognac and Armagnac from Southwestern France . History The origins of brandy were clearly tied to the development of distillation . While the process was known in classical times , it was n't used for significant beverage production until the 15th century . Initially wine was distilled as a preservation method and as a way to make it easier for merchants to transport . It is also thought that wine was originally distilled to lessen the tax which was assessed by volume . The intent was to add the water removed by distillation back to the brandy shortly before consumption . It was discovered that after having been stored in wooden casks , the resulting product had improved over the original distilled spirit . In addition to removing water , the distillation process led to the formation and decomposition of numerous aromatic compounds , fundamentally altering the composition of the distillate from its source . Non-volatile substances such as pigments , sugars , and salts remained behind in the still . As a result , the taste of the distillate was often quite unlike that of the original source . As described in the 1728 edition of Cyclopaedia , the following method was used to distill brandy : A cucurbit was filled half full of the liquor from which brandy was to be drawn and then raised with a little fire until about one sixth part was distilled , or until that which falls into the receiver was entirely flammable . This liquor , distilled only once , was called spirit of wine or brandy . Purified by another distillation ( or several more ) , this was then called spirit of wine rectified . The second distillation was made in balneo mariae and in a glass cucurbit , and the liquor was distilled to about one half the quantity . This was further rectified—as long as the operator thought necessary—to produce brandy . To shorten these several distillations , which were long and troublesome , a chemical instrument was invented that reduced them to a single distillation . To test the purity of the rectified spirit of wine , a portion was ignited . If the entire contents were consumed by a fire without leaving any impurities behind , then the liquor was good . Another , better test involved putting a little gunpowder in the bottom of the spirit . If the gunpowder could ignite after the spirit was consumed by fire , then the liquor was good . As most brandies have been distilled from grapes , the regions of the world producing excellent brandies have roughly paralleled those areas producing grapes for viniculture . At the end of the 19th century , the western European markets , including by extension their overseas empires , were dominated by French and Spanish brandies and eastern Europe was dominated by brandies from the Black Sea region , including Bulgaria , the Crimea , and Georgia . In 1884 , David Sarajishvili founded his brandy factory in Tbilisi , Georgia , a crossroads for Turkish , Central Asian , and Persian trade routes and a part of the Russian Empire at the time . Armenian and Georgian brandies , called cognacs in the era , were considered some of the best in the world and often beat their French competitors at the International Expositions in Paris and Brussels in the early 1900s . The storehouses of the Romanov Court in St. Petersburg were regarded as the largest collections of cognacs and wines in the world with much of it from the Transcaucasus region of Georgia . During the October Revolution of 1917 , upon the storming of the Winter Palace , the Bolshevik Revolution actually paused for a week or so as the participants gorged on the substantial stores of cognac and wines . The Russian market was always a huge brandy-consuming region in which home-grown varieties were common but much of it was imported . The patterns of bottles followed that of the western European norm . Throughout the Soviet era , the production of brandy was a source of pride for the communist regime as they continued to produce some excellent varieties , especially the most famous Jubilee Brandies of 1967 , 1977 , and 1987 . Remaining bottles of these productions are highly sought after , not simply for their quality , but for their historical significance . Technology Except for few major producers , brandy production and consumption tend to have a regional character and thus production methods significantly vary . Wine brandy is produced from a variety of grape cultivars . A special selection of cultivars , providing distinct aroma and character , is used for high-quality brandies , while cheaper ones are made from whichever wine is available . Brandy is made from so-called base wine , which significantly differs from regular table wines . It is made from early grapes in order to achieve higher acid concentration and lower sugar levels . Base wine generally contains smaller amount ( up to 20 mg/l ) of sulphur than regular wines , as it creates undesired copper ( II ) sulfate in reaction with copper in the pot stills . The yeast sediment produced during the fermentation may or may not be kept in the wine , depending on the brandy style . Brandy is distilled from the base wine in two phases . In the first , large part of water and solids is removed from the base , obtaining so-called `` low wine '' , basically a concentrated wine with 28–30 % ABV . In the second stage , low wine is distilled into brandy . The liquid exits the pot still in three phases , referred to as the `` heads '' , `` heart '' and `` tails '' respectively . The first part , the `` head , '' has an alcohol concentration of about 83 % ( 166 US proof ) and an unpleasant odour . The weak portion on the end , `` tail '' , is discarded along with the head , and they are generally mixed with another batch of low wine , thereby entering the distillation cycle again . The middle heart fraction , richest in aromas and flavours , is preserved for later maturation . Distillation does not simply enhance the alcohol content of wine . The heat under which the product is distilled and the material of the still ( usually copper ) cause chemical reactions to take place during distillation . This leads to the formation of numerous new volatile aroma components , changes in relative amounts of aroma components in the wine , and the hydrolysis of components such as esters . Brandy is usually produced in pot stills ( batch distillation ) , but the column still can also be used for continuous distillation . Distillate obtained in this manner has a higher alcohol concentration ( approximately 90 % ABV ) and is less aromatic . Choice of the apparatus depends on the style of brandy produced . Cognac and South African brandy are examples of brandy produced in batches while many American brandies use fractional distillation in column stills . Aging After distillation , the unaged brandy is placed into oak barrels to mature . Usually , brandies with a natural golden or brown colour are aged in oak casks ( single-barrel aging ) . Some brandies , particularly those from Spain , are aged using the solera system , where the producer changes the barrel each year . After a period of aging , which depends on the style , class and legal requirements , the mature brandy is mixed with distilled water to reduce alcohol concentration and bottled . Some brandies have caramel colour and sugar added to simulate the appearance of barrel aging . Consumption Serving Brandy is traditionally served at room temperature ( neat ) from a snifter , a wine glass or a tulip glass . When drunk at room temperature , it is often slightly warmed by holding the glass cupped in the palm or by gentle heating . Excessive heating of brandy may cause the alcohol vapour to become too strong , causing its aroma to become overpowering . Brandy drinkers who like their brandy warmed may ask for the glass to be heated before the brandy is poured . Brandy may be added to other beverages to make several popular cocktails ; these include the Brandy Sour , the Brandy Alexander , the Sidecar , the Brandy Daisy , and the Brandy Old Fashioned . Culinary uses Brandy is a common deglazing liquid used in making pan sauces for steak and other meat . It is used to create a more intense flavour in some soups , notably onion soup . In English Christmas cooking , brandy is a common flavouring in traditional foods such as Christmas cake , brandy butter , and Christmas pudding . It is also commonly used in drinks such as mulled wine , drunk during the festive season . Brandy is used to flambé dishes such as crêpe Suzette and cherries jubilee while serving . Brandy is traditionally poured over Christmas pudding and set alight . The flames consume most of the alcohol but the pudding is left with a distinctive flavour . Terminology and legal definitions In the general colloquial usage of the term , brandy may also be made from pomace and from fermented fruit other than grapes . If a beverage comes from a particular fruit ( or multiple fruits ) other than exclusively grapes , or from the must of such fruit , it may be referred to as a `` fruit brandy '' or `` fruit spirit '' or named using the specific fruit , such as `` peach brandy '' , rather than just generically as `` brandy '' . If pomace is the raw material , the beverage may be called `` pomace brandy '' , `` marc brandy '' , `` grape marc '' , `` fruit marc spirit '' , or `` grape marc spirit '' ; `` marc '' being the pulp residue after the juice has been pressed from the fruit . Grape pomace brandy may be designated as `` grappa '' or `` grappa brandy '' . Apple brandy may be referred to as `` applejack '' . There is also a product called `` grain brandy '' that is made from grain spirits . Within particular jurisdictions , there are specific regulatory requirements regarding the labelling of products identified as brandy . For example : * In the European Union , there are regulations that require products labelled as brandy , except `` grain brandy '' , to be produced exclusively from the distillation or redistillation of grape-based wine or grape-based `` wine fortified for distillation '' and aged a minimum of six months in oak . Alcoholic beverages imported to the EU from the United States or other non-EU states can be sold within the European Union using labels that refer to them as `` fruit brandy '' or `` pomace brandy '' , but such a label can not be used in the EU for products produced in an EU-member state . * In the US , brandy that has been produced from other than grape wine must be labelled with a clarifying description of the type of brandy production such as `` peach brandy '' , `` fruit brandy '' , `` dried fruit brandy '' , or `` pomace brandy '' , and brandy that has not been aged in oak for at least two years must be labelled as `` immature '' . * In Canada , the regulations regarding naming conventions for brandy are similar to those of the US ( provisions B.02.050–061 ) . The minimum specified aging period is six months in wood , although not necessarily oak ( provision B.02.061.2 ) . Caramel , fruit , other botanical substances , flavourings , and flavouring preparations may also be included in a product called brandy ( provisions B.02.050–059 ) . Within the European Union , the German term Weinbrand is legally equivalent to the English term `` brandy '' , but outside the German-speaking countries it is particularly used to designate brandy from Austria and Germany . Varieties and brands * Most of American grape brandy production is situated in California . Popular brands include Christian Brothers , E & J Gallo and Korbel . * Armenian brandy has been produced since the 1880s and comes from the Ararat plain in the southern part of Armenia . Bottles on the market are aged anywhere from 3 to 20 years . * Armagnac is made from grapes of the Armagnac region in the southwest of France , Gers , Landes and Lot-et-Garonne . It is single-continuous distilled in a copper still and aged in oak casks from Gascony or Limousin or from the renowned Tronçais Forest in Auvergne . Armagnac was the first distilled spirit in France . Its usage was first mentioned in 1310 by Vital Du Four in a book of medicine recipes . Armagnacs have a specificity : they offer vintage qualities . Popular brands are Darroze , Baron de Sigognac , Larressingle , Delord , Laubade , Gélas and Janneau . * Cognac comes from the Cognac region of France , and is double distilled using pot stills . Popular brands include Hine , Martell , Camus , Otard , Rémy Martin , Hennessy , Frapin , Delamain and Courvoisier . * Cyprus brandy differs from other varieties in that its alcohol concentration is only 32 % ABV ( 64 US proof ) . * Greek brandy is distilled from Muscat wine . Mature distillates are made from sun-dried Savatiano , Sultana and Black Corinth grape varieties blended with an aged Muscat wine . * Brandy de Jerez originates from vineyards around Jerez de la Frontera in Andalusia , Spain . It is used in some sherries and is also available as a separate product . It has a protected designation of origin ( PDO ) . * Kanyak ( or konyak ) is a variety from Turkey whose name is a variation of `` cognac '' and also means `` burn blood '' in Turkish , a reference to its use in cold weather . * Pisco is a strong , colourless to amber-coloured brandy produced in specific regions of Chile and Peru . The name Pisco derives from the Peruvian port of the same name . Pisco is still made in Peru and Chile but the right to produce and market it is subject to disputes between both countries . * South African brandies are , by law , made almost exactly as Cognac , using a double distillation process in copper pot stills followed by aging in oak barrels for a minimum of three years . Because of this , South African brandies are a very high quality . * Italian Stravecchio has been produced since the 1700s in the North of Italy , especially in Emilia-Romagna and Veneto , using grapes popular in winemaking such as Sangiovese and Grignolino . Colour , texture and finish are most resembling those of their French and Spanish counterparts . Most popular brands are Vecchia Romagna , Stravecchio Branca and Stock 84 . Northern Italy is also noted since the Middle Ages for another type of wine spirit , Grappa , which is generally colourless but has some top-shelf varieties called barrique which are aged in oak casks and achieve the same caramel colour as regular brandies . There is a vast production of Stravecchios and Grappas in Italy , with more than 600 large , medium or small distilleries in operation . Ticino is also allowed to produce pomace brandy under the name of Grappa . The European Union and some other countries legally enforce the use of `` Cognac '' as the exclusive name for brandy produced and distilled in the Cognac area of France , and the name `` Armagnac '' for brandy from the Gascony area of France . Both must also be made using traditional techniques . Since these are considered `` protected designation of origin '' , a brandy made elsewhere may not be called Cognac in these jurisdictions , even if it were made in an identical manner . Labelling of grades Brandy has a traditional age grading system , although its use is unregulated outside of Cognac and Armagnac . These indicators can usually be found on the label near the brand name : * V.S . ( `` very special '' ) or ✯✯✯ ( three stars ) designates a blend in which the youngest brandy has been stored for at least two years in a cask . * V.S.O.P . ( `` very superior old pale '' ) , Reserve or ✯✯✯✯✯ ( five stars ) designates a blend in which the youngest brandy is stored for at least four years in a cask . * XO ( `` extra old '' ) or Napoléon designates a blend in which the youngest brandy is stored for at least six years . * Hors d'âge ( `` beyond age '' ) is a designation which is formally equal to XO for Cognac , but for Armagnac designates brandy that is at least ten years old . In practice the term is used by producers to market a high-quality product beyond the official age scale . In the case of Brandy de Jerez , the Consejo Regulador de la Denominacion Brandy de Jerez classifies it according to : * Brandy de Jerez Solera : one year old . * Brandy de Jerez Solera Reserva : three years old . * Brandy de Jerez Solera Gran Reserva : ten years old .

sfq_6573--Brandy.txt

Which sub-region of Aquitaine in SW France gives its name to a type of brandy?

Bruges ( ; ; ) is the capital and largest city of the province of West Flanders in the Flemish Region of Belgium , in the northwest of the country . The area of the whole city amounts to more than 13,840 hectares , including 1,075 hectares off the coast , at Zeebrugge ( from Brugge aan zee meaning `` Bruges on Sea '' ) . The historic city centre is a prominent World Heritage Site of UNESCO . It is oval-shaped and about 430 hectares in size . The city 's total population is 117,073 ( 1 January 2008 ) , of whom around 20,000 live in the city centre . The metropolitan area , including the outer commuter zone , covers an area of 616 km² and has a total of 255,844 inhabitants as of 1 January 2008 . Along with a few other canal-based northern cities , such as Amsterdam and Stockholm , it is sometimes referred to as The Venice of the North . Bruges has a significant economic importance thanks to its port and was once the chief commercial city in the world . Bruges is well known as the seat of the College of Europe , an elite university institute for European studies regarded as `` the EU 's very own Oxbridge . '' Origin of the name The place is first mentioned in records as Bruggas , Brvggas , Brvccia in 840–875 , then as Bruciam , Bruociam ( in 892 ) , Brutgis uico ( toward end of the 9th century ) , in portu Bruggensi ( c. 1010 ) , Bruggis ( 1012 ) , Bricge ( 1037 , in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle ) , Brugensis ( 1046 ) , Brycge ( 1049–1052 , again in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle ) , Brugias ( 1072 ) , Bruges ( 1080–1085 ) , Bruggas ( c. 1084 ) , Brugis ( 1089 ) , and Brugge ( 1116 ) . The name probably derives from the Old Dutch for `` bridge '' : brugga . Also compare Middle Dutch brucge , brugge ( or brugghe , brigghe , bregghe , brogghe ) , and modern Dutch bruggehoofd ( `` bridgehead '' ) and brug ( `` bridge '' ) . The form brugghe would be a southern Dutch variant . The Dutch word and the English `` bridge '' both derive from Proto-Germanic * brugjō- . History Origins Bruges was a location of coastal settlement during prehistory . This Bronze Age and Iron Age settlement is unrelated to medieval city development . In the Bruges area , the first fortifications were built after Julius Caesar 's conquest of the Menapii in the first century BC , to protect the coastal area against pirates . The Franks took over the whole region from the Gallo-Romans around the 4th century and administered it as the Pagus Flandrensis . The Viking incursions of the ninth century prompted Count Baldwin I of Flanders to reinforce the Roman fortifications ; trade soon resumed with England and Scandinavia . Early medieval habitation starts in the 9th and 10th century on the Burgh terrain , probably with a fortified settlement and church Golden age ( 12th to 15th centuries ) Bruges became important due to the tidal inlet that was important to local commerce , This inlet was then known as the `` Golden Inlet '' . Bruges received its city charter on 27 July 1128 , and new walls and canals were built . Since about 1050 , gradual silting had caused the city to lose its direct access to the sea . A storm in 1134 , however , re-established this access , through the creation of a natural channel at the Zwin . The new sea arm stretched all the way to Damme , a city that became the commercial outpost for Bruges . Trade Bruges had a strategic location at the crossroads of the northern Hanseatic League trade and the southern trade routes . Bruges was already included in the circuit of the Flemish and French cloth fairs at the beginning of the 13th century , but when the old system of fairs broke down the entrepreneurs of Bruges innovated . They developed , or borrowed from Italy , new forms of merchant capitalism , whereby several merchants would share the risks and profits and pool their knowledge of markets . They employed new forms of economic exchange , including bills of exchange ( i.e . promissory notes ) and letters of credit . The city eagerly welcomed foreign traders , most notably the Portuguese traders selling pepper and other spices . With the reawakening of town life in the twelfth century , a wool market , a woollens weaving industry , and the market for cloth all profited from the shelter of city walls , where surpluses could be safely accumulated under the patronage of the counts of Flanders . The city 's entrepreneurs reached out to make economic colonies of England and Scotland 's wool-producing districts . English contacts brought Normandy grain and Gascon wines . Hanseatic ships filled the harbor , which had to be expanded beyond Damme to Sluys to accommodate the new cog-ships . In 1277 , the first merchant fleet from Genoa appeared in the port of Bruges , first of the merchant colony that made Bruges the main link to the trade of the Mediterranean . This development opened not only the trade in spices from the Levant , but also advanced commercial and financial techniques and a flood of capital that soon took over the banking of Bruges . The Bourse opened in 1309 ( most likely the first stock exchange in the world ) and developed into the most sophisticated money market of the Low Countries in the 14th century . By the time Venetian galleys first appeared , in 1314 , they were latecomers . Numerous foreign merchants were welcomed in Bruges , such as the Castilian wool merchants who first arrived in the 13th century . After the Castilian wool monopoly ended , the Basques , many hailing from Bilbao ( Biscay ) , thrived as merchants ( wool , iron commodities , etc . ) and established their own commercial consulate in Bruges by the mid-15th century . The foreign merchants expanded the city 's trading zones . They maintained separate communities governed by their own laws until the economic collapse after 1700 . Such wealth gave rise to social upheavals , which were for the most part harshly contained by the militia . In 1302 , however , after the Bruges Matins ( the nocturnal massacre of the French garrison in Bruges by the members of the local Flemish militia on 18 May 1302 ) , the population joined forces with the Count of Flanders against the French , culminating in the victory at the Battle of the Golden Spurs , fought near Kortrijk on 11 July . The statue of Jan Breydel and Pieter de Coninck , the leaders of the uprising , can still be seen on the Big Market square . The city maintained a militia as a permanent paramilitary body . It gained flexibility and high prestige by close ties to a guild of organized militia , comprising professionals and specialized units . Militia men bought and maintained their own weapons and armour , according to their family status and wealth . At the end of the 14th century , Bruges became one of the Four Members , along with Franc of Bruges , Ghent and Ypres . Together they formed a parliament ; however they frequently quarrelled amongst themselves . In the 15th century , Philip the Good , Duke of Burgundy , set up court in Bruges , as well as Brussels and Lille , attracting a number of artists , bankers , and other prominent personalities from all over Europe . The weavers and spinners of Bruges were thought to be the best in the world , and the population of Bruges grew to at least 125,000 and perhaps up to 200,000 inhabitants at this time around 1400 AD . The new oil-painting techniques of the Flemish school gained world renown . The first book in English ever printed was published in Bruges by William Caxton . This is also when Edward IV and Richard III of England spent time in exile here . Decline after 1500 Starting around 1500 , the Zwin channel , ( the Golden Inlet ) which had given the city its prosperity , also started silting and the Golden Era had ended . The city soon fell behind Antwerp as the economic flagship of the Low Countries . During the 17th century , the lace industry took off , and various efforts to bring back the glorious past were made . During the 1650s , the city was the base for Charles II of England and his court in exile . The maritime infrastructure was modernized , and new connections with the sea were built , but without much success , as Antwerp became increasingly dominant . Bruges became impoverished and gradually faded in importance ; its population dwindling from 200,000 to 50,000 by 1900 . The symbolist novelist George Rodenbach even made the sleepy city into a character in his novel Bruges-la-Morte , meaning `` Bruges-the-dead '' , which was adapted into Erich Wolfgang Korngold 's opera , Die tote Stadt ( The Dead City ) . 19th century and later : revival In the last half of the 19th century , Bruges became one of the world 's first tourist destinations attracting wealthy British and French tourists . By 1909 it had in operation an association called 'Bruges Forward : Society to Improve Tourism . ' After 1965 the original medieval city experienced a renaissance . Restorations of residential and commercial structures , historic monuments , and churches generated a surge in tourism and economic activity in the ancient downtown area . International tourism has boomed , and new efforts have resulted in Bruges being designated 'European Capital of Culture ' in 2002 . It attracts some 2 million tourists annually . The port of Zeebrugge was built in 1907 . The Germans used it for their U-boats in World War I . It was greatly expanded in the 1970s and early 1980s and has become one of Europe 's most important and modern ports . Geography The municipality comprises : * The historic city centre of Bruges , Sint-Jozef and Sint-Pieters ( I ) * Koolkerke ( II ) * Sint-Andries ( III ) * Sint-Michiels ( IV ) * Assebroek ( V ) * Sint-Kruis ( VI ) * Dudzele ( VII ) * Lissewege ( with Zeebrugge and Zwankendamme ) ( VIII ) Sights Bruges has most of its medieval architecture intact . The historic centre of Bruges has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2000 . Many of its medieval buildings are notable , including the Church of Our Lady , whose brick spire reaches , making it one of the world 's highest brick towers/buildings . The sculpture Madonna and Child , which can be seen in the transept , is believed to be Michelangelo 's only sculpture to have left Italy within his lifetime . Bruges ' most famous landmark is its 13th-century belfry , housing a municipal carillon comprising 48 bells . The city still employs a full-time carillonneur , who gives free concerts on a regular basis . Other famous buildings in Bruges include : * The Béguinage * The Basilica of the Holy Blood ( ) . The relic of the Holy Blood , which was brought to the city after the Second Crusade by Thierry of Alsace , is paraded every year through the streets of the city . More than 1,600 inhabitants take part in this mile-long religious procession , many dressed as medieval knights or crusaders . * The modern Concertgebouw ( `` Concert Building '' ) * The Old St. John 's Hospital * The Saint Salvator 's Cathedral * The Groeningemuseum , which has an extensive collection of medieval and early modern art , including a notable collection of Flemish Primitives . Various masters , including Hans Memling and Jan van Eyck , lived and worked in Bruges . * The City Hall on the Burg square * The Provincial Court ( Provinciaal Hof ) * The preserved old city gateways : the Kruispoort , the Gentpoort , the Smedenpoort and the Ezelpoort . The Dampoort , the Katelijnepoort and the Boeveriepoort are gone . File : Church Of Our Lady Bruges.jpg|The Church of Our Lady . File : OLVBrugge.jpg|The Dijver canal and the tower of the Church of Our Lady . File : Brugge Markt1.jpg|The Provinciaal Hof . File : Brugge - Kruispoort 2.jpg|The Kruispoort . File : Brugge Dweerstraat.jpg|The Dweersstraat . File:00 Bruges JPG5.jpg|The Béguinage . File : Brugge-Canal.jpg|The Groenerei ( canal ) . File : Brugge-CanalRozenhoedkaai.JPG|View from the Rozenhoedkaai . File : Bruges canal corner.jpg |An aerial view over one of Bruges ' canals . File : Roofs of Bruges 01.jpg|Roofs of old houses in the city centre . File : Bruges De Burg.JPG|The Burg square with the City Hall . File : Brugge , Sint Salvatorskathedraal foto1 in straatbeeld 2007-08-05 09.32.JPG|View of the Steenstraat with the St. Salvator 's Cathedral in the background . File : Brugge , straatzicht op de Markt4 2007-08-05 10.00.JPG|Part of the Markt ( market square ) . File : Brugge , straatzicht Katelijnestraat 2007-08-05 12.26.JPG|The Katelijnestraat . File : Bonne Chiere 4.jpg|The Bonne-Chière windmill . File : Brugges Dijver.JPG|Rozenhoedkaai File : Bruegge View from Rozenhoedkaai.jpg|View from Rozenhoedkaai in the evening . Culture and art Theatres and concert halls The annual procession of the Holy Blood of Jesus Christ , UNESCO heritage * Aquariustheater * Biekorf * Concertgebouw ( `` Concert Building '' ) * De Dijk * De Werf * Het Entrepot * Joseph Ryelandtzaal * Magdalenazaal * Sirkeltheater * Stadsschouwburg * Studio Hall Cinemas * Cinema Lumière ( alternative movies ) * Cinema Liberty * Kinepolis Bruges Festivals Museums Municipal museums * Artistic works from the 15th to 21st century : * * Groeningemuseum * * Arents House ( contains a Sir Frank Brangwyn collection and holds temporary art exhibitions ) * The Bruggemuseum ( `` Bruges Museum '' ) ( general name for 11 different historical museums in the city ) : * * Gruuthusemuseum * * Welcome Church of Our Lady * * Archaeological Museum * * Gentpoort * * Belfry * * City Hall * * Manor of the Brugse Vrije * * Museum of Folklore * * Guido Gezelle Museum * * Koelewei ( Cool Meadow ) Mill * * Sint-Janshuis ( St. John 's House ) Mill * Hospitalmuseums : * * Old St. John 's Hospital ( Hans Memling museum ) * * Our Lady of the Potteries Non-municipal museums * Béguinage * Brewery museum * Hof Bladelin * Basilica of the Holy Blood * Choco-Story ( chocolate museum ) * Lumina Domestica ( lamp museum ) * Museum-Gallery Xpo : Salvador Dalí * Diamond Museum * English Convent * Frietmuseum ( museum dedicated to Belgian Fries ) * Historium ( museum about the medieval history of Bruges ) * Jerusalem Church * Lace centre * St. George 's Archers Guild * Saint Salvator 's Cathedral * St. Sebastian 's Archers ’ Guild * St. Trudo Abbey * Public Observatory Beisbroek * Ter Doest Abbey ( in Lissewege ) Transport Road Bruges has motorway connections to all directions : * to Ostend * to Ghent and Brussels * to Veurne and France * to Kortrijk and Tournai * to Zeebrugge * to Antwerp Driving within the 'egg ' , the historical centre enclosed by the main circle of canals in Bruges , is discouraged by traffic management schemes , including a network of one-way streets . The system encourages the use of set routes leading to central car parks and direct exit routes . The car parks are convenient for the central commercial and tourist areas ; they are not expensive . Railway Bruges ' main railway station is the focus of lines to the Belgian coast . It also provides at least hourly trains to all other major cities in Belgium , as well as to Lille , France . Further there are several regional and local trains . The main station is also a stop for the Thalys train Paris–Brussels–Ostend . Bus links to the centre are frequent , though the railway station is just a 10-minute walk from the main shopping streets and a 20-minute walk from the Market Square . Plans for a north–south light rail connection through Bruges , from Zeebrugge to Lichtervelde , and a light rail connection between Bruges and Ostend are under construction . Air The national Brussels Airport , one hour away by train or car , offers the best connections . The nearest airport is the Ostend-Bruges International Airport in Ostend ( around 25 km from the city centre of Bruges ) , but it offers limited passenger transport and connections . Recently there also started a direct bus line from Brussels South Charleroi Airport to Bruges . Public city transport Bruges has an extensive web of bus lines , operated by De Lijn , providing access to the city centre and the suburbs ( city lines , ) and to many towns and villages in the region around the city ( regional lines , ) . In support of the municipal traffic management ( see `` Road '' above ) , free public transport is available for those who park their cars in the main railway station car park . Cycling Although a few streets are restricted , no part of Bruges is car free . Cars are required to yield to pedestrians and cyclists . Plans have long been under way to ban cars altogether from the historic center of Bruges or to restrict traffic much more than it currently is , but these plans have yet to come to fruition . In 2005 , signs were changed for the convenience of cyclists , allowing two-way cycle traffic on more streets , however car traffic has not decreased . Nevertheless , in common with many cities in the region , there are thousands of cyclists in the city of Bruges . Port The port of Bruges is Zeebrugge ( Bruges-on-Sea ) . On 6 March 1987 , the British ferry MS Herald of Free Enterprise capsized after leaving the port , killing 187 people , the worst disaster involving a British civilian vessel since 1919 . Sports Bruges is traditionally the starting town for the annual Tour of Flanders cycle race , held in April and one of the biggest sporting events in Belgium . Football is also popular in Bruges ; the city hosts two professional football teams , of which one currently plays at the top level ( Belgian First Division ) : Club Brugge K.V .. The second team , Cercle Brugge K.S.V. , currently plays at the second tier , the Belgian Second Division . Both teams play their home games at the Jan Breydel Stadium ( 30,000 seats ) in Sint-Andries . There are plans for a new stadium for Club Brugge with about 45,000 seats in the north of the city , while Cercle Brugge would renovate and reduce the capacity of the Jan Breydel Stadium . In 2000 Bruges was one of the eight host cities for the UEFA European Football Championship , co-hosted by Belgium and its neighbour the Netherlands . Education Bruges is an important centre for education in West Flanders . Next to the several common primary and secondary schools , there are a few colleges , like the VIVES ( a fusion of the former KHBO ( katholieke hogeschool Brugge Oostende ) and the KATHO ( katholieke hoge school ) or the HOWEST ( Hogeschool West-Vlaanderen ) . Furthermore , the city is home to the College of Europe , a prestigious institution of postgraduate studies in European Economics , Law and Politics , and of the United Nations University Institute on Comparative Regional Integration Studies ( UNU-CRIS ) , a [ http : //www.unu.edu/system/centres.html Research and Training Institute ] of the United Nations University specialising in the comparative study of regional integration . Town twinning policy On principle , Bruges has to date never entered into close collaboration with twin cities . Without denying the usefulness of these schemes for towns with fewer international contacts , the main reason is that Bruges would find it difficult to choose between cities and thinks that it has enough work already with its many international contacts . Also , it was thought in Bruges that twinning was too often an occasion for city authorities and representatives to travel on public expense . This principle resulted , in the 1950s , in Bruges refusing a jumelage with Nice and other towns , signed by a Belgian ambassador without previous consultation . In the 1970s , a Belgian consul in Oldenburg made the mayor of Bruges sign a declaration of friendship which he tried to present , in vain , as a jumelage . The twinning between some of the former communes , merged with Bruges in 1971 , were discontinued . This does not mean that Bruges would not be interested in cooperation with others , as well in the short term as in the long run , for particular projects . Here follow a few examples . ; Bastogne , Luxembourg , Belgium : After World War II and into the 1970s , Bruges , more specifically the Fire Brigade of Bruges , entertained friendly relations with Bastogne . Each year a free holiday was offered at the seaside in Zeebrugge , to children from the Nuts city . ; Arolsen , Hesse , Germany : From the 1950s until the 1980s , Bruges was the patron of the Belgian First Regiment of Horse Guards , quartered in Arolsen . ; Salamanca , Castilla y León , Spain : Both towns having been made European Capital of Culture in 2002 , Bruges had some exchanges organized with Salamanca . ; Mons , Hainaut , Belgium : In 2007 , cultural and artistic cooperation between Mons and Bruges was inaugurated . ; Burgos , Castilla y León , Spain : On 29 January 2007 , the mayors of Burgos and Bruges signed a declaration of intent about future cooperation on cultural , touristic and economic matters . Notable people Miscellaneous * Bruges is known for its lace . The city , and this textile technique in particular , were the source of inspiration that triggered contemporary multimedia artist Kimsooja 's Thread Routes film series . The second episode of this ongoing project , shot in 2011 , was partly set in Bruges . * Several beers are named after Bruges , such as Brugge Blond , Brugge Tripel , Brugs , Brugse Babbelaar , Brugse Straffe Hendrik and Brugse Zot . However , only Brugse Zot and Brugse Straffe Hendrik are still brewed in the city itself , in the Halve Maan Brewery . * In Sint-Michiels is the amusement park Boudewijn Seapark , which features a dolphinarium . * The patron saint of Bruges is Andrew the Apostle . * Fiction : * * Bruges-la-Morte , a short novel by the Belgian author Georges Rodenbach , first published in 1892 . The libretto of Erich Wolfgang Korngold 's opera Die Tote Stadt , written in 1920 , is based on this book * * In Bruges , a film from British director Martin McDonagh , starring Colin Farrell and Brendan Gleeson , is set almost entirely in Bruges . The city 's major landmarks and history are mentioned repeatedly throughout the film , as are the contrasted viewpoints of the two lead characters of the story . * * The detective stories of Pieter Aspe are situated in Bruges . * * The Nun 's Story , a dramatic film released by Warner Bros. Pictures in 1959 , is mostly set in Bruges . * * Niccolò Rising , the first volume of the 8 book House of Niccolò series by Dorothy Dunnett is largely set in Bruges , and other books in the series also have sections set in Bruges . * * Floris , a Dutch television action series , written by Gerard Soeteman . * * Alan Hollinghurst 's novel The Folding Star is set in a Flemish town that is recognisably Bruges . * * L'Astrologue de Bruges , a Belgian bande dessinée in the Yoko Tsuno series by Roger Leloup , is entirely set in Bruges , both contemporary and in 1545 . * * In the last chapter of Saul Bellow 's novel The Adventures of Augie March Augie is driving through France on his way to Bruges on business . * * In 2014 Bollywood film PK , opening scenes involving Anushka Sharma and Sushant Singh Rajput ( including song Chaar Kadam ) are set in Bruges . * * Some scenes from episode 6 of season 2 of Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D . took place in Bruges , and local beer `` Straffe Hendrik '' was mentioned and shown . * * The story of the removal of the Madonna of Bruges being removed by the Nazis and then returned is told in the fact-based 2014 movie The Monuments Men Gallery

sfq_7428--Bruges.txt

Who in 1476 brought his painting press from Bruges to London?

The Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám ( ) is the title that Edward FitzGerald gave to his translation of a selection of poems , originally written in Persian and numbering about a thousand , attributed to Omar Khayyám ( 1048–1131 ) , a Persian poet , mathematician and astronomer . A ruba ' i is a two-line stanza with two parts ( or hemistichs ) per line , hence the word rubáiyát ( derived from the Arabic language root for `` four '' ) , meaning `` quatrains '' . Translations The nature of a translation very much depends on what interpretation one places on Khayyam 's philosophy . The fact that the rubaiyat is a collection of quatrains—and may be selected and rearranged subjectively to support one interpretation or another—has led to widely differing versions . Nicolas took the view that Khayyam himself clearly was a Sufi . Others have seen signs of mysticism , even atheism , or conversely devout and orthodox Islam . FitzGerald gave the Rubaiyat a distinct fatalistic spin , although it has been claimed that he softened the impact of Khayyam 's nihilism and his preoccupation with the mortality and transience of all things . Even such a question as to whether Khayyam was pro- or anti-alcohol gives rise to more discussion than might at first glance have seemed plausible . Edward FitzGerald versions The translations best known in English are those by Edward FitzGerald ( 1809–1883 ) . * 1st edition – 1859 [ 75 quatrains ] * 2nd edition – 1868 [ 110 quatrains ] * 3rd edition – 1872 [ 101 quatrains ] * 4th edition – 1879 [ 101 quatrains ] * 5th edition – 1889 [ 101 quatrains ] Of the five editions published , four were published under the authorial control of FitzGerald . The fifth edition , which contained only minor changes from the fourth , was edited after his death on the basis of manuscript revisions FitzGerald had left . FitzGerald also produced Latin translations of certain rubaiyat . As a work of English literature FitzGerald 's version is a high point of the 19th century and has been greatly influential . Indeed , the term `` Rubaiyat '' by itself has come to be used to describe the quatrain rhyme scheme that FitzGerald used in his translations : AABA . However , as a translation of Omar Khayyam 's quatrains , it is not noted for its fidelity . Many of the verses are paraphrased , and some of them can not be confidently traced to any one of Khayyam 's quatrains at all . Some critics informally refer to the FitzGerald 's English versions as `` The Rubaiyat of FitzOmar '' , a nickname that both recognizes the liberties FitzGerald took with his source and also credits FitzGerald for the considerable portion of the `` translation '' that is his own creation . In fact , FitzGerald himself referred to his work as `` transmogrification '' . `` My translation will interest you from its form , and also in many respects in its detail : very un-literal as it is . Many quatrains are mashed together : and something lost , I doubt , of Omar 's simplicity , which is so much a virtue in him '' ( letter to E. B. Cowell , 9/3/58 ) . And , `` I suppose very few People have ever taken such Pains in Translation as I have : though certainly not to be literal . But at all Cost , a Thing must live : with a transfusion of one ’ s own worse Life if one can ’ t retain the Original ’ s better . Better a live Sparrow than a stuffed Eagle '' ( letter to E. B. Cowell , 4/27/59 ) . Perhaps the most famous of FitzGerald 's verses is this one , of which the final version is much beloved : The following are several samples of Fitzgerald 's translation , concluding with another well-known verse ( FitzGerald 's quatrain LI in his 1st edition ) : Some for the glories of this world ; and some Sigh for The Prophet 's Paradise to come ; Ah , take the cash and let the credit go , Nor heed the rumble of a distant drum And much as Wine has played the Infidel And robbed me of my robe of Honour , well ... I often wonder what the vintners buy One half so precious as the stuff they sell For some we loved , the loveliest and best That from His rolling vintage Time has pressed , Have drunk their glass a round or two before , And one by one crept silently to rest But helpless pieces in the game He plays Upon this chequer-board of Nights and Days He hither and thither moves , and checks ... and slays Then one by one , back in the Closet lays `` The Moving Finger writes : and , having writ , Moves on : nor all thy Piety nor Wit Shall lure it back to cancel half a Line , Nor all thy Tears wash out a Word of it . '' Graf von Schack Adolf Friedrich von Schack ( 1815–1894 ) published a German translation in 1878 . Quatrain 151 ( equivalent of FitzGerald 's quatrain XI in his 1st edition , as above ) : Gönnt mir , mit dem Liebchen im Gartenrund Zu weilen bei süßem Rebengetränke , Und nennt mich schlimmer als einen Hund , Wenn ferner an ’ s Paradies ich denke ! Omar Kayyim ' Friedrich von Bodenstedt Friedrich Martinus von Bodenstedt ( 1819–1892 ) published a German translation in 1881 . The translation eventually consisted of 395 quatrains . Quatrain IX , 59 ( equivalent of FitzGerald 's quatrain XI in his 1st edition , as above ) : Im Frühling mag ich gern im Grüne weilen Und Einsamkeit mit einer Freundin teilen Und einem Kruge Wein . Mag man mich schelten : Ich lasse keinen andern Himmel gelten . Edward Henry Whinfield Two English editions by Edward Henry Whinfield ( 1836–1922 ) consisted of 253 quatrains in 1882 and 500 in 1883 . Quatrain 84 ( equivalent of FitzGerald 's quatrain XI in his 1st edition , as above ) : In the sweet spring a grassy bank I sought And thither wine and a fair Houri brought ; And , though the people called me graceless dog , Gave not to Paradise another thought ! J.B. Nicolas The first French translation , of 464 quatrains in prose , was made by J.B. Nicolas , chief interpreter at the French Embassy in Persia in 1867 . Prose stanza ( equivalent of Fitzgerald 's quatrain XI in his 1st edition , as above ) : Au printemps j ’ aime à m ’ asseoir au bord d ’ une prairie , avec une idole semblable à une houri et une cruche de vin , s ’ il y en a , et bien que tout cela soit généralement blâmé , je veux être pire qu ’ un chien si jamais je songe au paradis . John Leslie Garner An English translation of 152 quatrains , published in 1888 . Quatrain I . 20 ( equivalent of FitzGerald 's quatrain XI in his 1st edition , as above ) : Yes , Loved One , when the Laughing Spring is blowing , With Thee beside me and the Cup o ’ erflowing , I pass the day upon this Waving Meadow , And dream the while , no thought on Heaven bestowing . Justin Huntly McCarthy Justin Huntly McCarthy ( 1859–1936 ) ( Member of Parliament for Newry ) published prose translations of 466 quatrains in 1889 . Quatrain 177 ( equivalent of FitzGerald 's quatrain XI in his 1st edition , as above ) : In Spring time I love to sit in the meadow with a paramour perfect as a Houri and goodly jar of wine , and though I may be blamed for this , yet hold me lower than a dog if ever I dream of Paradise . Richard Le Gallienne Richard Le Gallienne ( 1866–1947 ) produced a verse translation , subtitled `` a paraphrase from several literal translations '' , in 1897 . In his introductory note to the reader , Le Gallienne cites McCarthy 's `` charming prose '' as the chief influence on his version . Some example quatrains follow : Look not above , there is no answer there ; Pray not , for no one listens to your prayer ; Near is as near to God as any Far , And Here is just the same deceit as There . ( # 78 , on p. 44 ) And do you think that unto such as you ; A maggot-minded , starved , fanatic crew : God gave the secret , and denied it me ? — Well , well , what matters it ! Believe that , too . ( # 85 , p. 47 ) `` Did God set grapes a-growing , do you think , And at the same time make it sin to drink ? Give thanks to Him who foreordained it thus— Surely He loves to hear the glasses clink ! '' ( # 91 , p. 48 ) Edward Heron-Allen Edward Heron-Allen ( 1861–1943 ) published a prose translation in 1898 . He also wrote an introduction to an edition of Frederick Rolfe ( Baron Corvo ) ’ s translation into English of Nicolas ’ s French translation . Example quatrain ( equivalent of FitzGerald 's quatrain XI in his 1st edition , as above ) : I desire a little ruby wine and a book of verses , Just enough to keep me alive , and half a loaf is needful ; And then , that I and thou should sit in a desolate place Is better than the kingdom of a sultan . Jessie Cadell The English novelist and orientalist Jessie Cadell ( 1844–1884 ) consulted various manuscripts of the Rubaiyat with the intention of producing an authoritative edition . Her translation of 150 quatrains was published posthumously in 1899 . Franz Toussaint The best-known version in French is the free verse edition by Franz Toussaint ( 1879–1955 ) published in 1924 . This translation consisting of 170 quatrains was done from the original Persian text , while most of the other French translations were themselves translations of FitzGerald 's work . The Éditions d'art Henri Piazza published the book almost unchanged between 1924 and 1979 . Toussaint 's translation has served as the basis of subsequent translations into other languages , but Toussaint did not live to witness the influence his translation has had . Quatrain XXV ( equivalent of FitzGerald 's quatrain XI in his 1st edition , as above ) : Au printemps , je vais quelquefois m ’ asseoir à la lisière d ’ un champ fleuri . Lorsqu ’ une belle jeune fille m ’ apporte une coupe de vin , je ne pense guère à mon salut . Si j ’ avais cette préoccupation , je vaudrais moins qu ’ un chien . A. J. Arberry In 1959 , Professor A. J. Arberry , a distinguished scholar of Persian and Arabic , attempted to produce a scholarly edition of Khayyam , based on thirteenth-century manuscripts . However , his manuscripts were subsequently exposed as twentieth-century forgeries . Robert Graves and Omar Ali-Shah While Arberry ’ s work had been misguided , it was published in good faith . The 1967 translation of the Rubáiyat by Robert Graves and Omar Ali-Shah , however , created a scandal . The authors claimed it was based on a twelfth-century manuscript located in Afghanistan , where it was allegedly utilized as a Sufi teaching document . But the manuscript was never produced , and British experts in Persian literature were easily able to prove that the translation was in fact based on Edward Heron Allen 's analysis of possible sources for FitzGerald ’ s work . Quatrains 11 and 12 ( equivalent of FitzGerald 's quatrain XI in his 1st edition , as above ) : Should our day 's portion be one mancel loaf , A haunch of mutton and a gourd of wine Set for us two alone on the wide plain , No Sultan 's bounty could evoke such joy . A gourd of red wine and a sheaf of poems — A bare subsistence , half a loaf , not more — Supplied us two alone in the free desert : What Sultan could we envy on his throne ? John Charles Edward Bowen [ http : //oberlin.edu/library/special/bowen.html John Charles Edward Bowen ( 1909-1989 ) ] was a British poet and translator of Persian poetry . He is best known for his translation of the Rubaiyat , titled A New Selection from the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam . Bowen is also credited as being one of the first scholars to question Robert Graves ' and Omar Ali-Shah 's translation of the Rubaiyat . Peter Avery and John Heath-Stubbs A modern version of 235 quatrains , claiming to be `` as literal an English version of the Persian originals as readability and intelligibility permit '' , published in 1979 by Peter Avery and John Heath-Stubbs . Their edition provides two versions of the thematic quatrain , the first ( 98 ) considered by the Persian writer Sadeq Hedayat to be a spurious attribution . 98 . I need a jug of wine and a book of poetry , Half a loaf for a bite to eat , Then you and I , seated in a deserted spot , Will have more wealth than a Sultan 's realm . 234 . If chance supplied a loaf of white bread , Two casks of wine and a leg of mutton , In the corner of a garden with a tulip-cheeked girl , There 'd be enjoyment no Sultan could outdo . Karim Emami In 1988 , the Rubaiyat were translated by a Persian translator for the first time . Karim Emami 's translation of the Rubaiyat was published under the title The Wine of Nishapour in Paris . The Wine of Nishapour is the collection of Khayyam 's poetry by Shahrokh Golestan , including Golestan 's pictures in front of each poem . Emami was an outstanding translator of English in Iran , who had also translated many contemporary Persian poems . Example from Emami 's work : It 's early dawn , my love , open your eyes and arise Gently imbibing and playing the lyre ; For those who are here will not tarry long , And those who are gone will not return . Example quatrain 160 ( equivalent of FitzGerald 's quatrain XI in his 1st edition , as above ) : In spring if a houri-like sweetheart Gives me a cup of wine on the edge of a green cornfield , Though to the vulgar this would be blasphemy , If I mentioned any other Paradise , I 'd be worse than a dog . Ahmad Saidi In 1991 Ahmad Saidi ( 1904–1994 ) produced an English translation of 165 quatrains grouped into 10 themes . Born and raised in Iran , Saidi went to the United States in 1931 and attended college there . He served as the head of the Persian Publication Desk at the U.S. Office of War Information during World War II , inaugurated the Voice of America to Iran , and prepared an English-Persian military dictionary for the Department of Defense . His quatrains include the original Persian verses for reference alongside his English translations . His focus was to faithfully convey , with less poetic license , Khayyam ’ s original religious , mystical , and historic Persian themes , through the verses as well as his extensive annotations . Two example quatrains follow : Quatrain 16 ( equivalent of FitzGerald 's quatrain XII in his 5th edition , as above ) : Ah , would there were a loaf of bread as fare , A joint of lamb , a jug of vintage rare , And you and I in wilderness encamped— No Sultan ’ s pleasure could with ours compare . Quatrain 75 : The sphere upon which mortals come and go , Has no end nor beginning that we know ; And none there is to tell us in plain truth : Whence do we come and whither do we go . Other languages * In 2015 it was translated into Romanian for the first time by orientalist philologist Gheorghe Iorga . * Many Russian-language translations have been undertaken , reflecting the popularity of the Rubaiyat in Russia since the late 19th century and the increasingly popular tradition of using it for the purposes of bibliomancy . The earliest verse translation ( by Vasily Velichko ) was published in 1891 . The version by Osip Rumer published in 1914 is a translation of FitzGerald 's version . Rumer later published a version of 304 rubaiyat translated directly from Persian . A lot of poetic translations ( some based on verbatim translations into prose by others ) were also written by German Plisetsky , Konstantin Bal'mont , Ts . Banu , I. Tkhorzhevsky , L. Pen'kovsky , and others . * In Polish , several collections of Rubaiyat have appeared , including one by Professor Andrzej Gawroński , which is regarded as the best . * 172 Rubaiyat were translated into Belarusian by Ryhor Baradulin in 1989 . * Poet Cornelis Jacobus Langenhoven ( 1873–1932 , author of Die Stem van Suid-Afrika ) produced the first translation in Afrikaans . Herman Charles Bosman wrote a translation in Afrikaans published in 1948 . * Eric Hermelin translated the Rubaiyat into Swedish in 1928 . * G. Sankara Kurup produced a translation into Malayalam ( 1932 ) * Thirunalloor Karunakaran translated the Rubaiyat into Malayalam in 1989 . * Duvvoori Ramireddy translated the Rubaiyat into Telugu in 1935 . * Maithili Sharan Gupt and Harivanshrai Bachchan translated the book into Hindi in 1959 . * Kantichandra Ghosh , Muhammad Shahidullah ( in 1942 ) , Kazi Nazrul Islam ( in 1958 ) and Shakti Chattopadhyay ( in 1978 ) produced translations into Bengali * D. V. Gundappa translated the work into Kannada as a collection of poems titled `` Umarana Osage '' in 1952 * Gopal Chandra Kanungo illustrated and translated the book into Odia in 1954 . Devdas Chhotray adapted Edward Fitzgerald 's work in Oriya and recorded it in musical form in 2011 . * Sir John Morris-Jones translated direct from Persian into Welsh in 1928 . * Thomas Ifor Rees produced a Welsh translation , published in Mexico City in 1939 . * Francesco Gabrieli produced an Italian translation ( Le Rubaiyyàt di Omar Khayyàm ) in 1944 . Alessandro Bausani produced another translation in 1965 . * Fraînque Le Maistre produced a Jèrriais version ( based on FitzGerald 's 1st edition ) during the German occupation of the Channel Islands 1940–1945 . * Robert Bin Shaaban produced a version in Swahili ( dated 1948 , published 1952 ) * Kerson Huang based a Chinese version on FitzGerald 's version . Other than that there are altogether 48 translations ( partial or complete ) into Chinese , the complete list can be found at Baidu Baike . * In 1990 , Jowann Richards produced a Cornish translation . * Scottish poet Rab Wilson published a version in Scots in 2004 . * Fan Noli produced an Albanian translation , the melody and poetics of which are highly regarded . * At least four versions exist in the Thai language . These translations were made from the work of Edward FitzGerald many years ago . Their respective authors are HRH Prince Narathip Prapanpong , Rainan Aroonrungsee ( pen name : Naan Gitirungsi ) , Pimarn Jamjarus ( pen name : Kaen Sungkeet ) , and Suriyachat Chaimongkol . * Haljand Udam produced an Estonian translation . * The poet J. H. Leopold ( 1865–1925 ) rendered a number of Rubaiyat in Dutch . * Ahmed Rami , a famous late Egyptian poet , translated the work into Arabic . His translation was sung by Umm Kulthum . * The Kurdish poet Hajar translated the Rubaiyat in his Chwar Parchakani Xayam , which is also available as an audiobook in which the narrator sings the verses . * Armenian poet Kevork Emin has translated several verses of the Rubaiyat . * The Assyrian journalist and poet Naum Faiq translated the Rubaiyat into the Syriac language . * The Assyrian author Eshaya Elisha Khinno translated the Rubaiyat into Sureth ( Assyrian Neo-Aramaic ) * In Finnish language first translations were made by Toivo Lyy in 1929 . More recently Jaakko Hämeen-Anttila ( 1999 and 2008 ) and Kiamars Baghban with Leevi Lehto ( 2009 ) have translated Khayyam in Finnish . * The earliest translation in Hungarian consisted of a few stanzas taken from the French version of Nicolas , by Béla Erődi in 1919-20 . Lőrinc Szabó finalized his translation of the Fitzgerald version in 1943 . * First Czech translator is Josef Štýbr . At first he translated from English ( from Fitzgerald 's `` translations '' ) ( 1922 ) , after that from original language ( 1931 ) . Translation from original can be found on Czech wikisource ( 770 poems ) . Next translators are mentioned here . * The first translator into Slovene was Alojz Gradnik , his translation being published in 1955 . It was translated again by slovene translator and poet Bert Pribac in 2007 from the French Toussaint edition . * The first translation of nine short poems into Serbo-Croatian was published in 1920 , and was the work of Safvet beg Bašagić . In 1932 , Jelena Skerlić-Ćorović re-published these nine , alongside 75 more poems . In 1964 , a noted orientalist Fehim Bajraktarević published his translation of Rubaiyat . * Hồ Thượng Tuy translated from English into Vietnamese ( from FitzGerald ’ s 1st edition ) in 1990 . * Nguyễn Viết Thắng produced a Vietnamese translation of 487 rubaiyat , translated from English and Russian in 1995 , published in Hanoi in 2003 . * Xabier Correa Corredoira published a Galician translation in 2010 . * Hemendra Kumar Roy translated the Rubaiyat into Bengali . * Radha Mohan Gadanayak translated the Rubaiyat into Odia * Upendra Nath Jha 'Vyas ' translated the Rubaiyat into Maithili * Christos Marketis translated 120 rubaiyat into Greek in 1975 . * It was translated into Latvian by Andrejs Kurcijs in 1970 . * Srimadajjada Adibhatla Narayana Das ( 1864–1945 ) translated the original Persian quatrains and Edward Fitzgerald 's English translations into Sanskrit and pure-Telugu . Pandit Narayana Das claimed his translation was more literal than that of Fitzgerald . See : Ajjada Adibhatla Narayana Dasu * In Japan , until 1949 , more than 10 poets and/or scholars made translations into Japanese . The first complete translation from Persian into the modern Japanese language was made by Ryosaku Ogawa in 1949 , which is still popular and has been published from Iwanami Shoten ( it is now under public domain and also freely available from Aozora Bunko ) . Historically , the first attempt is 6 poems translated by Kambara Ariake in 1908 . In 1910 , Kakise Hikozo translated 110 poems from the 5th edition of FitzGerald 's translation . The first translation from Persian into the classical Japanese language was made by a linguist Shigeru Araki in 1920 . Among other various translations , Ogawa highly evaluates Ryo Mori ( : ja : 森亮 ) 's one produced in 1931 . * Naum Faiq , A prominent Assyrian journalist and author translated the quatrains into Syriac . The translation exist in its manuscript form and remains unpublished . * In Ethiopian all of Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam are under Amharic language on Ethiopian university . you could read itinerary of Houshang Shamee to Africa . * In Icelandic Magnús Ásgeirsson translated the Rubaiyat in 1935 . There was an earlier translation by Einar Benediktsson in 1921 . Authenticity and analysis The number of quatrains attributed to Khayyam varies from about 1,200 ( according to Saeed Nafisi ) to over 2,000 . Many scholars believe that not all the attributed quatrains are authentic and some have been added to Khayyam 's Diwan in later years for various reasons . A few literary researchers , for example , Mohammad-Ali Foroughi and Farzaneh Aghaeipour have selected and published a subset of the quatrains believed to be original using various research methods . Mystical interpretation `` Wine of the Mystic '' by Paramahansa Yogananda is an illustrated interpretation of the FitzGerald translation . Each quatrain is accompanied with Persian text , a glossary of terms , Yoganada 's spiritual interpretation , and practical interpretation . It won the 1995 Benjamin Franklin Award in the field of Religion . Yogananda makes an argument for the mystical basis of Khayyam 's Rubaiyat . In Who is the Potter ? , Abdullah Dougan , a Naqshbandi Sufi , provides a verse-by-verse commentary of the Rubaiyat . Dougan says that while Omar is a minor Sufi teacher compared to the giants – Rumi , Attar and Sana ’ i , for us he is a marvelous man because we can feel for him and understand his approach . The work is much more accessible than Sana ’ i ’ s for instance ; `` Every line of the Rubaiyat has more meaning than almost anything you could read in Sufi literature '' . Dougan says that the many critics of Fitzgerald miss the point as he is only an instrument for what Allah wanted to happen – there have been many more literally correct translations , but Fitzgerald ’ s is divine inspiration , something far superior , a miracle . In Dougan ’ s opinion , while many read the Rubaiyat literally and hence see Omar as a materialist , he is in fact a spiritual teacher and is much maligned because people do not understand him . Abdullah Dougan says the work is deeply esoteric and `` if you approach the quatrains with that in mind , the poem will have a tremendous impact on you as you try to understand it . '' Religious beliefs were deeply instilled in the people of the time , which gave much influence to the clergy , and the prosecution of poets who made statements contradictory to religious messages were prevalent , as was the case with Hafiz ( whose house was raided several times , and was forced to burn some of his more liberal poems ) and Ferdowsi ( who was branded a heretic and was not permitted to be buried in the Muslims graveyard ) . The mystic interpretation of themes in poetry which were contrary to Islamic teachings became popular after the Safavid dynasty rise to power and the establishing of Twelver school of Shi ' a Islam as the official religion of Iran . At this time poets such as Ferdowsi ( who glorified the pre-Islamic Iran and patriotism ) , Hafiz ( with his Epicurean view on life ) and Khayyam ( with openly agnostic themed poetry ) had already found their roots among Iranian culture and their works were looked upon as masterpieces of Persian literature . In order to justify their popularity and lay “ credence ” to their messages , many Haram themes were interpreted as having hidden mystical meanings and parallels were drawn between verses and Shi ' a themes and traditions . Some religious hardliners however repudiated Khayyam and the like altogether ( and to a lesser extent still do today ) . Everything aside , Khayyam never identified himself

bb_9298--Rubaiyat_of_Omar_Khayyam.txt

The translation of Persian poems called The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam was the work of which 19th century English writer and poet?

`` If '' is a song written by American singer-songwriter David Gates in 1971 . Originally popularized by his group Bread , the song charted at number four on the U.S . Billboard Hot 100 when released as a single in 1971 and number six in Canada . The song also spent three weeks at number one on the U.S. Easy Listening chart , and one week at the top of the Canadian AC chart . In the U.S. , Bread 's version was the shortest song title to become a top ten hit until 1993 , when Prince hit No . 7 with `` 7 '' , later matched by Britney Spears ' No . 1 hit `` 3 '' in 2009 . `` If '' has been a perennial favorite at weddings ( for example , as a first-dance song ) ever since it was released . Cover versions It has been covered by other singers and musicians , including Petula Clark , Sergio Franchi , Cleo Laine , Perry Como , Frank Sinatra , Tom Jones , Jack Jones , Shirley Bassey , Dorothy Squires , Herbie Mann , Julio Iglesias , Joe Pass , Ryoko Moriyama , Westlife , Olivia Newton-John , Dolly Parton , Scott Walker , Andy Williams , Frankmusik , Sarah Geronimo ( From Sarah G. Live ! statement song ) , Deni Hines , George Millard and Damien Leith . Telly Savalas recorded a mostly-spoken version which reached number one on the UK Singles Chart for two weeks in March 1975 , and has the shortest title of any song to reach number one in the UK . This version also charted at # 12 on the US Billboard Easy Listening chart in late 1974 . A parody version of the Savalas version , recorded by voiceover artists Chris Sanford and Bill Mitchell performing as Yin and Yan , reached number 25 in the UK .

odql_4785--If_(Bread_song).txt

The song with theshortest title to have reached number one in the UK charts was released by Telly Savalas in 1975. What was it called?

Hilda Alice Ogden ( née Crabtree ) is a fictional character from the British television series Coronation Street , one of the best-known of all the regular characters in the soap opera , whose name became synonymous with a certain type of working-class woman . She was played by Jean Alexander from 1964 to 1987 . For much of her period as a character in the Street , Hilda worked as cleaner of the Rover 's Return Inn . A gossip and busy-body , many of her storylines were used for comedic purposes , though equally the character was used for dramatic effect ; a scene in which she wept over the sight of her recently deceased husband 's spectacles has been hailed as one of the most moving images in television history . Actress Jean Alexander quit the role in 1987 after 23 years , but was persuaded to reprise the part in 1990 for a one-off appearance as part of an ITV Telethon . She has also been seen in a spin-off video in 1998 , in which another long-running character , Betty Williams , visited her at her new home . Arguably the serial 's most popular character of all time , Hilda was voted the greatest TV character in a Radio Times poll of over 5,000 people . The trademark image of Hilda , wearing hair curlers and a head scarf , has inspired art and catwalk themes . Despite various producers expressing their desire to see the character return , actress Jean Alexander has been openly critical about the direction Coronation Street has taken , vowing never to reprise the role of Hilda again . Alexander had previously appeared in 1962 as Mrs. Webb , the landlady of Joan Akers , who abducted Christopher Hewitt . Development Characterisation Hilda Ogden , with her trademark hair curlers and pinny , has been described as `` the classic hard-working class Northern woman . With a voice like breaking glass and a temper to match '' . Actress Jean Alexander has explained her interpretation of Hilda 's head scarf and curler look : `` Like Hilda , my roots were in Liverpool and that ’ s where I first noticed the curlers and headscarf look . The curlers were put under the headscarf by the factory girls [ ... ] They had their hair tied up and scarves like that to stop their fashionable long hair getting caught up in the machinery at work . They had the curlers in place in case they got asked out on a date , so they ’ d be ready for a night out after the shift . They could just take off the headscarf , remove the curlers and shake down their hair . Hilda ’ s background was just like mine and her recollection would have been the same so the headscarf look was born on-screen . '' Alexander stated in 2010 that she based Hilda on bits of differing , eccentric people she had seen in her youth in Liverpool . A term that has been described as synonymous with Hilda Ogden is `` busy body '' . Critic for The Guardian , Grace Dent , has suggested that Hilda `` spent the 70s providing an unofficial town-crier service for Coronation Street scandal . Hilda was known to sleep propped up in bed with one eye open so she could see what time Ken Barlow 's female friends left . ( Or what time they were carried out in bodybags . Ken 's never had much luck with women . ) '' She added that Hilda was the mould that other popular soap gossips were made from , including Dot Cotton from EastEnders , Lynda Snell from The Archers and Martha Huber from Desperate Housewives . The Ogdens The Ogdens , Hilda and her husband Stan ( Bernard Youens ) , have been hailed as one of Coronation Street 's favourite couples . The bickering pair stayed together through mishap and financial difficulty . A working-class couple , they remained a screen doubleact for 20 years , until actor Bernard Youens died on 27 August 1984 , forcing the writers of the soap to kill off Stan on-screen . A scene following Stan 's screen funeral , showing Hilda weeping at the sight of Stan 's signature spectacles , has been described as `` one of the most moving moments in TV history '' and `` instrumental in winning [ Jean Alexander ] the Royal Television Society 's Best Performance Award for 1984-5 '' . Neil Marland , who worked as Granada TV 's stills photographer for 30 years has described the scene as terribly poignant , adding , `` Everyone was crying and the camera tracked in – she had to undo his handkerchief , and in it were his glasses . She broke down sobbing . And , of course , I had to do a picture of this . So I left her for a minute or so sobbing . Then , as I got nearer , I just went , ` Jean , Jean ... ' And she sat bolt upright and said , ` What picture do you want Neil ? I 'm only acting ' . It was just amazing because everyone on the floor was in floods of tears . '' Commenting on the screen partnership , actress Jean Alexander has said , `` It was a real pleasure working with Bernard Youens , who played my screen husband , Stan . Any success I have had is really down to Bernard because we worked well as a team and each knew how the other would want to play a scene . It was a happy screen partnership but it was strictly professional . We did n't socialise after work . '' Alexander has stated that the Ogdens were a brilliant set-up : `` They were the only couple in the street who were married – permanently . They were the only ones who owned their own house where everyone else rented , they stayed together and did n't stray or have affairs and , yes , they bickered among themselves but let anyone else criticise either of them and they would be up in arms . '' In 2002 , Hilda and Stan Ogden were voted Britain 's top romantic TV couple , in a poll of more than 5,000 people carried out by NTL : Home . They beat off competition from Friends couple Monica Geller and Chandler Bing and Dot and Jim Branning from EastEnders . In 2005 the couple topped another poll . The Ogdens were voted ITV 's favorite TV characters in a survey by Broadcast magazine , which took place to coincide with the 50th anniversary of the network . They beat Minder 's Arthur Daley and Prime Suspect 's DCI Jane Tennison , who took second and third place respectively . Departure After 23 years playing Hilda , Jean Alexander decided to leave Coronation Street in 1987 . According to Alexander in 2010 , it was the right time to leave as the writers had run out of ideas for Hilda and as a character , Hilda had run out of steam . She added , `` Her other half had gone and she would have just scraped along . I did n't want that . '' Alexander went to see the show 's producer Bill Podmore to inform him she did not want to renew her contract . Her decision to leave prompted an outcry from fans and a `` Save Hilda '' campaign was launched , as many did not realise that the actress had made her own decision to depart . Hilda 's final scenes in the programme were aired on Christmas Day 1987 , when the locals in the Rovers Return joined Hilda in what has been described as a `` stirring rendition '' of `` Wish Me Luck As You Wave Me Goodbye '' . On-screen , Hilda departed for Hartington , Derbyshire , to make a new life for herself as the housekeeper for Doctor Lowther . 27 million viewers watched . It remains the highest-rated episode in Coronation Street 's history . It has been described as the most moving scene in Coronation Street that did not involve a death . The writer behind the `` memorable '' episode depicting Hilda Ogden 's departure , which attracted a record soap opera audience , was Leslie Duxbury . Since her departure in 1987 , various producers have expressed their desire to see Hilda Ogden back on Coronation Street . In 1990 , Jean Alexander reprised the role after two-and-a-half years as part of ITV 's 27-hour charity telethon . The episode showed her visiting Stan 's grave . In 1998 , the character was resurrected again , as part of a special direct to video film . However , in 2005 , actress Jean Alexander ruled out ever returning to the role of Hilda Ogden , due to Coronation Street 's overemphasis on sex and `` who 's sleeping with whom '' . She also criticised the soap for not being fun enough and she disapproved of the modern storylines , saying some are allowed to `` drag on forever '' . She added : A spokesperson for the soap responded to Alexander 's criticism , saying , `` We do n't subscribe to Jean 's opinions . Every week 12 million people across the country tune in to be entertained by the drama in Coronation Street . '' Alexander reportedly declined to return as Hilda as part of Coronation Street 's 50th anniversary celebrations in December 2010 . They allegedly offered her a large sum of money but her agent Joan Reddin stated `` She 's not interested in getting involved again . '' When interviewed in 2010 , Alexander further discussed her reasons for not wanting to return to the role of Hilda . She said , `` It would be impossible for me to recreate Hilda . She would be totally different from the scrubber who left the Street [ ... ] I 'm sorry , after 23 years I could n't recreate that character as she would be now – and I did n't want to play her as she was . Hilda would be about 91 now . She left to be housekeeper for the lovely doctor and be part of a village community . She has status now which is something she always wanted . I have changed so I 'm sure she has . And I think the fans would be disappointed . It would have spoiled the memories people had of her . '' Storylines Hilda and her husband Stan were first featured in Coronation Street in June 1964 . A working class couple , beset with financial woes and few friends , many of the more established characters looked down on the Ogdens . Hilda worked as a char , cleaning the Rovers Return , Mike Baldwin 's factory and private homes , while Stan cleaned windows . Hilda and Stan had four children . Two children , Sylvia and Tony , were not seen on the series with the explanation that they were taken into care when Stan beat them while drunk . Their other children were seen on the programme and were named Irma and Trevor . Trevor stole money and ran away within the first six months of arriving on the Street , writing back home to ask Hilda to disown him . Hilda 's daughter Irma worked at the Corner Shop and eventually married David Barlow . Irma was crushed when David and her child were killed in Australia in 1970 . Irma returned home for a few years , but then vanished , with the explanation being she had moved to Wales , and later Canada . She had little contact with her family . Trevor eventually married and gave Hilda and Stan a grandson , but was ashamed of the life his parents led and only made the occasional visit . Hilda 's most remembered attributes were her hair curlers which she almost always wore , her pinny , and her `` muriel '' in her living room , which first showed a scene of Alpine mountains but was later changed to a coastal scene with three duck ornaments flying over them . She considered herself clairvoyant and offered teacup readings . Lodging with the Ogdens from 1980 to 1983 was Eddie Yeats , their surrogate son , and , after Stan died in November 1984 – just a year after celebrating their ruby wedding – Hilda got extra money by allowing Kevin and Sally Webster to live in one of her vacant rooms . Shortly afterwards Hilda 's employers , the affluent Doctor Lowther and his wife , made the decision to sell their home and move to Hartington . However , on the night that Hilda helped Mrs Lowther pack away her treasured possessions , burglars broke into the house and violently assaulted them both . Doctor Lowther , who had gone out to get a takeaway meal , was horrified to discover his wife dead and Hilda seriously injured . Although she made a full recovery physically , mentally she became afraid to be in her own home . When Doctor Lowther asked her to move to his cottage in Hartington and be his housekeeper , she jumped at the chance . When Hilda left the programme on Christmas Day 1987 , she sang `` Wish Me Luck As You Wave Me Goodbye '' , in her trademark trilling voice ; it was watched by an aggregated audience of 26.65 million people , one of the highest audiences in British television history . Reception The character of Hilda Ogden was very popular with the British public — in 1982 she came fourth behind the Queen Mother , Queen Elizabeth II , and Diana , Princess of Wales in a poll of the most recognisable women in Britain . Hilda Ogden has been branded as the `` greatest-ever soap character '' and `` loved by millions the world over '' . In 2004 she was voted the greatest soap character in a Radio Times survey of 5,000 viewers , despite the character not physically appearing on screen for 17 years at the time . Actress Jean Alexander commented on the accolade : `` I 'm very flattered . It came totally out of the blue . I knew nothing about it . Friends rang to tell me and I was completely taken aback . I am surprised that so many people remembered Hilda , considering it was so long ago that I played her . '' She added in 2005 that she is amazed by the nation 's enduring affection for Hilda . She said : `` I 've no idea why . I 'm totally flummoxed . If they remember Hilda with such affection , then I 'm happy and very flattered , '' says Jean . She adds : `` It means that I did a good job and that 's what I set out to do . I had 23 wonderful years playing Hilda . I worked with some of the Street 's legends – Pat Phoenix ( Elsie Tanner ) , Violet Carson ( Ena Sharples ) , one of TV 's greatest characters , Jack Howarth ( Albert Tatlock ) , Arthur Leslie and Doris Speed ( Jack and Annie Walker ) , all now sadly gone . '' The character can count various celebrities among her fans , including Michael Parkinson , Laurence Olivier , writer Willis Hall , the former Poet Laureate John Betjeman and Russell Harty , who formed themselves into the British League for Hilda Ogden . A storyline involving Hilda and her husband Stan once resulted in monetary claims to the council of an increase of 200 % . Off-screen , actor Bernard Youens had become ill , so the writers at Coronation Street excused his screen absence by making Stan have an injury – he hurt his toe on a pavement and was bed-ridden . In the storyline , Hilda discovered that if a paving stone is sticking up over a certain measurement , a claim can be made against the council . Hilda sued Weatherfield council and won a payout . Councils all across the UK were reportedly `` up in arms against Coronation Street '' , because subsequently , claims against them for people tripping up over paving stones that were three-quarters of an inch high , increased by 200 percent . In other media In 1998 , a straight to video , Coronation Street spin-off film was released . It was entitled The Women Of Coronation Street and featured clips of the show 's most famous females . The video hailed the brief return of Hilda Ogden , who had not been seen in the soap since 1987 ; Betty Williams travelled to meet her at her new home . A spokesperson for Granada Television commented , `` It shows what happens when Betty goes up to visit Hilda Ogden at her home in Derbyshire . She used to do cleaning work for a doctor and when he died he left her the house in gratitude . It 'll be a souvenir fans want to keep . '' In popular culture An image of Hilda Ogden in her signature hair rollers and head scarf has been used in artist David Knopov ’ s series of silk prints . The artist says Lenny Henry , Bill Nighy and Elvis Costello are among the famous names who have bought a Hilda . Hilda Ogden was cited as one of the characters to influence New York 's elite fashion scene in 2004 . The straightlaced tweed and hair rollers `` granny chic '' style of Sixties Britain , much of the look was derived from early episodes of Coronation Street . Fashion stylist Katie Grand said : `` There 's something very interesting about working class Britain in the early Sixties . Coronation Street was black-and-white and so grimy . They just looked so cool . Hilda Ogden has her hair in curlers but is also in a fabulous tweed jacket and a really nice blouse . '' The video for one of the rock band Queen 's music videos , `` I Want to Break Free '' , was based on characters from Coronation Street . Lead singer , Freddie Mercury , was said not to be a fan of any soap opera ; however , when he was at home , he would watch Coronation Street . So , in the song 's video , the members of the band dressed in drag as some of the soap 's most famous female characters . Mercury 's style was based loosely on the character Bet Lynch , while Brian May 's style was modeled loosely on Hilda Ogden . The song peaked at number 3 in the UK singles chart , and remained in the chart for fifteen consecutive weeks from its release in April 1984 . In the 1980s , Boy George criticized the most controversial video of `` Relax '' by Frankie Goes to Hollywood by saying it represented a `` Hilda Ogden view of homosexuality . ''

sfq_1664--Hilda_Ogden.txt

"Who played the part of Hilda Ogden for many years in the TV series, ""Coronation St""?"

Francis Albert `` Frank '' Sinatra ( ; December 12 , 1915 – May 14 , 1998 ) was an American singer , actor , and producer who was one of the most popular and influential musical artists of the 20th century . Sinatra 's music has been considered timeless by many . He is one of the best-selling music artists of all time , having sold more than 150 million records worldwide . Born in Hoboken , New Jersey , to Italian immigrants , he began his musical career in the swing era with Harry James and Tommy Dorsey . He found success as a solo artist after being signed by Columbia Records in 1943 , becoming the idol of the `` bobby soxers '' . He released his first album , The Voice of Frank Sinatra , in 1946 . Sinatra 's professional career had stalled by the early 1950s , and he turned to Las Vegas , where he became one of its best known performers as part of the Rat Pack . His career was reborn in 1953 with the success of From Here to Eternity and his subsequent Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor . He signed with Capitol Records and released several critically lauded albums , including In the Wee Small Hours ( 1955 ) , Songs for Swingin ' Lovers ! ( 1956 ) , Come Fly with Me ( 1958 ) , Only the Lonely ( 1958 ) and Nice 'n ' Easy ( 1960 ) . Sinatra left Capitol in 1960 to start his own record label , Reprise Records , and released a string of successful albums . In 1965 he recorded the retrospective September of My Years , starred in the Emmy-winning television special Frank Sinatra : A Man and His Music , and scored hits with `` Strangers in the Night '' and `` My Way '' . After releasing Sinatra at the Sands , recorded at the Sands Hotel and Casino in Vegas with frequent collaborator Count Basie in early 1966 , the following year he recorded one of his most famous collaborations with Tom Jobim , the album Francis Albert Sinatra & Antonio Carlos Jobim . It was followed by 1968 's collaboration with Duke Ellington . Sinatra retired for the first time in 1971 , but came out of retirement two years later and recorded several albums and resumed performing at Caesars Palace . In 1980 he scored a Top 40 hit with `` ( Theme From ) New York , New York '' . Using his Las Vegas shows as a home base , he toured both within the United States and internationally until a short time before his death in 1998 . Sinatra forged a highly successful career as a film actor . After winning an Academy Award for From Here to Eternity , he starred in The Man with the Golden Arm ( 1955 ) , and received critical acclaim for his performance in The Manchurian Candidate ( 1962 ) . He appeared in various musicals such as On the Town ( 1949 ) , Guys and Dolls ( 1955 ) , High Society ( 1956 ) , and Pal Joey ( 1957 ) , and toward the end of his career he became associated with playing detectives , including the title character in Tony Rome ( 1967 ) . On television , The Frank Sinatra Show began on ABC in 1950 , and he continued to make appearances on television throughout the 1950s and 1960s . Sinatra was also heavily involved with politics from the mid 1940s , and actively campaigned for presidents such as Harry S. Truman , John F. Kennedy and Ronald Reagan , though before Kennedy 's death Sinatra 's alleged Mafia connections led to his being snubbed . ( The Nevada Gaming Commission stripped Sinatra of his gambling license after he failed to meet an October 7 , 1963 deadline for refuting charges of close associations with Chicago mobster Sam Giancana . ) While Sinatra never formally learned how to read music , he had a fine , natural understanding of it , and he worked very hard from a young age to improve his abilities in all aspects of music . A perfectionist , renowned for his impeccable dress sense and cleanliness , he always insisted on recording live with his band . His deep blue eyes earned him the popular nickname `` Ol ' Blue Eyes '' . Sinatra led a colorful personal life , and was often involved in turbulent affairs with women , such as with his second wife Ava Gardner . He went on to marry Mia Farrow in 1966 and Barbara Marx in 1976 . Sinatra had several violent confrontations , usually with journalists he felt had crossed him , or work bosses with whom he had disagreements . He was honored at the Kennedy Center Honors in 1983 , was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by Ronald Reagan in 1985 , and the Congressional Gold Medal in 1997 . Sinatra was also the recipient of eleven Grammy Awards , including the Grammy Trustees Award , Grammy Legend Award and the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award . After his death , American music critic Robert Christgau called him `` the greatest singer of the 20th century '' , and he continues to be seen as an iconic figure . Early life Francis Albert Sinatra was born on December 12 , 1915 , in an upstairs tenement at 415 Monroe Street in Hoboken , New Jersey . He was the only child of Italian immigrants Antonino Martino `` Marty '' Sinatra ( May 4 , 1892 – January 24 , 1969 ) , the son of grape growers from Lercara Friddi , and Natalina `` Dolly '' Garaventa ( December 26 , 1896 – January 6 , 1977 ) , daughter of a lithographer from Genoa . The couple had eloped on Valentine 's Day 1913 , and married in a civil ceremony in Jersey City , New Jersey . Sinatra weighed at birth and had to be delivered with the aid of forceps , which caused severe scarring to his left cheek , neck , and ear , and perforated his ear drum , damage that remained for life . Due to his injuries at birth , his baptism at St. Francis Church in Hoboken was delayed until April 2 , 1916 . A childhood operation on his mastoid bone left major scarring on his neck , and during adolescence he suffered from cystic acne that scarred his face and neck . Sinatra was raised Roman Catholic . When Sinatra 's mother was a child , her pretty face earned her the nickname `` Dolly '' . Energetic and driven , biographers believe that she was the dominant factor in the development of her son 's personality traits and extraordinary self-confidence . Barbara Sinatra claims that Dolly was abusive to him as a child , and `` knocked him around a lot '' . Dolly became influential in Hoboken and in local Democratic Party circles . She worked as a midwife , earning $ 50 for each delivery , and according to Sinatra biographer Kitty Kelley , also ran an illegal abortion service that catered to Italian Catholic girls . She also had a gift for languages and served as a local interpreter . Sinatra 's illiterate father was a bantamweight boxer who fought under the name Marty O'Brien . He later worked for 24 years at the Hoboken Fire Department , working his way up to captain . Sinatra spent much time at his parents ' tavern in Hoboken , working on his homework and occasionally singing a song on top of the player piano for spare change . During the Great Depression , Dolly provided money to her son for outings with friends and to buy expensive clothes , resulting in neighbors describing him as the `` best-dressed kid in the neighborhood '' . Excessively thin and small as a child and young man , Sinatra 's skinny frame later became a staple of jokes during stage shows . Sinatra developed an interest in music , particularly big band jazz , at a young age . He listened to Gene Austin , Rudy Vallée , Russ Colombo , and Bob Eberly , and `` idolized '' Bing Crosby . Sinatra 's maternal uncle , Domenico , gave him a ukulele for his 15th birthday , and he began performing at family gatherings . Sinatra attended David E. Rue Jr. High School from 1928 , and A. J. Demarest High School in 1931 , where he arranged bands for school dances . He left without graduating , having attended only 47 days before being expelled for `` general rowdiness '' . To please his mother , he enrolled at Drake Business School , but departed after 11 months . Dolly found Sinatra work as a delivery boy at the Jersey Observer newspaper , where his godfather Frank Garrick worked , and after that , Sinatra was a riveter at the Tietjen and Lang shipyard . He performed in local Hoboken social clubs such as The Cat 's Meow and The Comedy Club , and sang for free on radio stations such as WAAT in Jersey City . In New York , Sinatra found jobs singing for his supper or for cigarettes . To improve his speech , he began taking elocution lessons for a dollar each from vocal coach John Quinlan , who was one of the first people to notice his impressive vocal range . Music career Hoboken Four and Harry James ( 1935–39 ) Sinatra began singing professionally as a teenager , but he learned music by ear and never learned to read music . He got his first break in 1935 when his mother persuaded a local singing group , the 3 Flashes , to let him join . Fred Tamburro , the group 's baritone , stated that `` Frank hung around us like we were gods or something '' , admitting that they only took him on board because he owned a car and could chauffeur the group around . Sinatra soon learned they were auditioning for the Major Bowes Amateur Hour show , and `` begged '' the group to let him in on the act . With Sinatra , the group became known as the Hoboken Four , and passed an audition from Edward Bowes to appear on the Major Bowes Amateur Hour show . They each earned $ 12.50 for the appearance , and ended up attracting 40,000 votes and won first prize—a six-month contract to perform on stage and radio across the United States . Sinatra quickly became the group 's lead singer , and , much to the jealousy of his fellow group members , garnered most of the attention from girls . Due to the success of the group , Bowes kept asking for them to return , disguised under different names , varying from `` The Seacaucus Cockamamies '' to `` The Bayonne Bacalas '' . In 1938 , Sinatra found employment as a singing waiter at a roadhouse called `` The Rustic Cabin '' in Englewood Cliffs , New Jersey , for which he was paid $ 15 a week . The roadhouse was connected to the WNEW radio station in New York City , and he began performing with a group live during the Dance Parade show . Despite the low salary , Sinatra felt that this was the break he was looking for , and boasted to friends that he was going to `` become so big that no one could ever touch him '' . In March 1939 , saxophone player Frank Mane , who knew Sinatra from Jersey City radio station WAAT where both performed on live broadcasts , arranged for him to audition and record `` Our Love '' , his first solo studio recording . In June , bandleader Harry James , who had heard Sinatra sing on `` Dance Parade '' , signed a two-year contract of $ 75 a week one evening after a show at the Paramount Theatre in New York . It was with the James band that Sinatra released his first commercial record `` From the Bottom of My Heart '' in July . No more than 8,000 copies of the record were sold , and further records released with James through 1939 , such as `` All or Nothing At All '' , also had weak sales on their initial release . Thanks to his vocal training , Sinatra could now sing two tones higher , and developed a repertoire which included songs such as `` My Buddy '' , `` Willow Weep for Me '' , `` It 's Funny to Everyone But Me '' , `` Here Comes the Night '' , `` On a Little Street in Singapore '' , `` Ciribiribin '' and `` Every Day of My Life '' . Tommy Dorsey years ( 1939–42 ) Sinatra became increasingly frustrated with the status of the Harry James band , feeling that he was not achieving the major success and acclaim he was looking for . His pianist and close friend Hank Sanicola persuaded him to stay with the group , but in November 1939 he left James to replace Jack Leonard as the lead singer of the Tommy Dorsey band . Sinatra signed a contract with Dorsey for $ 125 a week at Palmer House in Chicago , and James agreed amicably to release Sinatra from his contract . On January 26 , 1940 , he made his first public appearance with the band at the Coronado Theatre in Rockford , Illinois , opening the show with `` Stardust '' . Dorsey recalled : `` You could almost feel the excitement coming up out of the crowds when the kid stood up to sing . Remember , he was no matinée idol . He was just a skinny kid with big ears . I used to stand there so amazed I 'd almost forget to take my own solos '' . Dorsey was a major influence on Sinatra and became a father figure . Sinatra copied Dorsey 's mannerisms and traits , becoming a demanding perfectionist like him , even adopting his hobby of toy trains . He asked Dorsey to be godfather to his daughter Nancy in June 1940 . Sinatra later said that `` The only two people I 've ever been afraid of are my mother and Tommy Dorsey '' . Though Kelley claims that Sinatra and drummer Buddy Rich were bitter rivals , other authors state that they were friends and even roommates when the band was on the road , but professional jealousy surfaced as both men wanted to be considered the star of Dorsey 's band . Later , Sinatra helped Rich form his own band with a $ 25,000 loan and provided financial help to Rich during times of the drummer 's serious illness . In his first year with Dorsey , Sinatra recorded over forty songs . Sinatra 's first vocal hit was the song `` Polka Dots and Moonbeams '' in late April 1940 . Two more chart appearances followed with `` Say It '' and `` Imagination '' , which was Sinatra 's first top-10 hit . His fourth chart appearance was `` I 'll Never Smile Again '' , topping the charts for twelve weeks beginning in mid-July . Other records with Tommy Dorsey issued by RCA Victor include `` Our Love Affair '' and `` Stardust '' in 1940 ; `` Oh ! Look at Me Now '' , `` Dolores '' , `` Everything Happens to Me '' and `` This Love of Mine '' in 1941 ; `` Just as Though You Were There '' , `` Take Me '' and `` There Are Such Things '' in 1942 ; and `` It Started All Over Again '' , `` In the Blue of Evening '' and `` It 's Always You '' in 1943 . As his success and popularity grew , Sinatra pushed Dorsey to allow him to record some solo songs . Dorsey eventually relented , and on January 19 , 1942 , Sinatra recorded `` Night and Day , `` The Night We Called It a Day '' , `` The Song is You '' and `` Lamplighter 's Serenade '' at a Bluebird recording session , with Axel Stordahl as arranger and conductor . Sinatra first heard the recordings at the Hollywood Palladium and Hollywood Plaza and was astounded at how good he sounded . Stordahl recalled : `` He just could n't believe his ears . He was so excited , you almost believed he had never recorded before . I think this was a turning point in his career . I think he began to see what he might do on his own '' . After the 1942 recordings , Sinatra believed he needed to go solo , with an insatiable desire to compete with Bing Crosby , but he was hampered by his contract which gave Dorsey 43 % of Sinatra 's lifetime earnings in the entertainment industry . A legal battle ensued , eventually settled in August 1943 . On September 3 , 1942 , Dorsey bid farewell to Sinatra , reportedly saying as Sinatra left , `` I hope you fall on your ass '' . He replaced Sinatra with singer Dick Haymes . Rumors began spreading in newspapers that Sinatra 's mobster godfather , Willie Moretti , coerced Dorsey to let Sinatra out of his contract for a few thousand dollars , holding a gun to his head . Sinatra persuaded Stordahl to leave Dorsey with him and become his personal arranger , offering him $ 650 a month , five times the salary of Dorsey . Dorsey and Sinatra , who had been very close , never patched up their differences before Dorsey 's death in 1956 , worsened by the fact that Dorsey occasionally made biting comments to the press such as `` he 's the most fascinating man in the world , but do n't put your hand in the cage '' . Onset of Sinatramania and role in World War II ( 1942–45 ) By May 1941 , Sinatra topped the male singer polls in Billboard and Down Beat magazines . His appeal to bobby soxers , as teenage girls of that time were called , revealed a whole new audience for popular music , which had been recorded mainly for adults up to that time . The phenomenon became officially known as `` Sinatramania '' after his `` legendary opening '' at the Paramount Theatre in New York on December 30 , 1942 . According to Nancy Sinatra , Jack Benny later said , `` I thought the goddamned building was going to cave in . I never heard such a commotion ... All this for a fellow I never heard of . '' Sinatra performed for four weeks at the theatre , his act following the Benny Goodman orchestra , after which his contract was renewed for another four weeks by Bob Weitman due to his popularity . He became known as `` Swoonatra '' or `` The Voice '' , and his fans `` Sinatratics '' . They organized meetings and sent masses of letters of adoration , and within a few weeks of the show , some 1000 Sinatra fan clubs had been reported across the US . Sinatra 's publicist , George Evans , encouraged interviews and photographs with fans , and was the man responsible for depicting Sinatra as a vulnerable , shy , Italian–American with a rough childhood who made good . When Sinatra returned to the Paramount in October 1944 only 250 persons left the first show , and 35,000 fans left outside caused a near riot , known as the Columbus Day Riot , outside the venue because they were not allowed in . Such was the bobby-soxer devotion to Sinatra that they were known to write Sinatra 's song titles on their clothing , bribe hotel maids for an opportunity to touch his bed , and accost his person in the form of stealing clothing he was wearing , most commonly his bow-tie . Sinatra signed with Columbia Records as a solo artist on June 1 , 1943 during the 1942–44 musicians ' strike . Columbia Records re-released Harry James and Sinatra 's August 1939 version of `` All or Nothing at All '' , which reached number 2 on June 2 , and was on the best–selling list for 18 weeks . He initially had great success , and performed on the radio on Your Hit Parade from February 1943 until December 1944 , and on stage . Columbia wanted new recordings of their growing star as quickly as possible , so Alec Wilder was hired as an arranger and conductor for several sessions with a vocal group called the Bobby Tucker Singers . These first sessions were on June 7 , June 22 , August 5 , and November 10 , 1943 . Of the nine songs recorded during these sessions , seven charted on the best–selling list . That year he also made his first solo nightclub appearance at New York 's Riobamba , and a successful concert in the Wedgewood Room of the prestigious Waldorf-Astoria New York that year secured his popularity in New York high society . Sinatra released `` You 'll Never Know '' , `` Close to You '' , `` Sunday , Monday , or Always '' and `` People Will Say We 're in Love '' as singles . By the end of 1943 he was more popular in a Down Beat poll than Bing Crosby , Perry Como , Bob Eberly and Dick Haymes . Sinatra did not serve in the military during World War II . On December 11 , 1943 , he was officially classified 4-F ( `` Registrant not acceptable for military service '' ) by his draft board because of a perforated eardrum . However , army files reported that Sinatra was `` not acceptable material from a psychiatric viewpoint '' , but his emotional instability was hidden to avoid `` undue unpleasantness for both the selectee and the induction service '' . Briefly , there were rumors reported by columnist Walter Winchell that Sinatra paid $ 40,000 to avoid the service , but the FBI found this to be without merit . Toward the end of the war , Sinatra entertained the troops during several successful overseas USO tours with comedian Phil Silvers . During one trip to Rome he met the Pope , who asked him if he was an operatic tenor . Sinatra worked frequently with the popular Andrews Sisters in radio the 1940s , and many USO shows were broadcast to troops via the Armed Forces Radio Service ( AFRS ) . In 1944 Sinatra released `` I Could n't Sleep a Wink Last Night '' as a single and recorded his own version of Crosby 's `` White Christmas '' , and the following year he released `` I Dream of You ( More Than You Dream I Do ) '' , `` Saturday Night ( Is the Loneliest Night of the Week ) '' , `` Dream '' and `` Nancy ( with the Laughing Face ) '' as singles . Columbia years and career slump ( 1946–52 ) Despite being heavily involved in political activity in 1945 and 1946 , in those two years Sinatra sang on 160 radio shows , recorded 36 times , and shot four films . By 1946 he was performing on stage up to 45 times a week , singing up to 100 songs daily , and earning up to $ 93,000 a week . In 1946 Sinatra released `` Oh ! What it Seemed to Be '' , `` Day by Day '' , `` They Say It 's Wonderful '' , `` Five Minutes More '' and `` The Coffee Song '' as singles , and launched his first album , The Voice of Frank Sinatra , which reached No . 1 on the Billboard chart . William Ruhlmann of AllMusic noted that Sinatra `` took the material very seriously , singing the love lyrics with utter seriousness '' , and that his `` singing and the classically influenced settings gave the songs unusual depth of meaning '' . He was soon selling ten million records a year . Such was Sinatra 's command at Columbia that his love of conducting was indulged with the release of the set Frank Sinatra Conducts the Music of Alec Wilder , an offering unlikely to appeal to Sinatra 's core fanbase at the time , which consisted of teenage girls . The following year he released his second album , Songs by Sinatra , featuring songs of a similar mood and tempo such as Irving Berlin 's `` How Deep is the Ocean ? '' and Harold Arlen 's and Jerome Kern 's `` All The Things You Are '' . `` Mam'selle '' , composed by Edmund Goulding with lyrics by Mack Gordon for the film The Razor 's Edge ( 1946 ) , was released a single . Sinatra had competition ; versions by Art Lund , Dick Haymes , Dennis Day , and The Pied Pipers also reached the top ten of the Billboard charts . In December he recorded `` Sweet Lorraine '' with the Metronome All-Stars , featuring talented jazz musicians such as Coleman Hawkins , Harry Carney and Charlie Shavers , with Nat King Cole on piano , in what Charles L. Granata describes as `` one of the highlights of Sinatra 's Columbia epoch '' . Sinatra 's third album , Christmas Songs by Sinatra , was originally released in 1948 as a 78 rpm album set , and a 10 '' LP record was released two years later . When Sinatra was featured as a priest in The Miracle of the Bells , due to press negativity surrounding his alleged Mafia connections at the time , it was announced to the public that Sinatra would donate his $ 100,000 in wages from the film to the church . By the end of 1948 , Sinatra had slipped to fourth on Down Beats annual poll of most popular singers ( behind Billy Eckstine , Frankie Laine , and Bing Crosby ) . and in the following year he was pushed out of the top spots in polls for the first time since 1943 . Frankly Sentimental ( 1949 ) was panned by Down Beat , who commented that `` for all his talent , it seldom comes to life '' . Though `` The Hucklebuck '' reached the top ten , it was his last single release under the Columbia label . Sinatra 's last two albums with Columbia , Dedicated to You and Sing and Dance with Frank Sinatra , were released in 1950 . Sinatra would later feature a number of the Sing and Dance with Frank Sinatra album 's songs , including `` Lover '' , `` It 's Only a Paper Moon '' , `` It All Depends on You '' , on his 1961 Capitol release , Sinatra 's Swingin ' Session ! ! ! . Cementing the low of his career was the death of publicist George Evans from a heart attack in January 1950 at 48 . According to Jimmy Van Heusen , Sinatra 's close friend and songwriter , Evans 's death to him was `` an enormous shock which defies words '' , as he had been crucial to his career and popularity with the bobbysoxers . Sinatra 's reputation continued to decline as reports broke out in February of his affair with Ava Gardner and the destruction of his marriage to Nancy , though he insisted that his marriage had long been over even before he had met Gardner . In April , Sinatra was engaged to perform at the Copa club in New York , but had to cancel five days of the booking due to suffering a submucosal hemorrhage of the throat . Evans once noted that whenever Sinatra suffered from a bad throat and loss of voice it was always due to emotional tension which `` absolutely destroyed him '' . In financial difficulty following his divorce and career decline , Sinatra was forced to borrow $ 200,000 from Columbia to pay his back taxes after MCA refused to front the money . Rejected by Hollywood , he turned to Las Vegas and made his debut at the Desert Inn in September 1951 , and also began singing at the Riverside Hotel in Reno , Nevada . Sinatra became one of Las Vegas 's pioneer entertainers , and a prominent figure on the Vegas scene throughout the 1950s and 1960s onwards , a period described by Rojek as the `` high-water mark '' of Sinatra 's `` hedonism and self absorption '' . Rojek notes that the Rat Pack `` provided an outlet for gregarious banter and wisecracks '' , but argues that it was Sinatra 's vehicle , possessing an `` unassailable command over the other performers '' . Sinatra would fly to Las Vegas from Los Angeles in Van Heusen 's

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What Canadian-born teen idol of the 1950s-60s wrote the lyrics to Sinatra's song My Way?

The Dark Knight is a 2008 superhero thriller film directed , produced , and co-written by Christopher Nolan . Featuring the DC Comics character Batman , the film is the second part of Nolan 's The Dark Knight Trilogy and a sequel to 2005 's Batman Begins , starring an ensemble cast including Christian Bale , Michael Caine , Heath Ledger , Gary Oldman , Aaron Eckhart , Maggie Gyllenhaal and Morgan Freeman . In the film , Bruce Wayne/Batman ( Bale ) , James Gordon ( Oldman ) and Harvey Dent ( Eckhart ) form an alliance to dismantle organised crime in Gotham City , but are menaced by a criminal mastermind known as the Joker ( Ledger ) who seeks to undermine Batman 's influence and create chaos . Nolan 's inspiration for the film was the Joker 's comic book debut in 1940 , the 1988 graphic novel The Killing Joke , and the 1996 series The Long Halloween , which retold Two-Face 's origin . The nickname `` the Dark Knight '' was first applied to Batman in Batman # 1 ( 1940 ) , in a story written by Bill Finger . The Dark Knight was filmed primarily in Chicago , as well as in several other locations in the United States , the United Kingdom , and Hong Kong . Nolan used IMAX 70 mm film cameras to film some sequences , including the Joker 's first appearance in the film . The film is dedicated to Heath Ledger , who died on January 22 , 2008 , some months after the completed filming and six months before the film 's release , from a toxic combination of prescription drugs , leading to intense attention from the press and movie-going public . Warner Bros. initially created a viral marketing campaign for The Dark Knight , developing promotional websites and trailers highlighting screenshots of Ledger as the Joker . A co-production of the United States and the United Kingdom , The Dark Knight was released on July 16 , 2008 in Australia , on July 18 , 2008 in North America , and on July 24 , 2008 in the United Kingdom . Considered by film critics to be one of the best films of the 2000s and one of the best superhero films ever , the film received highly positive reviews and set numerous records during its theatrical run . The Dark Knight appeared on more critics ' top ten lists ( 287 ) than any other film of 2008 with the exception of WALL-E , and more critics ( 77 ) named The Dark Knight the best film of 2008 than any other film released that year . With over $ 1 billion in revenue worldwide , it is the 26th-highest-grossing film of all time , unadjusted for inflation . The film received eight Academy Award nominations ; it won the award for Best Sound Editing and Ledger was posthumously awarded Best Supporting Actor . The Dark Knight Rises , the final film in the trilogy , was released on July 20 , 2012 . Plot A gang of criminals rob a Gotham City mob bank , double-crossing and murdering each other until there is only one left : The Joker , who escapes with the money . Batman , District Attorney Harvey Dent and Lieutenant Jim Gordon form an alliance to rid Gotham of organized crime . Bruce Wayne is impressed with Dent 's idealism and offers to support his career ; he believes that , with Dent as Gotham 's protector , he can give up being Batman and lead a normal life with Rachel Dawes—even though she and Dent are dating . Mob bosses Sal Maroni , Gambol and the Chechen hold a videoconference with corrupt accountant Lau , who has taken their funds and fled to Hong Kong . The Joker interrupts , warns them that Batman is unhindered by the law , and offers to kill him in exchange for half of their money . Gambol puts a bounty on the Joker , but the Joker kills him instead and takes over his gang . The mob ultimately decides to take the Joker up on his offer . Dent arrests the entire mob , while Batman finds Lau in Hong Kong and brings him back to Gotham to testify against them . The Joker threatens to keep killing people unless Batman reveals his identity , and starts by murdering Police Commissioner Gillian B. Loeb and the judge presiding over the mob trial . The Joker also tries to kill Mayor Anthony Garcia , but Gordon sacrifices himself to stop the assassination . Dent learns that Rachel is the next target . Bruce decides to reveal his secret identity . Before he can , however , Dent announces that he is Batman . Dent is taken into protective custody , but the Joker appears and attacks the convoy . Batman comes to Dent 's rescue and Gordon , who faked his death , arrests the Joker and is promoted to Commissioner . Rachel and Dent are escorted away by policemen on the mob 's payroll . Batman interrogates the Joker , who reveals that Rachel and Dent have been trapped in separate locations rigged with explosives . Batman races to save Rachel , while Gordon goes to save Dent . Batman arrives at the building , realizing that the Joker sent him to Dent 's location instead . Both buildings explode , killing Rachel and disfiguring half of Dent 's face . The Joker escapes the jail with Lau . Coleman Reese , an accountant at Wayne Enterprises , deduces that Bruce is Batman and tries to go public with the information . After observing the unpredictability of the Joker , Maroni informs the Joker 's location to commissioner Gordon . The Joker sets fire to the mob 's money , burning Lau alive in the process and kills the Chechen . He then threatens to destroy a hospital unless someone kills Reese . Gordon orders the evacuation of all the hospitals in Gotham and goes to secure Reese . The Joker finds Harvey Dent in a hospital and manipulates him into seeking revenge for Rachel 's death . The Joker destroys the hospital and escapes with a busload of hostages . Dent goes on a killing spree based on a coin flip , targeting people he holds responsible for Rachel 's death . This includes two corrupt cop-detectives ( Michael Wuertz and Anna Ramirez ) who worked for Maroni in kidnapping Dent and Rachel . While in car with Maroni , Dent kills his driver , which could have supposedly killed Maroni as well . After announcing Gotham will be subject to his rule come nightfall , The Joker rigs two evacuating ferries with explosives ; one containing civilians and the other containing prisoners . He says that he will blow them both up by midnight , but will let one live if the passengers of anyone blows up the other . Batman finds the Joker with a sonar device that spies on the entire city , with the reluctant help of Lucius Fox . The passengers refuse to kill each other , and Batman apprehends the Joker after a fight . Before the police arrive to take the Joker into custody , he gloats that Gotham 's citizens will lose hope once Dent 's rampage becomes public knowledge . Gordon arrives at the building where Rachel died , where Dent judges his fate , along with his own and Batman 's , by flipping a coin . He spares himself , shoots Batman , and tries to kill Gordon 's son . Batman , who was wearing body armor , tackles Dent off the building to his death . Batman persuades Gordon to preserve Dent 's heroic image by holding Batman responsible for the killing spree . As the police launch a manhunt for Batman , Gordon destroys the Bat-signal , Fox watches as the sonar device self-destructs , and Alfred Pennyworth burns a letter from Rachel about her choice to marry Dent . Cast * Christian Bale as Bruce Wayne / Batman : A billionaire socialite who dedicates himself to protecting Gotham City from its criminal underworld as a bat-masked vigilante hailed as its `` Dark Knight '' at night . Bale said he was confident in his choice to return in the role because of the positive response to his portrayal in Batman Begins . He continued training in the Keysi Fighting Method and performed many of his own stunts , but did not gain as much muscle as in the previous film because the new Batsuit allowed him to move with greater agility . Bale described Batman 's dilemma as whether `` [ his crusade is ] something that has an end . Can he quit and have an ordinary life ? The kind of manic intensity someone has to have to maintain the passion and the anger that they felt as a child , takes an effort after a while , to keep doing that . At some point , you have to exorcise your demons . '' He added , `` Now you have not just a young man in pain attempting to find some kind of an answer , you have somebody who actually has power , who is burdened by that power , and is having to recognize the difference between attaining that power and holding on to it . '' Bale felt Batman 's personality had been strongly established in the first film , so it was unlikely his character would be overshadowed by the villains , stating : `` I have no problem with competing with someone else . And that 's going to make a better movie . '' * Heath Ledger as The Joker : A psychotic criminal mastermind portraying himself as an `` agent of chaos '' , who rises to dominant power by terrorizing Gotham and plunging it into anarchy . Before Ledger was confirmed for the role in July 2006 , Paul Bettany , Lachy Hulme , Adrien Brody , Steve Carell , and Robin Williams publicly expressed interest in it . However , Nolan had wanted to work with Ledger on a number of projects in the past ( including unsuccessfully approaching Ledger for the role of Batman in Batman Begins ) and was agreeable to Ledger 's chaotic interpretation of the character . When Ledger saw Batman Begins , he had realized a way to make the character work that was consistent with the film 's tone : he described his Joker as a `` psychopathic , mass murdering , schizophrenic clown with zero empathy . '' In the film , the Joker has a Glasgow smile , and his trademark chalk-white skin and red lips are makeup rather than the result of chemical bleaching , as in the traditional portrayal of the character . Throughout the film , the Joker states his desire to upset social order through crime , and comes to define himself by his conflict with Batman . To prepare for the role , Ledger lived alone in a hotel room for a month , formulating the character 's posture , voice , and personality , and kept a diary , in which he recorded the Joker 's thoughts and feelings . While he initially found it difficult , Ledger eventually generated a voice unlike Jack Nicholson 's character in Tim Burton 's 1989 Batman film . He was also given Batman : The Killing Joke and Arkham Asylum : A Serious House on Serious Earth , which he `` really tried to read and put it down . '' Ledger also cited A Clockwork Orange and Sid Vicious as `` a very early starting point for Christian [ Bale ] and I . But we kind of flew far away from that pretty quickly and into another world altogether . '' `` There 's a bit of everything in him . There 's nothing that consistent , '' Ledger said , and added , `` There are a few more surprises to him . '' Ledger was allowed to shoot and mostly direct the videos the Joker sends out as warnings . Each take Ledger made was different from the last . Nolan was impressed enough with the first video shoot that he chose to not be present when Ledger shot the video with a kidnapped reporter ( Anthony Michael Hall ) . On January 22 , 2008 , after he had completed filming The Dark Knight , Ledger died of an accidental prescription drug overdose , leading to intense press attention and memorial tributes . `` It was tremendously emotional , right when he passed , having to go back in and look at him every day [ during editing ] , '' Nolan recalled . `` But the truth is , I feel very lucky to have something productive to do , to have a performance that he was very , very proud of , and that he had entrusted to me to finish . '' All of Ledger 's scenes appear as he completed them in the filming ; in editing the film , Nolan added no `` digital effects '' to alter Ledger 's actual performance posthumously . Nolan has dedicated the film in part to Ledger 's memory . * Gary Oldman as Lt. James Gordon : A lieutenant in the Gotham City Police Department and one of the city 's few honest police officers , who forms a tenuous , unofficial alliance with Batman and Dent and is given the position of Police Commissioner by the city 's mayor following the recent commissioner 's assassination . Oldman described his character as `` incorruptible , virtuous , strong , heroic , but understated . '' Nolan explained that `` The Long Halloween has a great , triangular relationship between Harvey Dent and Gordon and Batman , and that 's something we very much drew from . '' Oldman added that `` Gordon has a great deal of admiration for him at the end , but [ Batman ] is more than ever now the dark knight , the outsider . I 'm intrigued now to see : If there is a third one , what he 's going to do ? '' On the possibility of another sequel , he said that `` returning to [ the role ] is not dependent on whether the role was bigger than the one before . '' * Aaron Eckhart as Harvey Dent : Gotham 's district attorney , hailed as the city 's `` White Knight '' . Nolan and David S. Goyer had originally considered using Dent in Batman Begins , but they replaced him with the new character Rachel Dawes when they realized they `` could n't do him justice . '' Before Eckhart was cast in February 2007 , Liev Schreiber , Josh Lucas , and Ryan Phillippe had expressed interest in the role , while Mark Ruffalo auditioned . Matt Damon stated that he was considered for the role , but could not accept due to scheduling conflicts . Hugh Jackman was also considered for the part . Nolan chose Eckhart , whom he had considered for the lead role in Memento , citing his `` extraordinary '' ability as an actor , his embodiment of `` that kind of chiselled , American hero quality '' projected by Robert Redford , and his subtextual `` edge . '' Eckhart was `` interested in good guys gone wrong , '' and had played corrupt men in films such as The Black Dahlia , Thank You for Smoking , and In the Company of Men . Whereas Two-Face is depicted as a crime boss in most characterizations , Nolan chose to portray him as a twisted vigilante to emphasize his role as Batman 's counterpart . Eckhart explained , `` [ He ] is still true to himself . He 's a crime fighter , he 's not killing good people . He 's not a bad guy , not purely . '' For Dent , Eckhart `` kept on thinking about the Kennedys , '' particularly Robert F. Kennedy , who was `` idealistic , held a grudge and took on the Mob . '' He had his hair lightened and styled to make him appear more dashing . Nolan told Eckhart to not make Dent 's Two-Face persona `` jokey with slurping sounds or ticks . '' * Maggie Gyllenhaal as Rachel Dawes : Gotham City 's assistant district attorney and Bruce 's childhood friend , who is one of the few people to know Batman 's true identity . Gyllenhaal took over the role from Katie Holmes , who played the part in Batman Begins . In August 2005 , Holmes was reportedly planning to reprise the role , but she eventually turned it down to do Mad Money with Diane Keaton and Queen Latifah . By March 2007 , Gyllenhaal was in `` final talks '' for the part . Gyllenhaal has acknowledged her character is a damsel in distress to an extent , but says Nolan sought ways to empower her character , so `` Rachel 's really clear about what 's important to her and unwilling to compromise her morals , which made a nice change '' from the many conflicted characters whom she has previously portrayed . * Michael Caine as Alfred Pennyworth : Bruce 's trusted butler and confidant , who supplies useful advice to Bruce and likeness as a father figure , leading him to be labeled `` Batman 's batman '' . * Morgan Freeman as Lucius Fox : The recently promoted CEO of Wayne Enterprises who , now fully aware of his employer 's double life , serves more directly as Bruce 's armorer for the Batsuit in addition to his corporate duties . * Monique Gabriela Curnen as Detective Anna Ramirez : A cop in Gordon 's unit who starts working for the mob to pay her mother 's hospital bills . She betrays Rachel Dawes to the Joker . * Ron Dean as Detective Michael Wuertz : A corrupt cop in Gordon 's unit who betrays Dent to the Joker . * Nestor Carbonell as Mayor Anthony Garcia : The mayor of Gotham , who appoints Gordon Police Commissioner for saving his life and arresting the Joker . * Chin Han as Lau : A corrupt Chinese LSI Holdings accountant at Wayne Enterprises secretly operating as a Triad boss in charge of money-laundering deals for the mob . * Eric Roberts as Sal Maroni : An Italian mafia boss who takes over Carmine Falcone 's mob . Bob Hoskins and James Gandolfini auditioned for the role . * Ritchie Coster as the Chechen : A Chechen mafia boss in charge of drug-trafficking for the mob . * Anthony Michael Hall as Mike Engel : A Gotham Cable News reporter who is kidnapped from the destroyed hospital by the Joker and used to broadcast his plan for anarchy within Gotham . * Keith Szarabajka as Detective Gerard Stephens : An honest cop in Gordon 's unit who the Joker holds captive during his escape from the police station . * Joshua Harto as Coleman Reese : An M & A law accountant at Wayne Enterprises who deduces Bruce 's persona of Batman from Fox and plans to reveal it to Gotham on Gotham Cable News until the Joker threatens his life . * Melinda McGraw as Barbara Gordon : Gordon 's wife , who is worried that her husband is risking his life in his war on crime . * Nathan Gamble as James Gordon , Jr. : Gordon 's 10-year-old son , whom Dent tries to kill to punish Gordon for Rachel 's death . * Michael Jai White as Gambol : A Nigerian mafia boss in charge of illegal gambling and extortion for the mob . He places a bounty on the Joker , who kills him instead . David Banner auditioned for the role . * Colin McFarlane as Commissioner Gillian Loeb : The Police Commissioner of Gotham until his murder at the hands of the Joker . The film 's supporting cast include Nydia Rodriguez Terracina as Judge Janet Surrillo , and Tom `` Tiny '' Lister , Jr. as a prison inmate on one of the bomb-rigged ferries . William Fichtner played the Gotham National Bank manager , and Cillian Murphy returns in a cameo as Dr. Jonathan Crane / Scarecrow , who is apprehended early on in the film by Batman . Musician Dwight Yoakam was approached for the roles of either the manager or a corrupt cop , but he chose instead to focus on his album Dwight Sings Buck . United States Senator Patrick Leahy—a fan of Batman comics who was previously an extra in the 1997 film Batman & Robin and also was a guest voice actor on Batman : The Animated Series—appears as a guest at Bruce Wayne 's party . Matt Skiba , lead singer of Chicago punk band Alkaline Trio , made a small appearance in the film . Production Development Before the release of Batman Begins , screenwriter David S. Goyer wrote a treatment for two sequels which introduced the Joker and Harvey Dent . His original intent was for the Joker to scar Dent during the Joker 's trial in the third film , turning Dent into Two-Face . Goyer , who penned the first draft of the film , cited the DC Comics 13-issue comic book limited series Batman : The Long Halloween as the major influence on his storyline . According to veteran Batman artist Neal Adams , he met with David Goyer in Los Angeles , and the story would eventually look to Adams and writer Denny O'Neil 's 1971 story `` The Joker 's Five-Way Revenge '' that appeared in Batman # 251 , in which O'Neil and Adams re-introduced the Joker.Spry , Jeff ( February 2014 ) . `` Neal Adams : Up Close and Personal '' . Bleeding Cool . # 8 . Avatar Press . pp . 57–63 . While initially uncertain of whether or not he would return to direct the sequel , Nolan did want to reinterpret the Joker on screen . On July 31 , 2006 , Warner Bros. officially announced initiation of production for the sequel to Batman Begins titled The Dark Knight ; it is the first live-action Batman film without the word `` Batman '' in its title , which Bale noted as signaling that `` this take on Batman of mine and Chris ' is very different from any of the others . '' After much research , Nolan 's brother and co-writer , Jonathan , suggested the Joker 's first two appearances , published in the first issue of Batman ( 1940 ) , as the crucial influences . Christopher had Jonathan watch Fritz Lang 's 1933 crime film The Testament of Dr. Mabuse prior to writing the Joker , with the Joker resembling Mabuse 's characteristics . Christopher Nolan referred to Lang 's film as `` essential research for anyone attempting to write a supervillain . '' Jerry Robinson , one of the Joker 's co-creators , was consulted on the character 's portrayal . Nolan decided to avoid divulging an in-depth origin story for the Joker , and instead portray his rise to power so as to not diminish the threat he poses , explaining to MTV News , `` the Joker we meet in The Dark Knight is fully formed ... To me , the Joker is an absolute . There are no shades of gray to him – maybe shades of purple . He 's unbelievably dark . He bursts in just as he did in the comics . '' Nolan reiterated to IGN , `` We never wanted to do an origin story for the Joker in this film , '' because `` the arc of the story is much more Harvey Dent 's ; the Joker is presented as an absolute . It 's a very thrilling element in the film , and a very important element , but we wanted to deal with the rise of the Joker , not the origin of the Joker . '' Nolan suggested Batman : The Killing Joke influenced a section of the Joker 's dialogue in the film , in which he says that anyone can become like him given the right circumstances . Nolan also cited Heat as `` sort of an inspiration '' for his aim `` to tell a very large , city story or the story of a city '' : `` If you want to take on Gotham , you want to give Gotham a kind of weight and breadth and depth in there . So you wind up dealing with the political figures , the media figures . That 's part of the whole fabric of how a city is bound together . '' According to Nolan , an important theme of the sequel is `` escalation , '' extending the ending of Batman Begins , noting `` things having to get worse before they get better . '' While indicating The Dark Knight would continue the themes of Batman Begins , including justice vs. revenge and Bruce Wayne 's issues with his father , Nolan emphasized the sequel would also portray Wayne more as a detective , an aspect of his character not fully developed in Batman Begins . Nolan described the friendly rivalry between Bruce Wayne and Harvey Dent as the `` backbone '' of the film . He also chose to compress the overall storyline , allowing Dent to become Two-Face in The Dark Knight , thus giving the film an emotional arc the unsympathetic Joker could not offer . Nolan acknowledged the title was not only a reference to Batman , but also the fallen `` white knight '' Harvey Dent . Filming While scouting for shooting locations in October 2006 , location manager Robin Higgs visited Liverpool , concentrating mainly along the city 's waterfront . Other candidates included Yorkshire , Glasgow , and parts of London . In August 2006 , one of the film 's producers , Charles Roven , stated that its principal photography would begin in March 2007 , but filming was pushed back to April . For its release in IMAX theaters , Nolan shot four major sequences in that format , including the Joker 's opening bank robbery and the car chase midway through the film , which marked the first time that a feature film had been even partially shot in the format . The cameras used for non-IMAX 35 mm scenes were Panavision 's Panaflex Millennium XL and Platinum . For fifteen years Nolan had wanted to shoot in the IMAX format , and he also used it for `` quiet scenes which pictorially we thought would be interesting . '' The use of IMAX cameras provided many new challenges for the filmmakers : the cameras were much larger and heavier than standard cameras , and produced noise which made recording dialogue difficult . In addition , the cameras had short film loads ranging from 30 seconds to two minutes and the cost of the film stock was much greater than standard 35mm film . Nevertheless , Nolan said that he wished that it were possible to shoot the entire film in IMAX : `` if you could take an IMAX camera to Mount Everest or outer space , you could use it in a feature movie . '' In addition , Nolan chose to edit some of the IMAX sequences using the original camera negative , which by eliminating generation loss , raised the film resolution of those sequences up to 18 thousand lines . Warner Bros. chose to film in Chicago for 13 weeks , because Nolan had a `` truly remarkable experience '' filming part of Batman Begins there . Instead of using the Chicago Board of Trade Building as the location for the headquarters of Wayne Enterprises , as Batman Begins did , The Dark Knight shows Wayne Enterprises as being headquartered in the Richard J. Daley Center . While filming in Chicago , the film was given the false title Rory 's First Kiss to lower the visibility of production , but the local media eventually uncovered the ruse . Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun-Times commented on the absurdity of the technique , `` Is there a Bat-fan in the world that does n't know Rory 's First Kiss is actually The Dark Knight , which has been filming in Chicago for weeks ? '' Production of The Dark Knight in Chicago generated $ 45 million in the city 's economy and created thousands of jobs . For the film 's prologue involving the Joker , the crew shot in Chicago from April 18 , 2007 to April 24 , 2007 . They returned

odql_11757--The_Dark_Knight_(film).txt

Also the director of 'Insomnia' and 'The Dark Knight', who directed the 2010 sci-fi film 'Inception'?

The Book of Judges ( Hebrew : Sefer Shoftim ספר שופטים ) is the seventh book of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Bible . Its title describes its contents : it contains the history of Biblical judges , divinely inspired leaders whose direct knowledge of Yahweh allows them to act as champions for the Israelites from oppression by foreign rulers , and models of wise and faithful behaviour required of them by their God Yahweh following the exodus from Egypt and the conquest of Canaan . The stories follow a consistent pattern : the people are unfaithful to Yahweh and he therefore delivers them into the hands of their enemies ; the people repent and entreat Yahweh for mercy , which he sends in the form of a leader or champion ( a `` judge '' ) ; the judge delivers the Israelites from oppression and they prosper , but soon they fall again into unfaithfulness and the cycle is repeated . Scholars consider many of the stories in Judges to be the oldest in the Deuteronomistic history with their major redaction dated to the 8th century BCE and with materials ( such as the Song of Deborah ) dating from much earlier , perhaps close to the period the book depicts . Contents Judges can be divided into three major sections : a double prologue ( chapters 1:1–3:6 ) , a main body ( 3:7–16:31 ) , and a double epilogue ( 17–21 ) . Prologue The book opens with the Israelites in the land which God has promised to them but worshiping `` foreign gods '' instead of Yahweh , the God of Israel , and with the Canaanites still present everywhere . Chapters 1:1–2:5 are thus a confession of failure while chapters 2:6–3:6 are a major summary and reflection from the Deuteronomists . The opening thus sets out the pattern which the stories in the main text will follow : # Israel `` does evil in the eyes of Yahweh '' , # the people are given into the hands of their enemies and cry out to Yahweh , # Yahweh raises up a leader , # the `` spirit of Yahweh '' comes upon the leader , # the leader manages to defeat the enemy , and # peace is regained . Once peace was regained , for a time Israel does right and receives Yahweh 's blessings , only to later relapse into doing evil and repeating the pattern set forth above . Main text Next comes the main text ( ) , six accounts each concerning a major judge and their struggles against the oppressive kings of surrounding nations , plus the story of Abimelech , an Israelite who oppresses his own people . The cyclic pattern set out in the prologue is readily apparent at the beginning , but as the stories progress it begins to disintegrate , mirroring the disintegration of the world of the Israelites . The stories are not presented in chronological order , but the judges as they appear in the text are : * Othniel ( 3:9-11 ) vs. Chushan-Rishathaim , King of Aram ; Israel has 40 years peace until the death of Othniel . ( The statement that Israel has a certain period of peace after each judge is a recurrent theme ) * Ehud ( 3:11–29 ) vs. Eglon of Moab * Deborah the prophetess and Barak the army leader ( 4–5 ) vs. Jabin of Hazor ( a city in Canaan ) and Sisera , his captain * Gideon ( 6–8 ) vs. Midian , Amalek , and the `` children of the East '' ( apparently desert tribes ) * * Abimelech ( 9 ) ( who is traditionally counted as a king not a judge , and is considered evil ) vs. all the Israelites who oppose him * Jephthah ( 11–12:7 ) vs. the Ammonites * Samson ( 13–16 ) vs. the Philistines There are also brief glosses on six minor judges : Shamgar ( 3:31 ) , Tola and Jair ( 10:1–5 ) , Ibzan , Elon , and Abdon ( 12:8–15 ) . Some scholars have inferred that the minor judges were actual adjudicators , whereas the major judges were leaders and did n't actually make legal judgements . The only time a major judge is said to have made legal judgments was Deborah ( 4:4 ) . Epilogue By the end of Judges , the Israelites are in a worse condition than they were at the beginning , with Yahweh 's treasures used to make idolatrous images , the Levites ( priests ) corrupted , the tribe of Dan conquering a remote village instead of the Canaanite cities , and the tribes of Israel making war on the tribe of Benjamin , their own brothers . The book concludes with two appendices ( ) , stories which do not feature a specific judge : * Micah 's Idol ( ) , how the tribe of Dan conquers its territory in the north * Battle of Gibeah ( ) , a war between Benjamin and the other tribes . Despite their appearance at the end of the book , certain characters ( like Jonathan , the grandson of Moses ) and idioms present in the epilogue show that the events therein `` must have taken place ... early in the period of the judges . '' Chronology Judges contains a chronology of its events . It is overtly schematic , and shows signs of having been introduced at a later period . Composition Sources The basic source for Judges was a collection of loosely connected stories about tribal heroes who saved the people in battle . This original `` book of saviours , '' made up of the stories of Ehud , Jael and parts of Gideon , had already been enlarged and transformed into `` wars of Yahweh '' before being given the final Deuteronomistic revision . In the 20th century the first part of the prologue ( chapters 1:1–2:5 ) and the two parts of the epilogue ( 17–21 ) were commonly seen as miscellaneous collections of fragments tacked onto the main text , and the second part of the prologue ( 2:6–3:6 ) as an introduction composed expressly for the book ; this view has been challenged in the latter decades of the century , and there is an increasing willingness to see Judges as the work of a single individual , working by carefully selecting , reworking and positioning his source material to introduce and conclude his themes . A statement repeated throughout the book , `` In those days there was no king in Israel ; every man did that which was right in his own eyes , '' implies a monarchist redaction . The epilogue , in which Judah is assigned a leadership role twice , implies pro-Judah political leanings on the part of the author . The Deuteronomistic history Since the second half of the 20th century most scholars have agreed with Martin Noth 's thesis that the books of Deuteronomy , Joshua , Judges , Samuel and Kings form parts of a single work . Noth maintained that the history was written in the early Exilic period ( 6th century BCE ) in order to demonstrate how Israel 's history was worked out in accordance with the theology expressed in the book of Deuteronomy ( which thus provides the name `` Deuteronomistic '' ) . Noth believed that this history was the work of a single author , living in the mid-6th century BCE , selecting , editing and composing from his sources to produce a coherent work . Frank Moore Cross later proposed that an early version of the history was composed in Jerusalem in Josiah 's time ( late 7th century ) ; this first version , Dtr1 , was then revised and expanded to create a second edition , that identified by Noth , and which Cross labelled Dtr2 . Scholars agree that the Deuteronomists ' hand can be seen in Judges through the book 's cyclical nature : the Israelites fall into idolatry , God punishes them for their sins with oppression by foreign peoples , the Israelites cry out to God for help , and God sends a judge to deliver them from the foreign oppression . After a brief period of peace , the cycle repeats . Scholars also suggest that the Deuteronomists also included the humorous and sometimes disparaging commentary found in the book such as the story of the tribe of Ephraim who could not pronounce the word `` shibboleth '' correctly ( 12:5–6 ) . However , linguistic analysis , the negative portrayal of the northern tribes , and the lack of emphasis on prophecy , worship , or a centralized cult all suggest that the main redaction of Judges was done before the Deuteronomistic period ( around the time of the destruction of the northern Kingdom of Israel in 722 ) . Themes and genre The essence of Deuteronomistic theology is that Israel has entered into a covenant ( a treaty , a binding agreement ) with the god Yahweh , under which they agree to accept Yahweh as their god ( hence the phrase `` God of Israel '' ) and Yahweh promises them a land where they can live in peace and prosperity . Deuteronomy contains the laws by which Israel is to live in the promised land , Joshua chronicles the conquest of Canaan , the promised land , and its allotment among the tribes , Judges describes the settlement of the land , Samuel the consolidation of the land and people under David , and Kings the destruction of kingship and loss of the land . The final tragedy described in Kings is the result of Israel 's failure to uphold its part of the covenant : faithfulness to Yahweh brings success , economic , military and political , but unfaithfulness brings defeat and oppression . This is the theme played out in Judges : the people are unfaithful to Yahweh and he therefore delivers them into the hands of their enemies ; the people then repent and entreat Yahweh for mercy , which he sends in the form of a judge ; the judge delivers the Israelites from oppression , but after a while they fall into unfaithfulness again and the cycle is repeated . Further themes are also present : the `` sovereign freedom of Yahweh '' ( God does not always do what is expected of him ) ; the `` satirisation of foreign kings '' ( who consistently underestimate Israel and Yahweh ) ; the concept of the `` flawed agent '' ( judges who are not adequate to the task before them ) and the disunity of the Israelite community ( which gathers pace as the stories succeed one another ) . The book is as intriguing for the themes it leaves out as for what it includes : the Ark of the Covenant , which is given so much importance in the stories of Moses and Joshua , is almost entirely missing , cooperation between the various tribes is limited , and there is no mention of a central shrine for worship or of a high priest ( the office to which Aaron was appointed at the end of the Exodus story ) . Although Judges probably had a monarchist redaction ( see above ) , the book contains passages and themes that represent anti-monarchist views . One of the major themes of the book is Yahweh 's sovereignty and the importance of being loyal to Him and His laws above all other gods and sovereigns . Indeed , the authority of the judges comes not through prominent dynasties nor through elections or appointments , but rather through the spirit of God . Anti-monarchist theology is most apparent toward the end of the Gideon cycle in which the Israelites beg Gideon to create a dynastic monarchy over them and Gideon refuses . The rest of Gideon 's lifetime saw peace in the land , but after Gideon 's death , his son Abimelech ruled Shechem as a Machiavellian tyrant guilty for much bloodshed ( see chapters 8 and 9 ) . However , the last few chapters of Judges ( specifically , the stories of Samson , Micah , and Gibeah ) highlight the violence and anarchy of decentralized rule . Judges is remarkable for the number of female characters who `` play significant roles , active and passive , in the narratives . '' Rabbi Joseph Telushkin wrote ,

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In the Old Testament book of Judges, who is the son of Manoah?

Daniel Casey ( born 1 June 1972 ) is an English actor . Early life The son of journalist and television presenter Luke Casey , he grew up in Stockton-on-Tees and attended Grey College , Durham , graduating with a BA in English Literature before pursuing a career in acting . Career Casey is best known for playing Sgt . Gavin Troy in Midsomer Murders , and Anthony Cox in Our Friends in the North . He also played firefighter Tony Barnes in the 2004 ITV firefighting series Steel River Blues . He also guest starred in M.I . High . In 2010 , he appeared in an episode of Inspector George Gently , and in 2011 , he appeared in Marchlands . In 2012 , and again in 2014 , he appeared in Casualty . In early 2016 he started appearing in Coronation Street . Personal life He has a son , Raferty ( born 10 June 2006 ) , with his former wife Ellie . They married in October 2005 and divorced in 2010 . They live in Sussex .

wh_810--Daniel_Casey.txt

Daniel Casey played the role of Detective Sergeant Troy in which TV series?

Animation is the process of making the illusion of motion and change by means of the rapid display of a sequence of static images that minimally differ from each other . The illusion—as in motion pictures in general—is thought to rely on the phi phenomenon . Animators are artists who specialize in the creation of animation . Animation can be recorded with either analogue media , a flip book , motion picture film , video tape , digital media , including formats with animated GIF , Flash animation and digital video . To display animation , a digital camera , computer , or projector are used along with new technologies that are produced . Animation creation methods include the traditional animation creation method and those involving stop motion animation of two and three-dimensional objects , paper cutouts , puppets and clay figures . Images are displayed in a rapid succession , usually 24 , 25 , 30 , or 60 frames per second . History Early examples of attempts to capture the phenomenon of motion into a still drawing can be found in paleolithic cave paintings , where animals are often depicted with multiple legs in superimposed positions , clearly attempting to convey the perception of motion . An earthen goblet discovered at the site of the 5,200-year-old Shahr-e Sūkhté ( Burnt City ) in southeastern Iran , depicts what could possibly be the world 's oldest example of animation . The artifact bears five sequential images depicting a Persian Desert Ibex jumping up to eat the leaves of a tree . Ancient Chinese records contain several mentions of devices that were said to `` give an impression of movement '' to human or animal figures , these accounts are unclear and may only refer to the actual movement of the figures through space . In the 19th century , the phenakistoscope ( 1832 ) , zoetrope ( 1834 ) and praxinoscope ( 1877 ) were introduced . A thaumatrope ( 1824 ) is a simple toy with a small disk with different pictures on each side ; a bird in a cage , and is attached to two pieces of strings . The phenakistoscope was invented simultaneously by Belgian Joseph Plateau and Austrian Simon von Stampfer in 1831 . The phenakistoscope consists of a disk with a series of images , drawn on radi evenly space around the center of the disk . John Barnes Linnett patented the first flip book in 1868 as the kineograph . The common flip book were early animation devices that produced an illusion of movement from a series of sequential drawings , animation did not develop further until the advent of motion picture film and cinematography in the 1890s . The cinématographe was a projector , printer , and camera in one machine that allowed moving pictures to be shown successfully on a screen which was invented by history 's earliest film makers , Auguste and Louis Lumière , in 1894 . The first animated projection ( screening ) was created in France , by Charles-Émile Reynaud , who was a French science teacher . Reynaud created the Praxinoscope in 1877 and the Théâtre Optique in December 1888 . On 28 October 1892 , he projected the first animation in public , Pauvre Pierrot , at the Musée Grévin in Paris . This film is also notable as the first known instance of film perforations being used . His films were not photographed , they were drawn directly onto the transparent strip . In 1900 , more than 500,000 people had attended these screenings . The first film that was recorded on standard picture film and included animated sequences was the 1900 Enchanted Drawing , which was followed by the first entirely animated film - the 1906 Humorous Phases of Funny Faces by J. Stuart Blackton , who , because of that , is considered the father of American animation . In Europe , the French artist , Émile Cohl , created the first animated film using what came to be known as traditional animation creation methods - the 1908 Fantasmagorie . The film largely consisted of a stick figure moving about and encountering all manner of morphing objects , a wine bottle that transforms into a flower . There were also sections of live action in which the animator 's hands would enter the scene . The film was created by drawing each frame on paper and then shooting each frame onto negative film , which gave the picture a blackboard look . The author of the first puppet-animated film ( The Beautiful Lukanida ( 1912 ) ) was the Russian-born ( ethnically Polish ) director Wladyslaw Starewicz , known as Ladislas Starevich . More detailed hand-drawn animation , requiring a team of animators drawing each frame manually with detailed backgrounds and characters , were those directed by Winsor McCay , a successful newspaper cartoonist , including the 1911 Little Nemo , the 1914 Gertie the Dinosaur , and the 1918 The Sinking of the Lusitania . During the 1910s , the production of animated short films , typically referred to as `` cartoons '' , became an industry of its own and cartoon shorts were produced for showing in movie theaters . The most successful producer at the time was John Randolph Bray , who , along with animator Earl Hurd , patented the cel animation process which dominated the animation industry for the rest of the decade . El Apóstol ( Spanish : `` The Apostle '' ) was a 1917 Argentine animated film utilizing cutout animation , and the world 's first animated feature film . Unfortunately , a fire that destroyed producer Federico Valle 's film studio incinerated the only known copy of El Apóstol , and it is now considered a lost film . In 1958 , Hanna-Barbara released Huckleberry Hound , the first half hour television program to feature only in animation . Terrytoons released Tom Terrific that same year . Television significantly decreased public attention to the animated shorts being shown in theaters . Computer animation has become popular since Toy Story ( 1995 ) , the first feature-length animated film completely made using this technique . In 2008 , the animation market was worth US $ 68.4 billion . Animation as an art and industry continues to thrive as of the mid-2010s , because well-made animated projects can find audiences across borders and in all four quadrants . Animated feature-length films returned the highest gross margins ( around 52 % ) of all film genres in the 2004–2013 timeframe . Techniques Traditional animation Traditional animation ( also called cel animation or hand-drawn animation ) was the process used for most animated films of the 20th century . The individual frames of a traditionally animated film are photographs of drawings , first drawn on paper . To create the illusion of movement , each drawing differs slightly from the one before it . The animators ' drawings are traced or photocopied onto transparent acetate sheets called cels , which are filled in with paints in assigned colors or tones on the side opposite the line drawings . The completed character cels are photographed one-by-one against a painted background by a rostrum camera onto motion picture film . The traditional cel animation process became obsolete by the beginning of the 21st century . Today , animators ' drawings and the backgrounds are either scanned into or drawn directly into a computer system . Various software programs are used to color the drawings and simulate camera movement and effects . The final animated piece is output to one of several delivery media , including traditional 35 mm film and newer media with digital video . The `` look '' of traditional cel animation is still preserved , and the character animators ' work has remained essentially the same over the past 70 years . Some animation producers have used the term `` tradigital '' ( a play on the words `` traditional '' and `` digital '' ) to describe cel animation which makes extensive use of computer technologies . Examples of traditionally animated feature films include Pinocchio ( United States , 1940 ) , Animal Farm ( United Kingdom , 1954 ) , and The Illusionist ( British-French , 2010 ) . Traditionally animated films which were produced with the aid of computer technology include The Lion King ( US , 1994 ) , The Prince of Egypt ( US , 1998 ) , Akira ( Japan , 1988 ) , Spirited Away ( Japan , 2001 ) , The Triplets of Belleville ( France , 2003 ) , and The Secret of Kells ( Irish-French-Belgian , 2009 ) . * Full animation refers to the process of producing high-quality traditionally animated films that regularly use detailed drawings and plausible movement , having a smooth animation . Fully animated films can be made in a variety of styles , from more realistically animated works those produced by the Walt Disney studio ( The Little Mermaid , Beauty and the Beast , Aladdin , The Lion King ) to the more 'cartoon ' styles of the Warner Bros. animation studio . Many of the Disney animated features are examples of full animation , as are non-Disney works , The Secret of NIMH ( US , 1982 ) , The Iron Giant ( US , 1999 ) , and Nocturna ( Spain , 2007 ) . * Limited animation involves the use of less detailed or more stylized drawings and methods of movement usually a choppy or `` skippy '' movement animation . Pioneered by the artists at the American studio United Productions of America , limited animation can be used as a method of stylized artistic expression , as in Gerald McBoing-Boing ( US , 1951 ) , Yellow Submarine ( UK , 1968 ) , and certain anime produced in Japan . Its primary use , however , has been in producing cost-effective animated content for media for television ( the work of Hanna-Barbera , Filmation , and other TV animation studios ) and later the Internet ( web cartoons ) . * Rotoscoping is a technique patented by Max Fleischer in 1917 where animators trace live-action movement , frame by frame . The source film can be directly copied from actors ' outlines into animated drawings , as in The Lord of the Rings ( US , 1978 ) , or used in a stylized and expressive manner , as in Waking Life ( US , 2001 ) and A Scanner Darkly ( US , 2006 ) . Some other examples are : Fire and Ice ( US , 1983 ) , Heavy Metal ( 1981 ) , and Aku no Hana ( 2013 ) . * Live-action/animation is a technique combining hand-drawn characters into live action shots or live action actors into animated shots . One of the earlier uses was in Koko the Clown when Koko was drawn over live action footage . Other examples include Who Framed Roger Rabbit ( US , 1988 ) , Space Jam ( US , 1996 ) and Osmosis Jones ( US , 2001 ) . Stop motion animation Stop-motion animation is used to describe animation created by physically manipulating real-world objects and photographing them one frame of film at a time to create the illusion of movement . There are many different types of stop-motion animation , usually named after the medium used to create the animation . Computer software is widely available to create this type of animation ; however , traditional stop motion animation is usually less expensive and time-consuming to produce than current computer animation . * Puppet animation typically involves stop-motion puppet figures interacting in a constructed environment , in contrast to real-world interaction in model animation . The puppets generally have an armature inside of them to keep them still and steady to constrain their motion to particular joints . Examples include The Tale of the Fox ( France , 1937 ) , The Nightmare Before Christmas ( US , 1993 ) , Corpse Bride ( US , 2005 ) , Coraline ( US , 2009 ) , the films of Jiří Trnka and the adult animated sketch-comedy television series Robot Chicken ( US , 2005–present ) . * * Puppetoon , created using techniques developed by George Pal , are puppet-animated films which typically use a different version of a puppet for different frames , rather than simply manipulating one existing puppet . * Clay animation , or Plasticine animation ( often called claymation , which , however , is a trademarked name ) , uses figures made of clay or a similar malleable material to create stop-motion animation . The figures may have an armature or wire frame inside , similar to the related puppet animation ( below ) , that can be manipulated to pose the figures . Alternatively , the figures may be made entirely of clay , in the films of Bruce Bickford , where clay creatures morph into a variety of different shapes . Examples of clay-animated works include The Gumby Show ( US , 1957–1967 ) Morph shorts ( UK , 1977–2000 ) , Wallace and Gromit shorts ( UK , as of 1989 ) , Jan Švankmajer 's Dimensions of Dialogue ( Czechoslovakia , 1982 ) , The Trap Door ( UK , 1984 ) . Films include Wallace & Gromit : The Curse of the Were-Rabbit , Chicken Run and The Adventures of Mark Twain . * * Strata-cut animation , Strata-cut animation is most commonly a form of clay animation in which a long bread-like `` loaf '' of clay , internally packed tight and loaded with varying imagery , is sliced into thin sheets , with the animation camera taking a frame of the end of the loaf for each cut , eventually revealing the movement of the internal images within . * Cutout animation is a type of stop-motion animation produced by moving two-dimensional pieces of material paper or cloth . Examples include Terry Gilliam 's animated sequences from Monty Python 's Flying Circus ( UK , 1969–1974 ) ; Fantastic Planet ( France/Czechoslovakia , 1973 ) ; Tale of Tales ( Russia , 1979 ) , The pilot episode of the adult television sitcom series ( and sometimes in episodes ) of South Park ( US , 1997 ) and the music video Live for the moment , from Verona Riots band ( produced by Alberto Serrano and Nívola Uyá , Spain 2014 ) . * * Silhouette animation is a variant of cutout animation in which the characters are backlit and only visible as silhouettes . Examples include The Adventures of Prince Achmed ( Weimar Republic , 1926 ) and Princes et princesses ( France , 2000 ) . * Model animation refers to stop-motion animation created to interact with and exist as a part of a live-action world . Intercutting , matte effects , and split screens are often employed to blend stop-motion characters or objects with live actors and settings . Examples include the work of Ray Harryhausen , as seen in films , Jason and the Argonauts ( 1963 ) , and the work of Willis H. O'Brien on films , King Kong ( 1933 ) . * * Go motion is a variant of model animation that uses various techniques to create motion blur between frames of film , which is not present in traditional stop-motion . The technique was invented by Industrial Light & Magic and Phil Tippett to create special effects scenes for the film The Empire Strikes Back ( 1980 ) . Another example is the dragon named `` Vermithrax '' from Dragonslayer ( 1981 film ) . * Object animation refers to the use of regular inanimate objects in stop-motion animation , as opposed to specially created items . * * Graphic animation uses non-drawn flat visual graphic material ( photographs , newspaper clippings , magazines , etc . ) , which are sometimes manipulated frame-by-frame to create movement . At other times , the graphics remain stationary , while the stop-motion camera is moved to create on-screen action . * * Brickfilm A subgenre of object animation involving using Lego or other similar brick toys to make an animation . These have had a recent boost in popularity with the advent of video sharing sites , YouTube and the availability of cheap cameras and animation software . * Pixilation involves the use of live humans as stop motion characters . This allows for a number of surreal effects , including disappearances and reappearances , allowing people to appear to slide across the ground , and other effects . Examples of pixilation include The Secret Adventures of Tom Thumb and Angry Kid shorts . Computer animation Computer animation encompasses a variety of techniques , the unifying factor being that the animation is created digitally on a computer . 2D animation techniques tend to focus on image manipulation while 3D techniques usually build virtual worlds in which characters and objects move and interact . 3D animation can create images that seem real to the viewer . 2D animation 2D animation figures are created or edited on the computer using 2D bitmap graphics or created and edited using 2D vector graphics . This includes automated computerized versions of traditional animation techniques , interpolated morphing , onion skinning and interpolated rotoscoping . 2D animation has many applications , including analog computer animation , Flash animation and PowerPoint animation . Cinemagraphs are still photographs in the form of an animated GIF file of which part is animated . Final line advection animation is a technique used in 2d animation , to give artists and animators more influence and control over the final product as everything is done within the same department . Speaking about using this approach in Paperman , John Kahrs said that `` Our animators can change things , actually erase away the CG underlayer if they want , and change the profile of the arm . '' 3D animation 3D animation is digitally modeled and manipulated by an animator . The animator usually starts by creating a 3D polygon mesh to manipulate . A mesh typically includes many vertices that are connected by edges and faces , which give the visual appearance of form to a 3D object or 3D environment . Sometimes , the mesh is given an internal digital skeletal structure called an armature that can be used to control the mesh by weighting the vertices . This process is called rigging and can be used in conjunction with keyframes to create movement . Other techniques can be applied , mathematical functions ( e.g. , gravity , particle simulations ) , simulated fur or hair , and effects , fire and water simulations . These techniques fall under the category of 3D dynamics . 3D terms * Cel-shaded animation is used to mimic traditional animation using computer software . Shading looks stark , with less blending of colors . Examples include , Skyland ( 2007 , France ) , The Iron Giant ( 1999 , United States ) , Futurama ( Fox , 1999 ) Appleseed Ex Machina ( 2007 , Japan ) , The Legend of Zelda : The Wind Waker ( 2002 , Japan ) * Machinima – Films created by screen capturing in video games and virtual worlds . * Motion capture is used when live-action actors wear special suits that allow computers to copy their movements into CG characters . Examples include Polar Express ( 2004 , US ) , Beowulf ( 2007 , US ) , A Christmas Carol ( 2009 , US ) , The Adventures of Tintin ( film ) ( 2011 , US ) kochadiiyan ( 2014 , India ) . * Photo-realistic animation is used primarily for animation that attempts to resemble real life , using advanced rendering that mimics in detail skin , plants , water , fire , clouds , etc . Examples include Up ( 2009 , US ) , How to Train Your Dragon ( 2010 , US ) , Ice Age ( 2002 , US ) . Mechanical animation * Animatronics is the use of mechatronics to create machines which seem animate rather than robotic . * * Audio-Animatronics and Autonomatronics is a form of robotics animation , combined with 3-D animation , created by Walt Disney Imagineering for shows and attractions at Disney theme parks move and make noise ( generally a recorded speech or song ) . They are fixed to whatever supports them . They can sit and stand , and they can not walk . An Audio-Animatron is different from an android-type robot in that it uses prerecorded movements and sounds , rather than responding to external stimuli . In 2009 , Disney created an interactive version of the technology called Autonomatronics . * * Linear Animation Generator is a form of animation by using static picture frames installed in a tunnel or a shaft . The animation illusion is created by putting the viewer in a linear motion , parallel to the installed picture frames . The concept and the technical solution , were invented in 2007 by Mihai Girlovan in Romania . * Chuckimation is a type of animation created by the makers of the television series Action League Now ! in which characters/props are thrown , or chucked from off camera or wiggled around to simulate talking by unseen hands . * Puppetry is a form of theatre or performance animation that involves the manipulation of puppets . It is very ancient , and is believed to have originated 3000 years BC . Puppetry takes many forms , they all share the process of animating inanimate performing objects . Puppetry is used in almost all human societies both as entertainment – in performance – and ceremonially in rituals , celebrations and carnivals . Most puppetry involves storytelling . * Zoetrope is a device that produces the illusion of motion from a rapid succession of static pictures . The term zoetrope is from the Greek words ζωή ( zoē ) , meaning `` alive , active '' , and τρόπος ( tropos ) , meaning `` turn '' , with `` zoetrope '' taken to mean `` active turn '' or `` wheel of life '' . Other animation styles , techniques and approaches * Hydrotechnics : a technique that includes lights , water , fire , fog , and lasers , with high-definition projections on mist screens . * Drawn on film animation : a technique where footage is produced by creating the images directly on film stock , for example by Norman McLaren , Len Lye and Stan Brakhage . * Paint-on-glass animation : a technique for making animated films by manipulating slow drying oil paints on sheets of glass , for example by Aleksandr Petrov . * Erasure animation : a technique using traditional 2D media , photographed over time as the artist manipulates the image . For example , William Kentridge is famous for his charcoal erasure films , and Piotr Dumała for his auteur technique of animating scratches on plaster . * Pinscreen animation : makes use of a screen filled with movable pins that can be moved in or out by pressing an object onto the screen . The screen is lit from the side so that the pins cast shadows . The technique has been used to create animated films with a range of textural effects difficult to achieve with traditional cel animation . * Sand animation : sand is moved around on a back- or front-lighted piece of glass to create each frame for an animated film . This creates an interesting effect when animated because of the light contrast . * Flip book : a flip book ( sometimes , especially in British English , called a flick book ) is a book with a series of pictures that vary gradually from one page to the next , so that when the pages are turned rapidly , the pictures appear to animate by simulating motion or some other change . Flip books are often illustrated books for children , they also be geared towards adults and employ a series of photographs rather than drawings . Flip books are not always separate books , they appear as an added feature in ordinary books or magazines , often in the page corners . Software packages and websites are also available that convert digital video files into custom-made flip books . * Character animation * Multi-sketching * Special effects animation Production The creation of non-trivial animation works ( i.e. , longer than a few seconds ) has developed as a form of filmmaking , with certain unique aspects . One thing live-action and animated feature-length films do have in common is that they are both extremely labor-intensive and have high production costs . The most important difference is that once a film is in the production phase , the marginal cost of one more shot is higher for animated films than live-action films . It is relatively easy for a director to ask for one more take during principal photography of a live-action film , but every take on an animated film must be manually rendered by animators ( although the task of rendering slightly different takes has been made less tedious by modern computer animation ) . It is pointless for a studio to pay the salaries of dozens of animators to spend weeks creating a visually dazzling five-minute scene , if that scene fails to effectively advance the plot of the film . Thus , animation studios starting with Disney began the practice in the 1930s of maintaining story departments where storyboard artists develop every single scene through storyboards , then handing the film over to the animators only after the production team is satisfied that all the scenes will make sense as a whole . While live-action films are now also storyboarded , they enjoy more latitude to depart from storyboards ( i.e. , real-time improvisation ) . Another problem unique to animation is the necessity of ensuring that the style of an animated film is consistent from start to finish , even as films have grown longer and teams have grown larger . Animators , like all artists , necessarily have their own individual styles , but must subordinate their individuality in a consistent way to whatever style was selected for a particular film . Since the early 1980s , feature-length animated films have been created by teams of about 500 to 600 people , of whom 50 to 70 are animators . It is relatively easy for two or three artists to match each other 's styles ; it is harder to keep dozens of artists synchronized with one another . This problem is usually solved by having a separate group of visual development artists develop an overall look and palette for each film before animation begins . Character designers on the visual development team draw model sheets to show how each character should look like with different facial expressions , posed in different positions , and viewed from different angles . On traditionally animated projects , maquettes were often sculpted to further help the animators see how characters would look from different angles . Unlike live-action films , animated films were traditionally developed beyond the synopsis stage through the storyboard format ; the storyboard artists would then receive credit for writing the film . In the early 1960s , animation studios began hiring professional screenwriters to write screenplays ( while also continuing to use story departments ) and screenplays had become commonplace for animated films by the late 1980s . Criticism Criticism of animation has become a domineering force in media and cinema since its inception . With its popularity , a large amount of criticism has arisen , especially animated feature-length films . Many concerns of cultural representation , psychological effects on children have been brought up around the animation industry , which has remained rather politically unchanged and stagnant since its inception into mainstream culture . Certain under-representation of women has been criticized in animation films and the industry . Awards As with any other form of media , animation too has instituted awards for excellence in the field . The original awards for animation were presented by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for animated shorts from the year 1932 , during the 5th Academy Awards function . The first winner of the Academy Award was the short Flowers and Trees , a production by Walt Disney Productions . The Academy Award for a feature-length animated motion picture was only instituted for the year 2001 , and awarded during the 74th Academy Awards in 2002 . It was won by the film Shrek , produced by DreamWorks and Pacific Data Images

odql_12819--Animation.txt

Which animal completes the name of the stop-motion animated children’s TV series “Raa Raa the Noisy _____”?

The National Hockey League ( NHL ; ) is a professional ice hockey league composed of 30 member clubs : 23 in the United States and 7 in Canada . Headquartered in New York City , the NHL is considered to be the premier professional ice hockey league in the world , and one of the major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada . The Stanley Cup , the oldest professional sports trophy in North America , is awarded annually to the league playoff champion at the end of each season . The National Hockey League was organized on November 26 , 1917 , in Montreal , Quebec , after the suspension of operations of its predecessor organization , the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) , which had been founded in 1909 in Renfrew , Ontario . The NHL immediately took the NHA 's place as one of the leagues that contested for the Stanley Cup in an annual interleague competition before a series of league mergers and folds left the NHL as the only league left competing for the Stanley Cup in 1926 . At its inception , the NHL had four teams—all in Canada , thus the adjective `` National '' in the league 's name . The league expanded to the United States in 1924 , when the Boston Bruins joined , and has since consisted of American and Canadian teams . After a labour-management dispute that led to the cancellation of the entire 2004–05 season , the league resumed play under a new collective agreement that included a salary cap . In 2009 , the NHL enjoyed record highs in terms of sponsorships , attendance , and television audiences . The league draws many highly skilled players from all over the world and currently has players from approximately 20 different countries . Canadians have historically constituted the majority of the players in the league , with an increasing percentage of American and European players in recent seasons . History Early years The National Hockey League was established in 1917 as the successor to the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) . Founded in 1909 , the NHA began play one year later with seven teams in Ontario and Quebec , and was one of the first major leagues in professional ice hockey . But by the NHA 's eighth season , a series of disputes with Toronto Blueshirts owner Eddie Livingstone led the other team owners , representing the Montreal Canadiens , Montreal Wanderers , Ottawa Senators , and Quebec Bulldogs to meet about the league 's future . Realizing the NHA constitution left them unable to force Livingstone out , the four teams voted instead to suspend the NHA , and on November 26 , 1917 , formed the National Hockey League . Frank Calder was chosen as its first president , serving until his death in 1943 . The Bulldogs were unable to play , and the remaining owners created a new team in Toronto , the Arenas , to compete with the Canadiens , Wanderers and Senators . The first games were played on December 19 , 1917 . The Montreal Arena burned down in January 1918 , causing the Wanderers to cease operations , and the NHL continued on as a three-team league until the Bulldogs returned in 1919 . The NHL replaced the NHA as one of the leagues that competed for the Stanley Cup , which was an interleague competition back then . Toronto won the first NHL title , and then defeated the Vancouver Millionaires of the Pacific Coast Hockey Association ( PCHA ) for the 1918 Stanley Cup . The Canadiens won the league title in 1919 ; however their Stanley Cup Final against the PCHA 's Seattle Metropolitans was abandoned as a result of the Spanish Flu epidemic . Montreal in 1924 won their first Stanley Cup as a member of the NHL . The Hamilton Tigers , won the regular season title in 1924–25 but refused to play in the championship series unless they were given a C $ 200 bonus . The league refused and declared the Canadiens the league champion after they defeated the Toronto St. Patricks ( formerly the Arenas ) in the semi-final . Montreal was then defeated by the Victoria Cougars of the Western Canada Hockey League ( WCHL ) for the 1925 Stanley Cup . It was the last time a non-NHL team won the trophy , as the Stanley Cup became the de facto NHL championship in 1926 after the WCHL ceased operation . The National Hockey League embarked on rapid expansion in the 1920s , adding the Montreal Maroons and Boston Bruins in 1924 . The Bruins were the first American team in the league . The New York Americans began play in 1925 after purchasing the assets of the Hamilton Tigers , and were joined by the Pittsburgh Pirates . The New York Rangers were added in 1926 . The Chicago Black Hawks and Detroit Cougars ( later Red Wings ) were also added after the league purchased the assets of the defunct WCHL . A group purchased the Toronto St. Patricks in 1927 and immediately renamed them the Maple Leafs . The Original Six The first NHL All-Star Game was held in 1934 to benefit Ace Bailey , whose career ended on a vicious hit by Eddie Shore . The second was held in 1937 in support of Howie Morenz 's family when he died of a coronary embolism after breaking his leg during a game . The Great Depression and the onset of World War II took a toll on the league . The Pirates became the Philadelphia Quakers in 1930 , then folded one year later . The Senators likewise became the St. Louis Eagles in 1934 , also lasting only one year . The Maroons did not survive , as they suspended operations in 1938 . The Americans were suspended in 1942 due to a lack of players , and never revived . The league was reduced to six teams for the 1942–43 NHL season : the Boston Bruins , Chicago Black Hawks , Detroit Red Wings , Montreal Canadiens , New York Rangers and Toronto Maple Leafs . These six teams remained constant for 25 years , a period known as the Original Six . The league reached an agreement with the Stanley Cup trustees in 1947 to take full control of the trophy , allowing the NHL to reject challenges from other leagues that wished to play for the Cup . Maurice `` Rocket '' Richard became the first player to score 50 goals , doing so in a 50-game season . Richard later led the Canadiens to five consecutive titles between 1956 and 1960 , a record no team has matched . Willie O'Ree broke the league 's colour barrier on January 18 , 1958 when he made his debut with the Boston Bruins and became the first black player in league history . Post-Original Six expansion By the mid-1960s , the desire for a network television contract in the U.S. , and concerns that the Western Hockey League was planning to declare itself a major league and challenge for the Stanley Cup , spurred the league to undertake its first expansion since the 1920s . The league doubled in size for the 1967–68 season , adding the Los Angeles Kings , Minnesota North Stars , Philadelphia Flyers , Pittsburgh Penguins , California Seals and St. Louis Blues . Canadian fans were outraged that all six teams were placed in the United States , and the league responded by adding the Vancouver Canucks in 1970 along with the Buffalo Sabres , who are located on the U.S.-Canadian border . Two years later , the emergence of the newly founded World Hockey Association ( WHA ) led the league to add the New York Islanders and Atlanta Flames to keep the rival league out of those markets . In 1974 , the Washington Capitals and Kansas City Scouts were added , bringing the league up to 18 teams . The National Hockey League fought the WHA for players , losing 67 to the new league in its first season of 1972–73 , including Bobby Hull , who signed a ten-year , $ 2.5 million contract with the Winnipeg Jets , the largest in hockey history at the time . The league attempted to block the defections in court , but a counter-suit by the WHA led to a Philadelphia judge ruling the NHL 's reserve clause to be illegal , thus eliminating the elder league 's monopoly over the players . Seven years of battling for players and markets financially damaged both leagues , leading to a 1979 merger agreement that saw the WHA cease operations while the NHL absorbed the Winnipeg Jets , Edmonton Oilers , Hartford Whalers and Quebec Nordiques . The owners initially rejected this merger agreement by one vote , but a massive boycott of Molson Brewery products by fans in Canada caused the Montreal Canadiens , which was owned by Molson , to reverse its position , along with the Vancouver Canucks . In a second vote the plan was approved . Wayne Gretzky played one season in the WHA for the Indianapolis Racers ( eight games ) and the Edmonton Oilers ( 72 games ) before the Oilers joined the National Hockey League for the 1979–80 season . Gretzky went on to lead the Oilers to four Stanley Cup championships in 1984 , 1985 , 1987 and 1988 , and set single season records for goals ( 92 in 1981–82 ) , assists ( 163 in 1985–86 ) and points ( 215 in 1985–86 ) , as well as career records for goals ( 894 ) , assists ( 1,963 ) and points ( 2,857 ) . He was traded to the Kings in 1988 , a deal that dramatically improved the league 's popularity in the United States , and provided the impetus for the 1990s expansion cycles that saw the addition of nine teams : the San Jose Sharks , Tampa Bay Lightning , Ottawa Senators , Mighty Ducks of Anaheim , Florida Panthers , Nashville Predators , Atlanta Thrashers , and in 2000 the Minnesota Wild and Columbus Blue Jackets . On July 21 , 2015 , the NHL confirmed that it had received applications from prospective ownership groups in Quebec City and Las Vegas for possible expansion teams , and on June 22 , 2016 , NHL Commissioner Gary Bettman announced the addition of a 31st franchise , based in Las Vegas , into the NHL for the 2017–18 season . Labour issues There have been four league-wide work stoppages in league history , all happening since 1992 . The first was a strike by the National Hockey League Players ' Association in April 1992 which lasted for ten days , but the strike was settled quickly and all affected games were rescheduled . A lockout at the start of the 1994–95 season forced the league to reduce the schedule from 84 games to just 48 , with the teams playing only intra-conference games during the reduced season . The resulting collective bargaining agreement ( CBA ) was set for renegotiation in 1998 and extended to September 15 , 2004 . With no new agreement in hand when the contract expired on September 15 , 2004 , league commissioner Gary Bettman announced a lockout of the players union and closed the league 's head office . The league vowed to install what it dubbed `` cost certainty '' for its teams , but the Players ' Association countered that the move was little more than a euphemism for a salary cap , which the union initially said it would not accept . The lockout shut down the league for 310 days , the longest in sports history . The NHL became the first professional sports league to lose an entire season . A new collective bargaining agreement was eventually ratified in July 2005 , including a salary cap . The agreement had a term of six years with an option of extending the collective bargaining agreement for an additional year at the end of the term , allowing the league to resume as of the 2005–06 season . On October 5 , 2005 , the first post-lockout season took to the ice with all 30 teams . The NHL received record attendance in the 2005–06 season : an average of 16,955 per game . After losing a season to a labour dispute in 2005 , the League 's TV audience was slower to rebound because of American cable broadcaster ESPN 's decision to drop the sport . The league 's post-lockout agreement with NBC gave the league a share of revenue from each game 's advertising sales , rather than the usual lump sum paid up front for game rights . The league 's annual revenues were estimated at approximately $ 2.27 billion . At midnight September 16 , 2012 , the labour pact expired , and the league again locked out the players . The owners proposed reducing the players ' share of hockey-related revenues from 57 percent to 47 percent . All games were cancelled up to January 14 , 2013 , as well as the 2013 NHL Winter Classic and the 2013 NHL All-Star Weekend . A tentative agreement was reached on January 6 , 2013 , on a ten-year deal . On January 12 , the league and the Players ' Association signed a memorandum of understanding on the new deal , allowing teams to begin their training camps on January 13 , with a shortened 48-game season schedule that began on January 19 . Player safety issues Player safety has become a major issue within the past five years and concussions , which result from a hard hit to the head , have been the biggest cause . With recent studies showing how concussions can affect retired players and how it has decreased their quality of life after retirement , concussions have become a very important topic of debate when it comes to player safety issues . This had significant effects on the league as elite players were being taken out of the game , such as Sidney Crosby being sidelined for approximately 10 and a half months , which adversely affected the league 's marketability . As a result , in December 2009 , Brendan Shanahan was hired to replace Colin Campbell and given the role of Senior Vice-President of Player Safety . Shanahan began to hand out suspensions on high profile perpetrators responsible for dangerous hits , such as Raffi Torres receiving 25 games for his hit on Marian Hossa . To aid with removing high speed collisions on icing , which had led to several potential career ending injuries such as Hurricanes ' Defencemen Joni Pitkanen , the league mandated hybrid no-touch icing for the 2013–14 NHL season . On November 25 , 2013 , ten former players , Gary Leeman , Rick Vaive , Brad Aitken , Darren Banks , Curt Bennett , Richie Dunn , Warren Holmes , Bob Manno , Blair Stewart and Morris Titanic sued the league for negligence on protecting players from concussions . The suit came three months after the NFL agreed to pay former players US $ 765 million due to a player safety lawsuit . Organizational structure The Board of Governors is the ruling and governing body of the National Hockey League . In this context , each team is a member of the league , and each member appoints a Governor ( usually the owner of the club ) , and two alternates to the Board . The current chairman of the Board is Boston Bruins owner , Jeremy Jacobs . The Board of Governors exists to establish the policies of the league , and to uphold its constitution . Some of the responsibilities of the Board of Governors include : * review and approve any rule changes to the game . * hiring and firing of the commissioner . * review and approve the purchase , sale , or relocation of any member club . * review and approve the salary caps for member clubs . * review and approve any changes to the structure of the game schedule . The Board of Governors meets twice per year , in the months of June and December , with the exact date and place to be fixed by the Commissioner . Executives The chief executive of the league is Commissioner Gary Bettman . Some of the principal decision makers who serve under the authority of the commissioner include : * Deputy Commissioner & Chief Legal Officer : Bill Daly * Executive VP & CFO : Craig Harnett * Chief Operating Officer : John Collins * Executive VP & Director of Hockey Operations : Colin Campbell * NHL Enterprises : Ed Horne * Senior Vice-President of Player Safety : Stephane Quintal Teams The NHL consists of 30 teams , 23 of which are based in the United States and seven in Canada . The NHL divides the 30 teams into two conferences : the Eastern Conference and the Western Conference . Each conference is split into two divisions : the Eastern Conference contains 16 teams ( eight per division ) , while the Western Conference has 14 teams ( seven per division ) . The current alignment has existed since the 2013–14 season . The number of NHL teams has held constant at 30 teams since the 2000–01 season when the Minnesota Wild and the Columbus Blue Jackets joined the league as expansion teams . That expansion capped a period in the 1990s of rapid expansion and relocation when the NHL added 9 teams to grow from 21 to 30 teams , and relocated four teams mostly from smaller northern cities ( e.g. , Hartford , Quebec ) to larger warmer metropolitan areas ( e.g. , Dallas , Phoenix ) . The league has not contracted any teams since the Cleveland Barons folded in 1978 . The league will expand for the first time in 16 years to 31 teams in 2017 with the addition of a new team in Las Vegas . According to Forbes in 2015 , five of the `` Original Six '' teams are the top five most valuable clubs : the New York Rangers at approximately $ 1.2 billion , the Montreal Canadiens at $ 1.18 billion , the Toronto Maple Leafs at $ 1.15 billion , the Chicago Blackhawks at $ 925 million , and the Boston Bruins at $ 750 million . At least eight NHL clubs , however , operate at a loss . The NHL is also susceptible to the Canadian–U.S . exchange rate : revenue from tickets , local and national advertising in Canada , and local and national Canadian media rights are collected in Canadian dollars , but all players ' salaries are paid in US dollars regardless of whether a team is located in Canada or the U.S . List of teams Current Future ; Notes # An asterisk ( * ) denotes a franchise move . See the respective team articles for more information . # The Edmonton Oilers , Hartford Whalers , Quebec Nordiques , and original Winnipeg Jets all joined the NHL in 1979 as part of the NHL–WHA merger . 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jp_355--National_Hockey_League.txt

What NHL hockey team was originally named after a Disney movie?

9 to 5 is a 1980 American comedy film written by Patricia Resnick and Colin Higgins , directed by Higgins , and starring Jane Fonda , Lily Tomlin , Dolly Parton , and Dabney Coleman . The film concerns three working women living out their fantasies of getting even with , and their successful overthrow of , the company 's autocratic , `` sexist , egotistical , lying , hypocritical bigot '' boss . 9 to 5 was a hit , grossing over $ 3.9 million in its opening weekend in the United States and is the 20th highest-grossing comedy film . As a star vehicle for Parton—already established as a successful singer and songwriter—it launched her permanently into mainstream popular culture . Although a television series based on the film was less successful , a musical version of the film ( also titled 9 to 5 ) , with new songs written by Parton , opened on Broadway on April 30 , 2009 . 9 to 5 is number 74 on the American Film Institute 's `` 100 Funniest Movies '' and is rated `` 82 % fresh '' on Rotten Tomatoes . Plot Judy Bernly ( Jane Fonda ) is forced to find work after her husband , Dick ( Lawrence Pressman ) , runs off with his secretary . Judy finds employment as a secretary at Consolidated Companies . The senior office supervisor , Violet Newstead ( Lily Tomlin ) , introduces Judy to the company and staff , including mail room clerk Eddie , alcoholic Margaret Foster , the sleazy boss Franklin Hart , Jr. ( Dabney Coleman ) , and Roz Keith ( Elizabeth Wilson ) , Hart 's executive assistant . Violet reveals to Judy that Hart is supposedly involved with his buxom secretary , Doralee Rhodes ( Dolly Parton ) . Hart exploits and mistreats his female subordinates , with backstabbing and sexist remarks . He takes credit for Violet 's ideas , cruelly yells at and threatens Judy on her first day after an equipment malfunction and sexually harasses Doralee , spreading rumors about an affair that never happened . When Violet discovers that a promotion she was hoping to receive was instead given to a man because of sexist hiring practices , she confronts Hart about it , as well as the rumors about Doralee ( who enters Hart 's office just in time to hear , and now realizes why she has become unpopular with the other secretaries ) . Violet storms off , stating that she needs a drink . Doralee takes Hart to task over his transgressions , informing him that she keeps a gun in her purse and will `` turn him from a rooster to a hen with one shot '' if his sexist behavior continues . She then also leaves , stating that she needs a drink . Judy , upset over the firing of Maria , a dedicated employee ( due to an infraction overheard by Roz , who had been eavesdropping in the ladies ' room ) , joins Violet and Doralee in storming out of the office , and the three women drown their sorrows at the local bar before retiring to Doralee 's house to smoke a joint given to Violet by her teenage son . While there , the beginning of their friendship forms , and they share fantasies of getting revenge on Mr. Hart : Judy wants to hunt him down like an animal in a classic mobster scenario , Doralee wants to rope him like a steer in a Western scenario , and Violet wants to poison him in a twisted Snow White-style scenario . The following day , a mix-up leads Violet to accidentally spike Hart 's coffee with rat poison . However , before he can drink the tainted coffee , Hart falls out of his desk chair and hits his head on the credenza desk , which knocks him out cold . On hearing he has been rushed to the hospital , Violet , thinking he is sick from the accidental poisoning , rushes to the hospital with Judy and Doralee in tow . At the hospital , Hart , who has regained consciousness , leaves on his own without being seen , and the three mistake a dead police witness for their boss , steal the dead body ( to prevent an autopsy ) , stash it in the trunk , and drive off . Soon they discover they 've stolen the wrong body , so they smuggle it back into the hospital . Hart turns up alive the next morning , much to the shock of Violet , Doralee , and Judy . During a break in the ladies ' room , the three speculate on what could have happened , but ultimately decide to consider themselves lucky and simply forget the whole matter . However , Roz , hiding in one of the stalls , overhears them and relates the conversation to Hart . He confronts Doralee about the hospital incident and demands that she spend the night at his house , or he 'll have all three of them prosecuted for attempted murder . The three kidnap him and bring him to his Tudor-style mansion , keeping him prisoner in his bedroom while they find a way to blackmail him . The three women discover an embezzlement scheme , and must keep Hart tied up at home while they collect evidence on it . The women use Hart 's absence to effect numerous changes around the office , in his name : flexible hours , equal pay , a job-sharing program , and a daycare center . Hart is so hated around the office that nobody questions his absence , with the exception of Roz , whom Violet sends away for a multi-week training . Meanwhile , as Judy is guarding Mr. Hart , her husband Dick comes to ask her to come back to him . She refuses , forcefully throwing him out . Hart 's adoring wife Missy ( Marian Mercer ) returns from vacation early , putting the women 's plan in jeopardy . Hart manages to break free and return the stolen items back to the warehouse . Then he escorts the women to the office at gunpoint . Hart is appalled by the changes which have been made in his absence , but receives an unexpected visit from Russell Tinsworthy ( Sterling Hayden ) , the Chairman of the Board , who has come to congratulate Hart for increases in productivity - but he wants the equal pay eliminated . Margaret Foster is no longer an alcoholic thanks to the company 's alcohol rehab program and Maria is now back with the company on a part-time basis and sharing her workload with another employee . Tinsworthy is so impressed that he recruits Hart to work at Consolidated 's Brazilian operation for the next few years . Roz returns from her training and is stunned to discover Violet , Judy , and Doralee celebrating in Hart 's office . In the epilogue , it is revealed that Violet gets promoted to Hart 's job , in which Roz must now answer to her ; Judy falls in love and marries a Xerox representative ; Doralee quits Consolidated and becomes a Country and Western singer ; and Hart is abducted by Amazons in the Brazilian jungle and is never heard from again . Cast * Jane Fonda as Judy Bernly , the new girl who is forced to find work after her husband has an affair with his secretary , a younger woman named Liza . She becomes friends with Violet and Doralee . * Lily Tomlin as Violet Newstead , a widow with four kids who 's been working at the company for twelve years . She is very knowledgeable about the company , and was the one who trained Hart . Despite her knowledge , she is continually passed over for promotions , due to Hart 's sexist attitudes . She is Judy 's best friend , helped train her , and seems to understand the loneliness Judy feels . * Dolly Parton as Doralee Rhodes , a secretary who is presumed to be sleeping with Mr. Hart , despite the fact that she has refused his advances . Because of this , she is looked down on by most of the other women in the office , but this changes after she becomes friends with Violet and Judy . * Dabney Coleman as Franklin M. Hart Jr. , the strict , overly-tight , lying boss and antagonist of the movie who fires people for no reason and also spread the false rumor that Doralee was sleeping with him . At the end of the film , he is reassigned to Brazil . * Sterling Hayden as Russell Tinsworthy , Consolidated 's chairman of the board who likes the new office layout that Violet and the others set up . * Elizabeth Wilson as Roz Keith , Mr. Hart 's administrative assistant who is constantly eavesdropping . * Henry Jones as Mr. Hinkle , Consolidated 's president . * Lawrence Pressman as Dick Bernly , Judy 's ex-husband . * Marian Mercer as Missy Hart , Mr. Hart 's sweet natured wife who is oblivious to the fact that Mr. Hart has a one-sided thing for Doralee . * Ren Woods as Barbara , one of Judy and Violet 's co-workers . * Norma Donaldson as Betty , another co-worker . * Roxanna Bonilla-Giannini as Maria Delgado , a friend of Judy 's who got fired , thanks to Roz 's snitching to Hart , but was later reinstated by one of the three girls , under Hart 's name . * Peggy Pope as Margaret Foster , an alcoholic secretary ( sometimes referred to by other characters as `` the old lush '' ) whose catchphrase is `` atta girl ! '' Although Judy feels weird around her at first , she warms up to her and the two become friends . * Richard Stahl as Meade , another vice president at the company , who does n't like Hart . * Ray Vitte as Eddie Smith , a man who works in the mail room . When he meets Judy on her first day , he says , `` What ? How am I going to get out of this mail room prison if they keep hiring people from the outside ? Lady , you 're gon na hate it here '' , which turns out to be true . * Jeffrey Douglas Thomas as Dwayne Rhodes , Doralee 's supportive husband . A musician , he is often performing at various gigs , thus allowing Doralee a good deal of free time to get into mischief with Judy and Violet . Production The movie was based on an idea of Jane Fonda , who had recently formed her own production company , IPC . Fonda : My ideas for films always come from things that I hear and perceive in my daily life ... A very old friend of mine had started an organisation in Boston called 'Nine To Five ' , which was an association of women office workers . I heard them talking about their work and they had some great stories . And I 've always been attracted to those 1940s films with three female stars . Fonda says the film was at first going to be a drama , but `` any way we did it , it seemed too preachy , too much of a feminist line . I 'd wanted to work with Lily [ Tomlin ] for some time , and it suddenly occurred to [ her producing partner ] Bruce and me that we should make it a comedy . '' Patricia Resnick wrote the first draft drama , and Fonda cast herself , Lily Tomlin and Dolly Parton in the leads , the latter in her first film role . Then Colin Higgins came on board to direct and rewrite the script . Part of his job was to make room for all three in the script . Higgins says Jane Fonda was a very encouraging producer , who allowed him to push back production while the script was being rewritten . `` He 's a very nice , quiet , low-key guy '' , said Dolly of Higgins . `` I do n't know what I would have done if I 'd had one of those mean directors on my first film . '' Higgins admitted `` he expected some tension '' , from working with three stars , `` but they were totally professional , great fun and a joy to work with . I just wish everything would be as easy . '' `` It remains a 'labour film ' , but I hope of a new kind , different from the Grapes of Wrath or Salt of the Earth '' , says Fonda . `` We took out a lot of stuff that was filmed , even stuff the director , Colin Higgins , thought worked but which I asked to have taken out . I 'm just super-sensitive to anything that smacks of the soapbox or lecturing the audience '' . '' Fonda says she did a deal of research for the movie , focusing on women who had begun work late in life due to divorce or being widowed . What I found was that secretaries know the work they do is important , is skilled , but they also know they 're not treated with respect . They call themselves 'office wives ' . They have to put gas in the boss 's car , get his coffee , buy the presents for his wife and mistress . So when we came to do the film , we said to Colin ( Higgins ) , ok , what you have to do is write a screenplay which shows you can run an office without a boss , but you ca n't run an office without the secretaries ! Filming locations The home of Franklin Hart is located at 10431 Bellagio Road in Bel-Air , Los Angeles . The Consolidated offices were presumably in the Pacific Financial Center located at 800 W 6th Street , at South Flower Street , Los Angeles , California 90017 . Although the story appears to be set in Los Angeles , the opening credit montage , set to the title song , is mostly composed of shots from downtown San Francisco . These shots include an electric MUNI bus , the Market Street clock and a brief glimpse of the San Francisco twins , Marian and Vivian Brown . Theme song The movie 's theme song , `` 9 to 5 '' , written and recorded by Parton , became one of her biggest hits of the decade . While filming the movie , Dolly found she could use her long acrylic fingernails to simulate the sound of a typewriter . She wrote the song on set by clicking her nails together and forming the beat . The song went to number one for two weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 , as well as the U.S. country singles charts , and was nominated for several awards , including the Academy Award for Best Song . It won the 1981 People 's Choice Award for `` Favorite Motion Picture Song '' , and two 1982 Grammy Awards : for `` Country Song of the Year '' and `` Female Country Vocal of the Year '' ( it was nominated for four Grammys ) . Additionally , it was certified platinum by the RIAA . At the same time , newcomer Sheena Easton was enjoying her first major hit in the UK with a song also titled `` 9 to 5 '' . With the success of Parton 's song , and to avoid confusion , Easton 's record company renamed her recording `` Morning Train ( 9 to 5 ) '' for its North American release . Television series The movie inspired a sitcom version which aired from 1982 to 1983 and from 1986 to 1988 . The show , which aired on ABC ( 1982–83 ) and in first run syndication ( 1986–88 ) , featured Parton 's younger sister , Rachel Dennison , in Parton 's role , and Rita Moreno and Valerie Curtin took over Tomlin and Fonda 's roles , respectively . In the second version of the show , Sally Struthers replaced Moreno . A total of 85 episodes were filmed . 2009 Broadway musical In an interview aired September 30 , 2005 on Larry King Live , Parton revealed that she was writing the songs for a musical stage adaptation of the film . A private reading of the musical took place on January 19 , 2007 Further private presentations were held in New York City in summer 2007 . In early March 2008 , Center Theatre Group artistic director Michael Ritchie announced that 9 to 5 would have its pre-Broadway run at the Center 's Ahmanson Theatre in Los Angeles beginning September 21 , 2008 , with Allison Janney starring as Violet , joined by Stephanie J . Block as Judy , Megan Hilty as Doralee , and Marc Kudisch as Franklin Hart , Jr . The book for 9 to 5 : The Musical was written by Patricia Resnick , who co-authored the film . Andy Blankenbuehler choreographed the show , and Joe Mantello directed . According to playbill.com , the musical opened on Broadway at the Marquis Theatre in previews on April 7 , 2009 , and officially on April 30 , 2009 . However , due to low ticket sales and gross , the production closed on September 6 , 2009 . A National Tour began in September 2010 . A UK tour has been arranged for 2012 . Possible sequel In the 1980s Universal developed a sequel with Colin Higgins . Tom Mankiewicz worked on it for a while and says while Dolly Parton was enthusiastic , Jane Fonda was not and Higgins ' heart was not in it . In a TV interview broadcast on BBC1 in the UK in 2005 , the movie 's stars Fonda , Tomlin and Dolly Parton all expressed interest in starring in a sequel . Fonda said if the right script was written she would definitely do it , suggesting a suitable name for a 21st-century sequel would be 24/7 . Parton suggested they had better hurry up before they reach retirement age . In the DVD commentary , the three reiterate their enthusiasm ; Fonda suggests a sequel should cover outsourcing and they agree Frank Hart would have to return as their nemesis . American Film Institute lists * 2000 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Laughs— # 74 * 2004 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Songs— # 78 ( for 9 to 5 )

sfq_273--9_to_5_(film).txt

"Which actress/singer starred as Doralee Rhodes in the 1980 film, ""Nine to Five""?"

The Lighthouse of Genoa ( Italian : faro di Genova , but simply called Lanterna ) , is the main lighthouse for the city 's port . Besides being an important aid to night navigation in the vicinity , the tower serves as a symbol and a landmark for the City of Genoa . At 249 ft it is the world 's fifth tallest lighthouse and the second tallest `` traditional '' one , built of masonry . Since 1543 and until the construction of the lighthouse on Île Vierge in 1902 , it was the tallest lighthouse in the world . Considered as a whole with the natural rock on which it stands , as it is commonly perceived and represented , its height is 383 ft . It is constructed in two square portions , each one capped by a terrace ; the whole structure is crowned by a lantern from which the light is shone . Rebuilt in its current shape in 1543 replacing the former lighthouse , it is the world 's third oldest lighthouse , following the Tower of Hercules in A Coruña , Spain , and Kõpu Lighthouse , on the island of Hiiumaa , Estonia . History of the tower Location It is built on the hill of San Benigno at some little distance from the Sampierdarena neighborhood . The cape on which the Lanterna stands was at one time a peninsula before the nearby coastline was filled in and reshaped . To the west , it marked the entrance to the original port of Genoa , today the Porto Antico . Over time , the hill on the cape assumed the name `` Capo di Faro '' , or `` Lighthouse Cape '' ; it is also sometimes referred to as the cape of San Benigno , after the convent that once stood there . Today , the hill is gone save for a small rise upon which the lighthouse stands ; the rest of it was removed to provide infill for other areas of the city . Medieval light The first tower at this location , a structure formed of three crenellated towers , was built , most sources say , around 1128 , although at least one states that it was built in 1161 . At the time it sat close to the main coastal road , called the Via di Francia , which more recent documents describe as passing between it and the sea . When it was constructed the tower was fairly far from the city ; it was only in the seventeenth century that it became part of the so-called `` Cerchia Seicentesca '' , part of the seicento , the walls of Genoa . It has remained a part of the system until today . Dried pieces of erica and juniper wood were used to fuel the signal fire in its early years ; for upkeep , navigators who used the port were expected to pay a tax upon their approach to the city . The tower also played a part , early in its career , in the ongoing feud between the Guelphs and Ghibellines ; during one battle , the Ghibellines damaged it considerably during an attempt to dislodge a group of Guelphs who had taken refuge inside . In 1318 and again in 1321 , it was decided to dig a defensive trench around the tower , the better to protect it from damage in battle . In 1326 the first oil-based lantern , whose fire was fed by olive oil , was added to the structure , so that incoming vessels could better distinguish the signal fire upon approach . For the same reason , in 1340 the tower was painted with the coat of arms of the city , the better to serve as a distinctive daymark . In around 1400 the lighthouse was further converted for use as a prison ; among the hostages therein accommodated were the king of Cyprus , James II , and his wife . In 1405 the priests who were responsible for the upkeep of the lighthouse placed on its cupola a fish and a golden cross to serve as symbols of Christianity . During the cinquecento the structure was heavily damaged again , this time by friendly fire from the Genovese against the French . Thirty years later , in 1543 , the tower was once again reconstructed , assuming the form in which it may still be seen today . In 1449 one of the keepers of the lighthouse was listed as Antonio Colombo , uncle of explorer Christopher Columbus . Modern history The tower was shelled during the bombardment of Genoa by the French in 1684 ; the windows which were damaged were replaced on the orders of Louis XIV in 1692 . In 1778 construction began on a new lighting system designed to counteract damage done to the lighting apparatus over several centuries of use . In 1840 a rotating Fresnel lens was installed ; the system was formally inaugurated in January 1841 . It was modified up until the end of the century in order to increase its capability ; the entire lighthouse was modernised again in 1913 , but the electrification was poorly done , and had to be refitted in 1936 . One last major restoration project , begun after American and British air attacks of World War II , was completed in 1956 . It is also the symbol surrounding the Derby della Lanterna between two football clubs , Genoa C.F.C . and U.C . Sampdoria . Lanterna Museum Adjacent to the tower is the Museo della Lanterna , which may be reached by a walk from the old city walls to the foot of the beacon at the via Milano . It is also accessible from the neighboring Genova-Ovest highway . Work on the facility was completed in 2004 , and the museum was opened to the public in 2006 ; at the same time a new entry door was installed in the lighthouse . Further restoration involved replacement of some decorative elements on the attic of the tower and systematic paving , in stone , of the accessway . [ http : //www.terredimare.it/musei_view.php ? ID36 Terre di Mare ] The city park to the north has also been rehabilitated . The museum mainly covers the history of the city and the port , and contains a good deal of archival material . Some of the displays also cover the history of navigation and navigational aids in Genoa , and describe various signaling systems that have been used at sea . Part of a Fresnel lens , similar to that found in the lighthouse itself , is shown in such a manner as to display its inner workings . In addition to the permanent displays , temporary exhibits are also sometimes shown at the museum . The tower has been struck by lightning several times in its career . The most serious occasion , in 1481 , led to the death of one of its guardians . In 1602 lightning demolished a part of the crenellation on the top tower , and in 1603 another strike , again on the same tower , hit a decorative marble tablet with the text Jesus Christus rex venit in pace et Deus Homo factus est ( Jesus Christ king came in peace , and God became Man ) . This tablet may still be seen today ; it is mounted on the ground at the base of the top tower . At one time the lighthouse worked in tandem with a smaller tower , posted at the other end of the harbor where the cotton warehouses in the Porto Antico now stand . Management Management of the tower is under the authority of the Lighthouse Command Zone of the Marina Militare , and is directed from its center in La Spezia , which oversees all of the lighthouses in the region . The Marina Militare has been responsible for all lights on the Italian coast since 1910 , and employs both military and civil technicians for the purpose .

qw_7939--Lighthouse_of_Genoa.txt

In which city can you visit the Luigi Ferraris Stadium, the gardens of the Villa Durazzo-Pallavicini, the Piazza De Ferrari, the cemetery of Staglieno, the Edoardo Chiossone Museum of Oriental Art and the Torre della Lanterna?

In biology , a type is a particular specimen ( or in some cases a group of specimens ) of an organism to which the scientific name of that organism is formally attached . In other words , a type is an example that serves to anchor or centralize the defining features of that particular taxon . In older usage ( pre-1900 in botany ) , a type was a taxon rather than a specimen . A taxon is a scientifically named grouping of organisms with other like organisms , a set that includes some organisms and excludes others , based on a detailed published description ( for example a species description ) and on the provision of type material , which is usually available to scientists for examination in a major museum research collection , or similar institution . Type specimen According to a precise set of rules laid down in the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ( ICZN ) and the International Code of Nomenclature for algae , fungi , and plants ( ICN ) , the scientific name of every taxon is almost always based on one particular specimen , or in some cases specimens . Types are of great significance to biologists , especially to taxonomists . Types are usually physical specimens that are kept in a museum or herbarium research collection , but failing that , an image of an individual of that taxon has sometimes been designated as a type . Describing species and appointing type specimens is part of scientific nomenclature and alpha taxonomy . When identifying material , a scientist attempts to apply a taxon name to a specimen or group of specimens based on his or her understanding of the relevant taxa , based on ( at least ) having read the type description ( s ) , preferably based on an examination of all the type material of all of the relevant taxa . If there is more than one named type that all appear to be the same taxon , then the oldest name takes precedence , and is considered to be the correct name of the material in hand . If on the other hand the taxon appears never to have been named at all , then the scientist or another qualified expert picks a type specimen and publishes a new name and an official description . This process is crucial to the science of biological taxonomy . People 's ideas of how living things should be grouped change and shift over time . How do we know that what we call `` Canis lupus '' is the same thing , or approximately the same thing , as what they will be calling `` Canis lupus '' in 200 years time ? It is possible to check this because there is a particular wolf specimen preserved in Sweden and everyone who uses that name – no matter what else they may mean by it – will include that particular specimen . Depending on the nomenclature code applied to the organism in question , a type can be a specimen , a culture , an illustration , or ( under the bacteriological code ) a description . Some codes consider a subordinate taxon to be the type , but under the botanical code the type is always a specimen or illustration . For example , in the research collection of the Natural History Museum in London , there is a bird specimen numbered 1886.6.24.20 . This is a specimen of a kind of bird commonly known as the spotted harrier , which currently bears the scientific name Circus assimilis . This particular specimen is the holotype for that species ; the name Circus assimilis refers , by definition , to the species of that particular specimen . That species was named and described by Jardine and Selby in 1828 , and the holotype was placed in the museum collection so that other scientists might refer to it as necessary . Note that at least for type specimens there is no requirement for a `` typical '' individual to be used . Genera and families , particularly those established by early taxonomists , tend to be named after species that are more `` typical '' for them , but here too this is not always the case and due to changes in systematics can not be . Hence , the term name-bearing type or onomatophore is sometimes used , to denote the fact that biological types do not define `` typical '' individuals or taxa , but rather fix a scientific name to a specific operational taxonomic unit . Type specimens are theoretically even allowed to be aberrant or deformed individuals or color variations , though this is rarely chosen to be the case , as it makes it hard to determine to which population the individual belonged . The usage of the term type is somewhat complicated by slightly different uses in botany and zoology . In the PhyloCode , type-based definitions are replaced by phylogenetic definitions . Older terminology In some older taxonomic works the word `` type '' has sometimes been used differently . The meaning was similar in the first Laws of Botanical Nomenclature , but has a meaning closer to the term taxon in some other works : Translation : This single character permits [ one to ] distinguish this type from all other species of the section ... After studying the diverse forms , I came to consider them as belonging to the one and the same specific type . In botany In botanical nomenclature , a type ( typus , nomenclatural type ) , `` is that element to which the name of a taxon is permanently attached . '' ( article 7.1 ) In botany a type is either a specimen or an illustration . A specimen is a real plant ( or one or more parts of a plant or a lot of small plants ) , dead and kept safe , `` curated '' , in a herbarium ( or the equivalent for fungi ) . Examples of where an illustration may serve as a type include : * A detailed drawing , painting , etc. , depicting the plant , from the early days of plant taxonomy . A dried plant was difficult to transport and hard to keep safe for the future ; many specimens from the early days of botany have since been lost or damaged . Highly skilled botanical artists were sometimes employed by a botanist to make a faithful and detailed illustration . Some such illustrations have become the best record and have been chosen to serve as the type of a taxon . * A detailed picture of something that can be seen only through a microscope . A tiny `` plant '' on a microscope slide makes for a poor type : the microscope slide may be lost or damaged , or it may be very difficult to find the `` plant '' in question among whatever else is on the microscope slide . An illustration makes for a much more reliable type ( Art 37.5 of the Vienna Code , 2006 ) . Note that a type does not determine the circumscription of the taxon . For example , the common dandelion is a controversial taxon : some botanists consider it to consist of over a hundred species , and others regard it as a single species . The type of the name Taraxacum officinale is the same whether the circumscription of the species includes all those small species ( Taraxacum officinale is a `` big '' species ) or whether the circumscription is limited to only one small species among the other hundred ( Taraxacum officinale is a `` small '' species ) . The name Taraxacum officinale is the same and the type of the name is the same , but the extent of what the name actually applies to varies greatly . Setting the circumscription of a taxon is done by a taxonomist in a publication . Miscellaneous notes : # Only a species or an infraspecific taxon can have a type of its own . For most new taxa ( published on or after 1 January 2007 , article 37 ) at these ranks a type should not be an illustration . # A genus has the same type as that of one of its species ( article 10 ) . # A family has the same type as that of one of its genera ( article 10 ) . The ICN provides a listing of the various kinds of type ( article 9 ) , the most important of which is the holotype . These are * holotype * lectotype * isotype * syntype * paratype * neotype * epitype Note that the word `` type '' appears in botanical literature as a part of some older terms that have no status under the ICN : for example a clonotype . In zoology In zoological nomenclature , the type of a species ( or subspecies ) is a specimen ( or series of specimens ) , the type of a genus ( or subgenus ) is a species , and the type of a suprageneric taxon ( e.g. , family , etc . ) is a genus . Names higher than superfamily rank do not have types . A `` name-bearing type '' `` provides the objective standard of reference whereby the application of the name of a nominal taxon can be determined . '' Definitions * A type specimen is a vernacular term ( not a formally defined term ) typically used for an individual or fossil that is any of the various name-bearing types for a species . For example , the type specimen for the species Homo neanderthalensis was the specimen `` Neanderthal-1 '' discovered by Johann Karl Fuhlrott in 1856 at Feldhofer in the Neander Valley in Germany , consisting of a skullcap , thigh bones , part of a pelvis , some ribs , and some arm and shoulder bones . There may be more than one type specimen , but there is ( at least in modern times ) only one holotype . * A type species is the nominal species that is the name-bearing type of a nominal genus or subgenus . * A type genus is the nominal genus that is the name-bearing type of a nominal family-group taxon . * The type series are all those specimens included by the author in a taxon 's formal description , unless the author explicitly or implicitly excludes them as part of the series . Use of type specimens Although in reality biologists may examine many specimens ( when available ) of a new taxon before writing an official published species description , nonetheless , under the formal rules for naming species ( the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ) , a single type must be designated , as part of the published description . A type description must include a diagnosis ( typically , a discussion of similarities to and differences from closely related species ) , and an indication of where the type specimen or specimens are deposited for examination . The geographical location where a type specimen was originally found is known as its . In the case of parasites , the term type host ( or symbiotype ) is used to indicate the host organism from which the type specimen was obtained . Zoological collections are maintained by universities and museums . Ensuring that types are kept in good condition and made available for examination by taxonomists are two important functions of such collections . And , while there is only one holotype designated , there can be other `` type '' specimens , the following of which are formally defined : Holotype When a single specimen is clearly designated in the original description , this specimen is known as the holotype of that species . The holotype is typically placed in a major museum , or similar well-known public collection , so that it is freely available for later examination by other biologists . Paratype When the original description designated a holotype , there may still be additional specimens listed in the type series and those are termed paratypes . These are not name-bearing types . Allotype An allotype is a specimen of the opposite sex to the holotype , designated from among paratypes . It was also formerly used for a specimen that shows features not seen in the holotype of a fossil . The term is not regulated by the ICZN . Neotype A neotype is a specimen later selected to serve as the single type specimen when an original holotype has been lost or destroyed or where the original author never cited a specimen . Syntype A syntype is any one of two or more specimens that is listed in a species description where no holotype was designated ; historically , syntypes were often explicitly designated as such , and under the present ICZN this is a requirement , but modern attempts to publish species description based on syntypes are generally frowned upon by practicing taxonomists , and most are gradually being replaced by lectotypes . Those that still exist are still considered name-bearing types . Lectotype A lectotype is a specimen later selected to serve as the single type specimen for species originally described from a set of syntypes . In zoology , a lectotype is a kind of name-bearing type . When a species was originally described on the basis of a name-bearing type consisting of multiple specimens , one of those may be designated as the lectotype . Having a single name-bearing type reduces the potential for confusion , especially considering that it is not uncommon for a series of syntypes to contain specimens of more than one species . A notable example is that Carl Linnaeus is the lectotype for the species Homo sapiens . Paralectotype A paralectotype is any additional specimen from among a set of syntypes , after a lectotype has been designated from among them . These are not name-bearing types . Hapantotype A special case in Protistans where the type consists of two or more specimens of `` directly related individuals representing distinct stages in the life cycle '' ; these are collectively treated as a single entity , and lectotypes can not be designated from among them . Ergatotype An ergatotype is a specimen selected to represent a worker member in hymenopterans which have polymorphic castes . Alternatives to preserved specimens Type illustrations have also been used by zoologists , as in the case of the Réunion parakeet , which is known only from historical illustrations and descriptions . Recently , some species have been described where the type specimen was released alive back into the wild , such as the Bulo Burti boubou ( a bushshrike ) , described as Laniarius liberatus , in which the species description included DNA sequences from blood and feather samples . Assuming there is no future question as to the status of such a species , the absence of a type specimen does not invalidate the name , but it may be necessary in the future to designate a neotype for such a taxon , should any questions arise . However , in the case of the bushshrike , ornithologists have argued that the specimen was a rare and hitherto unknown color morph of a long-known species , using only the available blood and feather samples . While there is still some debate on the need to deposit actual killed individuals as type specimens , it can be observed that given proper vouchering and storage , tissue samples can be just as valuable even in case disputes about the validity of a species arise . Formalisation of the type system The various types listed above are necessary because many species were described one or two centuries ago , when a single type specimen , a holotype , was often not designated . Also , types were not always carefully preserved , and intervening events such as wars and fires have resulted in destruction of original type material . The validity of a species name often rests upon the availability of original type specimens ; or , if the type can not be found , or one has never existed , upon the clarity of the description . The ICZN has existed only since 1961 , when the first edition of the Code was published . The ICZN does not always demand a type specimen for the historical validity of a species , and many `` type-less '' species do exist . The current edition of the Code , Article 75.3 , prohibits the designation of a neotype unless there is `` an exceptional need '' for `` clarifying the taxonomic status '' of a species ( Article 75.2 ) . There are many other permutations and variations on terms using the suffix `` -type '' ( e.g. , allotype , cotype , topotype , generitype , isotype , isoneotype , isolectotype , etc . ) but these are not formally regulated by the Code , and a great many are obsolete and/or idiosyncratic . However , some of these categories can potentially apply to genuine type specimens , such as a neotype ; e.g. , isotypic/topotypic specimens are preferred to other specimens , when they are available at the time a neotype is chosen ( because they are from the same time and/or place as the original type ) . The term fixation is used by the Code for the declaration of a name-bearing type , whether by original or subsequent designation . Type species Each genus must have a designated type species ( the term `` genotype '' was once used for this but has been abandoned because the word has been co-opted for use in genetics and is much better known in that context ) . The description of a genus is usually based primarily on its type species , modified and expanded by the features of other included species . The generic name is permanently associated with the name-bearing type of its type species . Ideally , a type species best exemplifies the essential characteristics of the genus to which it belongs , but this is subjective and , ultimately , technically irrelevant , as it is not a requirement of the Code . If the type species proves , upon closer examination , to belong to a pre-existing genus ( a common occurrence ) , then all of the constituent species must be either moved into the pre-existing genus , or disassociated from the original type species and given a new generic name ; the old generic name passes into synonymy and is abandoned unless there is a pressing need to make an exception ( decided case-by-case , via petition to the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature ) . Type genus A type genus is that genus from which the name of a family or subfamily is formed . As with type species , the type genus is not necessarily the most representative , but is usually the earliest described , largest or best known genus . It is not uncommon for the name of a family to be based upon the name of a type genus that has passed into synonymy ; the family name does not need to be changed in such a situation .

bb_3795--Type_(biology).txt

Swede Carl Linnaeus, 1707-78, considered the father of taxonomy of living things, is the lectotype (example specimen) for which species?

Clinical lycanthropy is defined as a rare psychiatric syndrome that involves a delusion that the affected person can transform into , has transformed into , or is a non-human animal . Its name is connected to the mythical condition of lycanthropy , a supernatural affliction in which humans are said to physically shapeshift into wolves . It is purported to be a rare disorder . History Catherine Clark Kroeger has written that several parts of the Bible refer to King Nebuchadnezzar 's behavior in Daniel 4 as a being manifestation of clinical lycanthropy . Neurologist Andrew J. Larner has written that the fate of Odysseus 's crew at the hands of Circe may be one of the earliest examples of clinical lycanthropy . Notions that lycanthropy was due to a medical condition go back to the second century , when the Alexandrian physician Paulus Aegineta attributed lycanthropy to melancholy or an `` excess of black bile '' . In 1563 a Lutheran physician named Johann Weyer wrote that werewolves suffered from an imbalance in their melancholic humour and exhibited the physical symptoms of paleness , `` a dry tongue and a great thirst '' as well as sunken , dim and dry eyes . Even King James VI and I in his 1597 treatise Daemonologie does not blame werewolf behaviour on delusions created by the Devil but `` an excess of melancholy as the culprit which causes some men to believe that they are wolves and to 'counterfeit ' the actions of these animals '' . The perception of a link between mental illness and animalistic behaviour can be traced throughout the history of folklore from many different countries . Symptoms Affected individuals report a delusional belief that they are in the process of transforming into an animal or have already transformed into an animal . It has been linked with the altered states of mind that accompany psychosis ( the reality-bending mental state that typically involves delusions and hallucinations ) with the transformation only seeming to happen in the mind and behavior of the affected person . A study on lycanthropy from the McLean Hospital reported on a series of cases and proposed some diagnostic criteria by which lycanthropy could be recognised : * A patient reports in a moment of lucidity or looking back that they sometimes feel as an animal or have felt like one . * A patient behaves in a manner that resembles animal behavior , for example howling , growling , or crawling . According to these criteria , either a delusional belief in current or past transformation or behavior that suggests a person thinks of themselves as transformed is considered evidence of clinical lycanthropy . The authors go on to note that , although the condition seems to be an expression of psychosis , there is no specific diagnosis of mental or neurological illness associated with its behavioral consequences . DSM-IV Criteria Clinical Lycanthropy is thought to be a cultural manifestation of schizophrenia due to the first 4 symptomatic criteria . The first criteria are delusions , and this fits clinical lycanthropy because a person believing that he or she turns into an animal is a delusion . The second symptom is hallucinations , and people with clinical lycanthropy have vivid hallucinations of being an animal , and having whatever traits that animal has , whether it be claws , fur , fangs , or whatever that particular animal has . The next symptom is disorganized speech , from a certain human , cultural perspective . The people who have the diagnosis of clinical lycanthropy often take on the sounds of the animal in which they believe they turn into . So , if a person believes that he or she is a werewolf , they may begin to howl at the moon or sometimes even in the daylight . The last symptom that matches schizophrenia is grossly disorganized behavior . This is appropriate because individuals with clinical lycanthropy often act like the animal they believe they have become , including living outside and picking up their diet . It also seems that lycanthropy is not specific to an experience of human-to-wolf transformation ; a wide variety of creatures have been reported as part of the shapeshifting experience . A review of the medical literature from early 2004 lists over thirty published cases of lycanthropy , only the minority of which have wolf or dog themes . Canines are certainly not uncommon , although the experience of being transformed into a hyena , cat , horse , bird or tiger has been reported on more than one occasion . Transformation into frogs , and even bees , has been reported in some instances . In Japan , transformation into foxes and dogs was usual ( : ja : 狐憑き , : ja : 犬神 ) . A 1989 case study described how one individual reported a serial transformation , experiencing a change from human , to dog , to horse , and then finally cat , before returning to the reality of human existence after treatment . There are also reports of people who experienced transformation into an animal only listed as `` unspecified '' . There is a case study of a psychiatric patient who had both clinical lycanthropy and Cotard delusion . The term Ophidianthropy refers to the delusion that one has been transformed into a snake . Two case studies have been reported . Proposed mechanisms Clinical lycanthropy is a rare condition and is largely considered to be an idiosyncratic expression of a psychotic episode caused by another condition such as schizophrenia , bipolar disorder or clinical depression . However , there are suggestions that certain neurological conditions and cultural influences may lead to the expression of the human-animal transformation theme that defines the condition . Neurological factors One important factor may be differences or changes in parts of the brain known to be involved in representing body shape ( e.g. , see proprioception and body image ) . A neuroimaging study of two people diagnosed with clinical lycanthropy showed that these areas display unusual activation , suggesting that when people report their bodies are changing shape , they may be genuinely perceiving those feelings . Related disorders In rare cases , individuals may believe that other people have transformed into animals . This has been termed `` lycanthropic intermetamorphosis '' ( Moselhy , 1999 ) and `` lycanthropy spectrum '' ( Nejad , 2007 ) . A 2009 study reported that a man after the consumption of ecstasy displayed symptoms of paranoid psychosis by claiming that his relatives had changed into various animals such as a boar , a donkey and a horse .

qw_6358--Clinical_lycanthropy.txt

What name is given to the syndrome which involves a delusion that the affected person can transform or has transformed into an animal?

Gymnastics is a sport involving the performance of exercises requiring strength , flexibility , balance , agility , endurance and control . Gymnastics evolved from exercises used by the ancient Greeks that included skills for mounting and dismounting a horse , and from circus performance skills . Most forms of competitive gymnastics events are governed by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique ( FIG ) . Each country has its own national governing body ( BIW ) affiliated to FIG . Competitive artistic gymnastics is the best known of the gymnastic events . It typically involves the women 's events of vault , uneven bars , balance beam and floor exercise . Men 's events are floor exercise , pommel horse , still rings , vault , parallel bars and horizontal bar . Other FIG disciplines include rhythmic gymnastics , trampolining and tumbling , and aerobic gymnastics . Disciplines not currently recognized by FIG include aesthetic group gymnastics , men 's rhythmic gymnastics and TeamGym . Participants can include children as young as 20 months old doing kindergym and children 's gymnastics , recreational gymnasts of ages 5 and up , competitive gymnasts at varying levels of skill , and world-class athletes . Etymology The word gymnastics derives from the common Greek adjective ( gymnos ) meaning `` naked '' , by way of the related verb γυμνάζω ( gymnazo ) , whose meaning is to train naked '' , `` train in gymnastic exercise '' , generally `` to train , to exercise '' . The verb had this meaning , because athletes in ancient times exercised and competed without clothing . It came into use in the 1570s , from Latin gymnasticus , from Greek gymnastikos `` fond of or skilled in bodily exercise , '' from gymnazein `` to exercise or train '' ( see gymnasium ) . History Modern gymnastics originated in ancient Greece , and was originally intended for military training , where it was used by soldiers to prepare for war . In the late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century Germany , two pioneer physical educators – Johann Friedrich GutsMuths ( 1759–1839 ) and Friedrich Ludwig Jahn ( 1778–1852 ) – created exercises for boys and young men on apparatus they had designed that ultimately led to what is considered modern gymnastics . Don Francisco Amorós y Ondeano , was born on February 19 , 1770 in Valence and died on August 8 , 1848 in Paris . He was a Spanish colonel , and the first person to introduce educative gymnastic in France . Jahn promoted the use of parallel bars , rings and high bars in international competition . The Federation of International Gymnastics ( FIG ) was founded in Liege in 1881 . By the end of the nineteenth century , men 's gymnastics competition was popular enough to be included in the first `` modern '' Olympic Games in 1896 . From then on until the early 1950s , both national and international competitions involved a changing variety of exercises gathered under the rubric , gymnastics , that included for example , synchronized team floor calisthenics , rope climbing , high jumping , running , and horizontal ladder . During the 1920s , women organized and participated in gymnastics events . The first women 's Olympic competition was primitive , only involving synchronized calisthenics and track and field . These games were held in 1928 , in Amsterdam . By 1954 , Olympic Games apparatus and events for both men and women had been standardized in modern format , and uniform grading structures ( including a point system from 1 to 15 ) had been agreed upon . At this time , Soviet gymnasts astounded the world with highly disciplined and difficult performances , setting a precedent that continues . Television has helped publicize and initiate a modern age of gymnastics . Both men 's and women 's gymnastics now attract considerable international interest , and excellent gymnasts can be found on every continent . In 2006 , a new points system for Artistic gymnastics was put into play . With an A Score ( or D score ) being the difficulty score , which as of 2009 is based on the top 8 high scoring elements in a routine ( excluding Vault ) . The B Score ( or E Score ) , is the score for execution , and is given for how well the skills are performed . FIG Recognized Forms of Gymnastics Artistic gymnastics Artistic Gymnastics is usually divided into Men 's and Women 's Gymnastics . Men compete on six events : Floor Exercise , Pommel Horse , Still Rings , Vault , Parallel Bars , and Horizontal Bar , while women compete on four : Vault , Uneven Bars , Balance Beam , and Floor Exercise . In some countries , women at one time competed on the rings , high bar , and parallel bars ( for example , in the 1950s in the USSR ) . In 2006 , FIG introduced a new points system for Artistic gymnastics in which scores are no longer limited to 10 points . The system is used in the US for elite level competition . Unlike the old code of points , there are two separate scores , an execution score and a difficulty score . In the previous system , the `` execution score '' was the only score . It was and still is out of 10.00 , except for short exercises . During the gymnast 's performance , the judges deduct this score only . A fall , on or off the event , is a 1.00 deduction , in elite level gymnastics . The introduction of the difficulty score is a significant change . The gymnast 's difficulty score is based on what elements they perform and is subject to change if they do not perform or complete all the skills , or they do not connect a skill meant to be connected to another . Connection bonuses are where deviation happens most common between the intended and actual difficulty scores , as it can be difficult to connect multiple flight elements . It is very hard to connect skills if the first skill is not performed correctly . The new code of points allows the gymnasts to gain higher scores based on the difficulty of the skills they perform as well as their execution . There is no maximum score for difficulty , as it can keep increasing as the difficulty of the skills increase . Artistic events for women Vault In the vaulting events , gymnasts sprint down a 25 m runway , jump onto a springboard ( or perform a roundoff or handspring entry onto a springboard ) , land momentarily inverted on the hands on the vaulting horse or vaulting table ( pre-flight segment ) , then propel themselves forward or backward off that platform to a two-footed landing ( post-flight segment ) . Every gymnast starts at a different point on the vault runway depending on their height and strength . The post-flight segment may include one or more multiple saltos , somersaults , or twisting movements . A round-off entry vault , called a Yurchenko , is the most common vault in the higher levels in gymnastics . When performing a Yurchenko , gymnasts `` round off '' so their hands are on the runway while their feet land on the springboard . From the roundoff position , the gymnast travels backwards and executes a back handspring so that the hands land on the vaulting table . The gymnast then blocks off the vaulting platform into various twisting and/or somersaulting combinations . The post-flight segment brings the gymnast to her feet . In the lower levels of gymnastics , the gymnasts do not perform this move . These gymnasts will jump onto the springboard with both feet at the same time and either do a front handspring onto the vault or a roundoff onto the vault . In 2001 , the traditional vaulting horse was replaced with a new apparatus , sometimes known as a tongue , horse or vaulting table . The new apparatus is more stable , wider , and longer than the older vaulting horse , approximately 1 m in length and 1 m in width , giving gymnasts a larger blocking surface . This apparatus is thus considered safer than the vaulting horse used in the past . With the addition of this new , safer vaulting table , gymnasts are attempting more difficult and dangerous vaults . Uneven bars On the uneven bars , the gymnast performs a timed routine on two horizontal bars set at different heights . These bars are made of fiberglass covered in wood laminate , to prevent them from breaking . In the past , bars were made of wood , but the bars were prone to breaking , providing an incentive to switch to newer technologies . The width and height of the bars may be adjusted to the size needed by individual gymnasts . In the past , the uneven parallel bars were closer together . The bars have been moved increasingly further apart , allowing gymnasts to perform swinging , circling , transitional , and release moves that may pass over , under , and between the two bars . At the Elite level , movements must pass through the handstand . Gymnasts often mount the uneven bars using a springboard or a small mat . Chalk and grips ( a leather strip with holes for fingers to protect hands and improve performance ) may be used by gymnasts performing this event . The chalk helps take the moisture out of gymnasts ' hands to decrease friction and prevent rips ( tears to the skin of the hands ) ; dowel grips help gymnasts grip the bar . Balance beam The gymnast performs a choreographed routine of up to 90 seconds in length consisting of leaps , acrobatic skills , somersaults , turns and dance elements on a padded beam . The beam is 125 cm from the ground , 500 cm long , and 10 cm wide . This stationary object can also be adjusted , it can be raised higher or lower . The event requires balance , flexibility , poise and strength . Floor In the past , the floor exercise event was executed on the bare floor or mats such as wrestling mats . Today , the floor event occurs on a carpeted 12m × 12m square , usually consisting of hard foam over a layer of plywood , which is supported by springs or foam blocks generally called a `` spring '' floor . This provides a firm surface that provides extra bounce or spring when compressed , allowing gymnasts to achieve greater height and a softer landing after the composed skill . Gymnasts perform a choreographed routine up to 90 seconds in the floor exercise event ; Depending on the level , they may choose their own , or , if known as a `` [ http : //gymnasticshq.com/whats-the-difference-between-compulsory-and-optional-gymnastics/ compulsory gymnast ] , '' default music must be played . Levels three to six the music is the same for each levels along with the skills within the routine . In the elite levels ( levels seven to ten ) there are skill requirements for the routine but the athlete is able to pick her own music without any words . The routine should consist of tumbling lines , series of jumps , leaps , dance elements , acrobatic skills , and turns , or piviots , on one foot . A gymnast can perform up to four tumbling lines that usually includes at least one flight element without hand support . Each level of gymnastics requires the athlete to perform a different number of tumbling passes . In level 7 in the United States , a gymnast is required to do 2–3 , and in levels 8–10 , at least 3–4 tumbling passes are required . Artistic events for men Floor Male gymnasts also perform on a 12meter x 12meter spring floor . A series of tumbling passes are performed to demonstrate flexibility , strength , and balance . Strength skills include circles , scales , and press handstands . Men 's floor routines usually have multiple passes that have to total between 60–70 seconds and are performed without music , unlike the women 's event . Rules require that male gymnasts touch each corner of the floor at least once during their routine . Pommel horse A typical pommel horse exercise involves both single leg and double leg work . Single leg skills are generally found in the form of scissors , an element often done on the pommels . Double leg work however , is the main staple of this event . The gymnast swings both legs in a circular motion ( clockwise or counterclockwise depending on preference ) and performs such skills on all parts of the apparatus . To make the exercise more challenging , gymnasts will often include variations on a typical circling skill by turning ( moores and spindles ) or by straddling their legs ( Flares ) . Routines end when the gymnast performs a dismount , either by swinging his body over the horse , or landing after a handstand variation . Still rings The rings are suspended on wire cable from a point 5.75 meters from the floor . The gymnasts must perform a routine demonstrating balance , strength , power , and dynamic motion while preventing the rings themselves from swinging . At least one static strength move is required , but some gymnasts may include two or three . A routine ends with a dismount . Vault Gymnasts sprint down a runway , which is a maximum of 25 meters in length , before hurdling onto a spring board . The gymnast is allowed to choose where they start on the runway . The body position is maintained while `` punching '' ( blocking using only a shoulder movement ) the vaulting platform . The gymnast then rotates to a standing position . In advanced gymnastics , multiple twists and somersaults may be added before landing . Successful vaults depend on the speed of the run , the length of the hurdle , the power the gymnast generates from the legs and shoulder girdle , the kinesthetic awareness in the air , how well they stuck the landing and the speed of rotation in the case of more difficult and complex vaults . Parallel bars Men perform on two bars executing a series of swings , balances , and releases that require great strength and coordination . The width between the bars is adjustable dependent upon the actual needs of the gymnasts and usually 2m high , . Horizontal bar A 2.8 cm thick steel or fiberglass bar raised 2.5m above the landing area is all the gymnast has to hold onto as he performs giant swings or giants ( revolutions around the bar in the handstand position ) , release skills , twists , and changes of direction . By using all of the momentum from giants and then releasing at the proper point , enough height can be achieved for spectacular dismounts , such as a triple-back salto . Leather grips are usually used to help maintain a grip on the bar . As with women , male gymnasts are also judged on all of their events including their execution , degree of difficulty , and overall presentation skills . Scoring ( code of points ) A gymnast 's score comes from deductions taken from their start value . The start value of a routine is based on the difficulty of the elements the gymnast attempts and whether or not the gymnast meets composition requirements . The composition requirements are different for each apparatus ; this score is called the D score . Deductions in execution and artistry are taken from a maximum of 10.0 . This score is called the E score . The final score is calculated by taking deductions from the E score , and adding the result to the D score . Since 2007 , the scoring system has changed by adding bonus plus the execution and then adding those two together to get the final score . Landing In a tumbling pass , dismount or vault , landing is the final phase , following take off and flight This is a critical skill in terms of execution in competition scores , general performance , and injury occurrence . Without the necessary magnitude of energy dissipation during impact , the risk of sustaining injuries during somersaulting increases . These injuries commonly occur at the lower extremities such as : cartilage lesions , ligament tears , and bone bruises/fractures . To avoid such injuries , and to receive a high performance score , proper technique must be used by the gymnast . `` The subsequent ground contact or impact landing phase must be achieved using a safe , aesthetic and well-executed double foot landing . '' A successful landing in gymnastics is classified as soft , meaning the knee and hip joints are at greater than 63 degrees of flexion . A higher flight phase results in a higher vertical ground reaction force . Vertical ground reaction force represents external force which the gymnasts have to overcome with their muscle force and affects the gymnasts ' linear and angular momentum . Another important variable that affects linear and angular momentum is time the landing takes . Gymnasts can decrease the impact force by increasing the time taken to perform the landing . Gymnasts can achieve this by increasing hip , knee and ankle amplitude . Rhythmic gymnastics According to FIG rules , only women compete in rhythmic gymnastics . This is a sport that combines elements of ballet , gymnastics , dance , and apparatus manipulation . The sport involves the performance of five separate routines with the use of five apparatus ; ball , ribbon , hoop , clubs , rope—on a floor area , with a much greater emphasis on the aesthetic rather than the acrobatic . There are also group routines consisting of 5 gymnasts and 5 apparatuses of their choice . Rhythmic routines are scored out of a possible 30 points ; the score for artistry ( choreography and music ) is averaged with the score for difficulty of the moves and then added to the score for execution . International competitions are split between Juniors , under sixteen by their year of birth ; and Seniors , for women sixteen and over again by their year of birth . Gymnasts in Russia and Europe typically start training at a very young age and those at their peak are typically in their late teens ( 15–19 ) or early twenties . The largest events in the sport are the Olympic Games , World Championships , European Championships , World Cup and Grand-Prix Series . Rhythmic gymnastics apparatus ; Ball : It is made of either rubber or synthetic material ( pliable plastic ) provided it possesses the same elasticity as rubber . It is from 18 to 20 cm in diameter and must have a minimum weight of 400g . The ball can be of any colour and should rest in the gymnast 's hand , not the wrist . Fundamental elements of a ball routine include throwing , bouncing , and rolling . The gymnast must use both hands and work on the whole floor area while showing continuous flowing movement . The ball is to emphasize the gymnast 's flowing lines and body difficulty . ; Hoop : A hoop is an apparatus in rhythmic gymnastics and may be made of plastic or wood , provided that it retains its shape during the routine . The interior diameter is from 51 to 90 cm , and the hoop must weigh a minimum of 300g . The hoop may be of a natural colour or be partially of fully covered by one or several colours , and it may be covered with adhesive tape either of the same or different colour as the hoop . Fundamental requirements of a hoop routine include rotation around the hand or body and rolling , as well as swings , circles , throws , and passes through and over the hoop . The routines in hoop involves mastery in both apparatus handling and body difficulty like leaps , jumps and pivots . ; Ribbon : It is made of satin or another similar material cloth of any colour and may be multi-coloured as well as have designs on it . The ribbon itself must be at least 35g ( 1 oz ) , 4–6 cm ( 1.6–2.4 '' ) in width and for senior category a minimum length of 6m ( 20 ' ) ( 5m ( 16.25 ' ) for juniors ) . The ribbon must be in one piece . The end that is attached to the stick is doubled for a maximum length of 1m ( 3 ' ) . This is stitched down both sides . At the top , a very thin reinforcement or rows of machine stitching for a maximum length of 5 cm is authorized . This extremity may end in a strap , or have an eyelet ( a small hole , edged with buttonhole stitch or a metal circle ) , to permit attaching the ribbon . The ribbon is fixed to the stick by means of a supple attachment such as thread , nylon cord , or a series of articulated rings . The attachment has a maximum length of 7 cm ( 2.8 '' ) , not counting the strap or metal ring at the end of the stick where it will be fastened . Compulsory elements for the ribbon include flicks , circles , snakes and spirals , and throws . It requires a high degree of co-ordination to form the spirals and circles as any knots which may accidentally form in the ribbon are penalised . During a ribbon routine , large , smooth and flowing movements are looked for . ; Clubs : Multi-piece clubs are the most popular clubs . The club is built along an internal rod , providing a base on which a handle made of polyolefin plastic is wrapped , providing an airspace between it and the internal rod . This airspace provides flex , cushioning impact , making the club softer on the hands . Foam ends and knobs further cushion the club . Multi-piece clubs are made in both a thin European style or larger bodied American style and in various lengths , generally ranging from 19 to 21 inches ( 480 to 530 mm ) . The handles and bodies are typically wrapped with decorative plastics and tapes . The skills involved are apparatus mastery and body elements , Clubs are thrown from alternate hands ; each passes underneath the other clubs and is caught in the opposite hand to the one from which it was thrown . At its simplest , each club rotates once per throw , the handle moving down and away from the throwing hand at first . However , double and triple spins are frequently performed , allowing the club to be thrown higher for more advanced patterns and to allow tricks such as 360s to be performed underneath . Trampolining and tumbling Trampolining Trampolining and tumbling consists of four events , individual and synchronized trampoline , double mini trampoline , and tumbling ( also known as power tumbling or rod floor ) . Since 2000 , individual trampoline has been included in the Olympic Games . Individual trampoline Individual routines in trampolining involve a build-up phase during which the gymnast jumps repeatedly to achieve height , followed by a sequence of ten bounces without pause during which the gymnast performs a sequence of aerial skills . Routines are marked out of a maximum score of 10 points . Additional points ( with no maximum at the highest levels of competition ) can be earned depending on the difficulty of the moves and the length of time taken to complete the ten skills which is an indication of the average height of the jumps . In high level competitions , there are two preliminary routines , one which has only two moves scored for difficulty and one where the athlete is free to perform any routine . This is followed by a final routine which is optional . Some competitions restart the score from zero for the finals , other add the final score to the preliminary results . Synchronized trampoline Synchronized trampoline is similar except that both competitors must perform the routine together and marks are awarded for synchronization as well as the form and difficulty of the moves . Double-mini trampoline Double mini trampoline involves a smaller trampoline with a run-up , two moves are performed per routine . Moves can not be repeated in the same order on the double-mini during a competition . Skills can be repeated if a skill is competed as a mounter in one routine and a dismount in another . The scores are marked in a similar manner to individual trampoline . Tumbling In tumbling , athletes perform an explosive series of flips and twists down a sprung tumbling track . Scoring is similar to trampolining . Tumbling was originally contested as one of the events in Men 's Artistic Gymnastics at the 1932 Summer Olympics , and in 1955 and 1959 at the Pan American Games . From 1974 to 1998 it was included as an event for both genders at the Acrobatic Gymnastics World Championships . The event has also been contested since 1976 at the Trampoline World Championships . Since the recognition of Trampoline and Acrobatic Gymnastics as FIG disciplines in 1999 , official Tumbling competitions are only allowed as an event in Trampoline gymnastics meets . Acrobatic gymnastics Acrobatic gymnastics ( formerly Sport Acrobatics ) , often referred to as `` Acro '' if involved with the sport , acrobatic sports or simply sports acro , is a group gymnastic discipline for both men and women . Acrobats in groups of two , three and four perform routines with the heads , hands and feet of their partners . They may , subject to regulations ( e.g . no lyrics ) , pick their own music . There are four international age categories : 11-16 , 12-18 , 13-19 , and Senior ( 15+ ) , which are used in the World Championships and many other events around the world , including European Championships and World Games . All levels require a balance and dynamic routine , 12-18 , 13-19 , and Seniors are also required to perform a final ( combined ) routine . Currently , acrobatic gymnastics is marked out of 30.00 ( can be higher at Senior FIG level based on difficulty ) : * 10.00 for routine difficulty , ( valued from the tables of difficulties ) * 10.00 For technical performance , ( how well the skills are executed ) * 10.00 For Artistry , ( the overall performance of the routine , namely choreography ) Aerobic gymnastics Aerobic gymnastics ( formally Sport Aerobics ) involves the performance of routines by individuals , pairs , trios or groups up to 6 people , emphasizing strength , flexibility , and aerobic fitness rather than acrobatic or balance skills . Routines are performed for all individuals on a 7x7m floor and also for 12–14 and 15-17 trios and mixed pairs . From 2009 , all senior trios and mixed pairs were required to be on the larger floor ( 10x10m ) , all groups also perform on this floor . Routines generally last 60–90 seconds depending on age of participant and routine category . Other disciplines The following disciplines are not currently recognized by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique . Aesthetic group gymnastics Aesthetic Group Gymnastics ( AGG ) was developed from the Finnish `` naisvoimistelu '' . It differs from Rhythmic Gymnastics in that body movement is large and continuous and teams are larger ' Athletes do not use apparatus in international AGG competitions compared to Rhythmic Gymnastics where ball , ribbon , hoop and clubs are used on the floor area . The sport requires physical qualities such as flexibility , balance , speed , strength , coordination and sense of rhythm where movements of the body are emphasized through the flow , expression and aesthetic appeal . A good performance is characterized by uniformity and simultaneity . The competition program consists of versatile and varied body movements , such as body waves , swings , balances , pivots , jumps and leaps

qz_6596--Gymnastics.txt

Louis Smith won an individual silver medal in gymnastics at the 2012 London Olympics. For what discipline?

The Canadian ( ) is a transcontinental passenger train operated by Via Rail Canada with service between Union Station in Toronto , Ontario , and Pacific Central Station in Vancouver , British Columbia . Before 1955 the Canadian was a Canadian Pacific Railway ( CPR ) train between Toronto and Chicago . In 1955 , CPR renamed its transcontinental route between Montreal/Toronto and Vancouver the Canadian , with new streamlined trains . Via Rail took over in 1978 , and in 1990 reduced the Canadian to Toronto - Vancouver service primarily along Canadian National tracks . Canadian Pacific In the years following World War II , passenger trains on the CPR consisted of a mixture of prewar heavyweight and pre- and post-war lightweight cars , even on its flagship transcontinental The Dominion and its eastern extension , The Atlantic Limited . While these cars were serviceable , American trains of the early 1950s , such as the California Zephyr , had already adopted streamlined all-stainless steel consists featuring domed observation cars . Following an evaluation in 1949 of the dome cars featured on the General Motors / Pullman Standard demonstrator Train of Tomorrow , CPR management , including then Vice President Norris Crump , resolved to upgrade its rolling stock . In 1953 , CPR placed an order for 155 stainless steel cars with the Budd Company of Philadelphia that included 18 rear-end dome cars ( Park series ) , 18 Skyline mid-train dome cars , 30 coaches , 18 dining cars and 71 sleeping cars ( Manor and Château series ) . A subsequent order for 18 baggage-crew dormitory cars brought the final to total to 173 cars , sufficient for establishing an entirely new transcontinental service and partially re-equippiping The Dominion . The interior design of these new cars was contracted to the Philadelphia architectural firm Harbeson , Hough , Livingston & Larson ( a company known for its industrial designs on other prominent passenger trains such as the Pioneer Zephyr ) , and the resulting furnishings and pastel-shaded colour schemes were widely acclaimed . After deciding to name the Park series dome cars after famous Canadian parks , leading Canadian artists , including members of the Group of Seven , were commissioned to paint suitable murals for these cars . When the decision was made to add budget sleeping cars , the Budd order was supplemented by 22 existing heavyweight sleepers that CPR refurbished in its own Angus Shops , each fitted out with Budd-style stainless steel cladding . To complement the new rolling stock , the CPR ordered General Motors Diesel FP9 locomotives to supplement an existing fleet of FP7s . Although these F-units remained the preferred power for the train , it was occasionally pulled by a variety of motive power , including Montreal Locomotive Works FPA-2s . CPR christened its new flagship train The Canadian and service began on April 24 , 1955 . Running time between Montreal and Vancouver was reduced from about 85 to 71 hours , so that passengers spent only three , rather than four , nights en route . Although CPR competitor Canadian National Railways began its own new transcontinental service , the Super Continental , on the same day , CPR was able to boast honestly that The Canadian was `` The first and only all-stainless steel 'dome ' stream-liner in Canada '' — it was not until 1964 that the CNR acquired dome cars from the Milwaukee Road . CPR operated the train in two sections east of Sudbury , Ontario . The section operating between Montreal and Vancouver ( also serving Ottawa ) was known as train 1 westbound and train 2 eastbound , with a connecting section to or from Toronto splitting or joining at Sudbury ( this section was known as train 11 westbound , and train 12 eastbound ) . Matching its streamlined appearance , The Canadians 71-hour westbound schedule was 16 hours faster than that of The Dominion . Although initially successful , passenger train ridership began to decline in Canada during the 1960s . Facing competition from airlines and increased automobile usage following construction of the Trans-Canada Highway , the CPR cancelled The Dominion in 1966 , and petitioned the government to discontinue The Canadian in 1970 . Although this petition was denied , CPR during the 1970s attempted to remove itself from the passenger service market . The Canadian was operated at reduced levels , with the government subsidizing 80 percent of its losses . Via Rail The federal Crown corporation Via Rail Canada formally assumed responsibility for CPR 's passenger services on October 29 , 1978 , although the Via identity was not assumed by the trains themselves until the following summer . Following the takeover by Via , the Canadian became the company 's premier transcontinental train , and initially operated over its old CPR route . It was supplemented by the former CN Super Continental , which operated over the parallel , but more northerly , CN route . The Canadian continued to be operated in two sections east of Sudbury and provided daily service west to Vancouver and east to Toronto and Montreal . In the aftermath of the deep budget cuts made to Via Rail on January 15 , 1990 , the Super Continental service was abolished and the Canadian was moved from the CPR route to the Super Continental 's CN route . This maintained transcontinental service and allowed Via to operate its government-mandated service to small communities along the line . The new longer route bypassed Regina and Calgary in favor of Saskatoon and Edmonton . Service was reduced to three days per week and two times a week in off season , from previous daily service on both CP and CN routes . In 2007 the schedule was lengthened so that the train now takes four nights , rather than three , to travel between Toronto and Vancouver . The present schedule is almost identical with that of the 1940s over the same route , when CN operated it with steam locomotives . Today , Via Rail continues to operate the Canadian using the CN route with rebuilt ex-CPR Budd passenger equipment . In 2013 , the train was honoured by being featured on the back of the new polymer $ 10 Canadian bill . Route Vancouver-Kamloops The Canadian eastbound journey begins at Vancouver 's Pacific Central Station . It uses the BNSF tracks ( on which CN and Via have trackage rights ) through suburban communities including Burnaby , to New Westminster . After the train crosses the New Westminster Bridge , it enters CN tracks ( CN goes to the left/east ; BNSF and Amtrak to Seattle go to the right/west ) and then passes through several railroad yards and maintenance areas before it reaches Gifford . CN and CPR have agreements which allow directional running through the Fraser and Thompson River canyons . Most eastbound trains ( CN , CPR , and Via ) use the CPR tracks . Most westbound trains ( CN , CPR , and Via ) use the CN tracks . This allows the Canadian to travel on small portion of its original CPR route . At Gifford , the train diverts from the CN mainline and crosses the Fraser River to Mission , where it enters the CPR track . Mission , is the easternmost terminus of the West Coast Express , a commuter train service that operates on the Canadian original route from the Waterfront Station ( Canadian Pacific station ) in downtown Vancouver over the CPR line . From Mission , the Canadian travels on the CPR route through the Fraser and Thompson river canyons . The CPR stays on the west ( north ) side of the river until Cisco where it crosses over to the east ( south ) side of the river . Near Basque ( near Lytton ) , both the CPR and CN are on the same side of the river and have crossovers to access each other 's tracks , and it is here that the eastbound Canadian transfers from the CPR back onto the CN line . Shortly thereafter the CN line crosses back over to the west/north side of the Thompson River and makes a few other crossings across the river before the staying on the north/west side for rest of the way into Kamloops and crosses the North Thompson River before arriving at the Kamloops station , which is actually in North Kamloops , across the Thompson River from downtown Kamloops . On their regular schedules , both east and westbound Canadians travel through the Fraser and Thompson river canyons at night . Westbound , the Canadian stays on the CN tracks all the way into Vancouver . The CN route passes through Painted Canyon in which the train clings about 200 ft above the Thompson River and the crossing of CN 's 800 ft steel-arched bridge over the Fraser River and the CPR mainline at Cisco . After Cisco , the CN mainline stays of the east/south side of the Fraser River all the way to the New Westminster Bridge , following the same route as the eastbound train into Vancouver . The train ends its westbound journey by backing into the station . Kamloops–Jasper Standing at the North Kamloops station , the train is actually facing north and will be travelling north , at least in a northerly direction , for about the next six hours . The train follows the North Thompson River for much of the way , crossing it several times . The scenery changes gradually from the dry , rolling plateau – though miles of irrigation soften the starkness – to the lusher , evergreen forests farther north . Narrow valleys bordered by mountains on both sides feature farmlands , pastures , forests , logging camps , and small communities . Clearwater and Blue River are two such communities where the Canadian has flag stops . Near Clearwater , the train crosses the Clearwater River . The Monashee Mountains lie to the east for much of the way to Valemount . Some of the most dramatic segments along the route occur in this area as the train clings precariously to the mountainsides – particularly Groundhog Mountain and Mount Cheadle . One place in particular is known as Little Hells Gate ( Port d'Enfer ) , an area featuring treacherous rapids on the river similar to those in Hells Gate farther south on the Fraser River . Passengers will note railway slide fences on one side of the train . These wire fences protect the tracks and train from falling debris . When a wire breaks or is compromised , it sends a signal to stop or proceed at a much slower speed . As it is , the train creeps along at a cautious pace – 26 – – along this stretch . It is not difficult to see why . On the other side of the train are views to the North Thompson River down below as well as toward the often-snow-covered mountains in the distance . One of the prettiest sights in this area is of Pyramid Falls , which cascades 300 ft down the side of Mount Cheadle . The train slows down enough for passengers to get close-up looks and maybe get a nice picture or two . The Cariboo Mountains and Slide Mountain are to the west . Malton Range is to the east . The train crosses the Canoe River over a 240 ft bridge shortly before arriving Valemount . It was also south of Valemount and north of the Canoe River where the Canoe River crash occurred on November 21 , 1950 . Memorials can be seen from the train . The icefields of the Albreda Glacier should be visible for several miles . Valemount , `` Valley in the Mountains , '' sits in a valley surrounded by mountains and is a flag stop for the Canadian . The Selwyn Range is to the east , and the Premier Range is to the west . The Premier Range is so named because some of the peaks are named after prime ministers of Canada , the United Kingdom , and premiers of British Columbia . Mount Sir Wilfrid Laurier ( 3516 m ) and Mount Sir John Abbott ( 3398 m ) are two such mountains . North of Valemount is another area where eastbound and westbound trains ( both CN and the Canadian ) follow different routes . Out of Valemount , the eastbound train uses the Albreda Subdivision , which continues climbing along and often clings to the side of mountains from which there are views of the mountains and valleys below and beyond . Eventually and finally , the train rounds a sweeping curve ( near Jackman , at Milepost 65.5 ) and heads in a more easterly direction though still high up on the mountainside . Mount Robson comes into view . At 12972 ft , it is the tallest mountain in the Canadian Rockies . The mountain often makes its own weather and can be seen in its entirety fewer than 20 days a years . Even with the clouds , it can still be a scenic highlight for train passengers . The train has also been passing through Mount Robson Provincial Park . The train passes through a 1670 ft tunnel , where in 1905 an avalanche buried railroad workers , and continues its descent to Redpass , where it joins with the Robson Subdivision . It is lower in elevation and has more favourable grades for westbound trains than the Albreda Subdivision . The Robson Subdivision is used by westbound freights , the westbound Canadian and the westbound Jasper – Prince Rupert train . The eastbound Jasper – Prince Rupert train and eastbound freights off the Tête Jaune Subdivision from Prince George and Prince Rupert use the Albreda Subdivision . Incidentally , Tête Jaune ( `` Yellowhead '' in French ) and Yellowhead ( Highway , Pass , Mountain , etc . ) get their names from Pierre Bostonais , an Iroquois-Métis man who had blond hair . Redpass Junction is near the western shore of Moose Lake , which is known for its cold , deep waters . It is another scenic highlight , as the train follows along the north shore of the lake for several miles , and there are a couple of splashing waterfalls cascading down from theī mountains into the lake . The Selwyn Range borders the south shore of the lake . The train has essentially gone around the range . The Yellowhead Highway ( Highway # 16 ) parallels the CN tracks to the north . After Moose Lake , the train travels through a narrow valley nestled between the mountains , crosses the Moose and Fraser rivers and continues following the Fraser . Soon the train comes to the next major scenic highlight of the trip : Yellowhead Lake.Yellowhead Mountain continues to hover overhead to the north ( left side of the train going east ) while Mounts Rockingham ( 7,797 feet ) and Fitzwilliam ( 9,549 feet ) can be seen to the south ( to the right ) across the lake . The train finally crosses the Continental Divide at Yellowhead Pass , which at 3,718 feet is the lowest crossing of the divide in North America . There a number of boundaries represented here : between British Columbia and Alberta , the Pacific and Mountain time zones , and Pacific and Arctic watersheds . All rivers west of the divide flow to the Pacific Ocean ; rivers east flow to either the Arctic or Atlantic oceans . The train has also left Mount Robson Provincial Park and entered Jasper National Park . Once again the train hugs mountainsides among the Victoria Cross Range ( to the north ) above the Miette River and creeps through tunnels and past protective slide detector fences . Whistler Mountain is in view as the train descends , rounds a curve and pulls into the Jasper train station . At Jasper The Canadian , in both directions , is scheduled to be at the station for an hour and a half as the train is being serviced . The town of Jasper is the headquarters for Jasper National Park , a UNESCO World Heritage site , due to the `` area 's 'exceptional natural beauty ' , 'habitats of rare and endangered species ' and its natural landforms such as mountain peaks , glaciers , lakes , canyons , limestone caves , and the unique Burgess Shale fossils . '' The Mount Robson Provincial Park—through which the train has just passed , eastbound ; or through which the train is about to pass , westbound—is also a part of that heritage site . Passengers are encouraged to get off the train and wander around downtown Jasper . A visit to the Jasper Park Information Centre will help provide maps and other information about the park and areas the train has been and will be traveling through . Some might wish to visit the shops and restaurants , and/or just enjoy the crisp mountain air and the views of the surrounding mountains . Mount Edith Cavell ( 11,033 ft ) is visible toward the south . Pyramid Mountain ( 9,075 ft ) and the Victoria Cross Ranges are to the northwest . Whistlers Mountain , to the southwest , can be summitted via the Jasper Skytram . The station itself has a few attractions : the Jasper Raven Totem Pole , a vintage CN 4-8-2 steam locomotive on display , and inside the station is a café barista that also sells railroad memorabilia and other gifts . The station building was constructed by the CNR in 1926 and was declared a heritage railway station by the federal government in 1992 . Jasper to Edmonton The town of Jasper sits inside of a big `` U , '' as it relates to the railroad . The railroad comes in from the northwest and rounds a curve into the station . At the station , the train is actually facing northeast . Upon leaving the station , the train continues in a more northeasterly direction rather than due east . Also the train has descended into Jasper from Yellowhead Pass and now climbs a grade shortly after leaving the Jasper railyards . The train is once again hugging mountainsides overlooking the Athabasca Valley and River and surrounding mountains . There is usually a flock of bighorn sheep grazing on the bluffs above the train ( to the north ) and possibly down in the valley below . During the winter , they can often be seen licking salt off the highway—Highway 16 , also known as the Yellowhead Highway , paying little notice to the traffic or the trains . Other Canadian wildlife that may be seen from the train include bear , deer , elk , mountain goat , and various species of Canadian birds . To the north/northwest , passengers will see the peaks of the Victoria Cross Range —so named because six of the peaks are named after Canadian recipients of the Victoria Cross . Mount McKean ( 2743 m ) and Mount Zengel ( 2630 m ) are two such mountains that can be seen from the train . Others in the range include Pyramid Mountain ( 2766 m ) and Buttress Mountain ( 2685 m ) . Looking southward ( across the river ) , there is the Colin Range . Hawk Mountain ( 2553 m ) , Roche Bonhomme ( 2495 m ) , and Morro Peak ( 1678 m ) are among the peaks in this range that can be seen . English is the top of the grade , after which the train descends into the Athabasca Valley with all these mountains surrounding the Athabasca River , and the Yellowhead Highway ( Highway 16 ) is still paralleling the route . The train passes through Henry House . The train crosses the Snaring River , which has its source in Jasper National Park near the British Columbia border . The river drains several mountains , including its namesake Snaring Mountain . It and Chetamon Mountain ( 2606 m ) and the De Smet Range including the Roche de Smet ( 2539 m ) can be all seen from the train ( to the north ) . The Snaring River Campground is near the confluence of the Snaring and Athabaska Rivers . Looking to the south , passengers can see the Jacques Range including such peaks as Roche Jacques ( 2603 m ) and Cinquefoil Mountain ( 2259 m ) . The Athabasca River has its origins from the Columbia Glacier of the Columbia Icefield in Jasper National Park in Alberta , Canada , and travels 1,231 km ( 765 mi ) before draining into the Peace-Athabasca Delta near Lake Athabasca south of Fort Chipewyan . From there , its waters flow north as Rivière des Rochers , then joining the Peace River to form the Slave River that empties into Great Slave Lake and discharges through the Mackenzie River system into the Arctic Ocean . The train reaches the north shore of Jasper Lake and rides along it for several miles . The Yellowhead Highway rides along the south shore of the lake . The lake is a shallow , wide section of the Athabasca River . This has been the site of many CN publicity photographs—including of the Super Continental —through the years , and it is still popular with photographers , railfans , the present-day Canadian and its advertisers and passengers . The Jasper Lake Sand Dunes are on the northwest shore of Jasper Lake and can be seen from the train . They are the only sand dunes eco-system in the Canadian Rockies . Parts of the mainline have been built on causeways away from the shore , which have created several mini lakes . This adds to the effect of being out on the water , creating additional views of the lake , its waters and the forests and mountains surrounding it . The lake is surrounded by mountain ranges , many of which can be seen the train from various places along the lake . They include : From southeast to southwest : * Miette Range . Most prominent peaks include Utopia Mountain ( 2,602 m or 8,537 ft ) and Roche Miette ( 2,316 m or 7,600 ft ) . * Jacques Range . Prominent peaks : Cinquefoil Mountain ( 2259 m ) , Roche Jacques ( 2603 m ) , and Mount Merlin ( 2711 m ) . * Colin Range : Peaks include Mount Colin ( 2687 m ) and Roche Bonhomme ( 2495 m ) Northwest to northeast : * Victoria Cross Ranges—so named because six of the peaks are named after Canadian recipients of the Victoria Cross . * De Smet Range . Prominent peaks include : Roche de Smet , ( 2539 m ) and Mount Greenock ( 2065 m ) . * Bosche Range : Mount Aeolus ( 2643 m ) and Roche à Bosche ( 2123 m ) The train crosses Stoney River , glides through a 700 ft horseshoe tunnel underneath Disaster Point , and begins riding along the shores of Brûlé Lake . Black Cat Mountain ( 1800 m ) is so named because its top resembles a cat . There is also Mount Solomon ( 1585 m ) . The Yellowhead Highway is on the other side of the lake . Folding Mountain ( 2844 m ) should be visible as the train crosses the Athabasca River . The river is now on the north side of the tracks . Entrance is the official easternmost point of the Canadian Rockies ( at least on the CN ) , however , the Miette Range of the Rockies are usually still visible for many miles as the train heads out across the prairies . Actually , the surrounding landscapes are still heavily forested , the riverbanks are a bit dramatic , but the land is opening up to ever broader valleys , plains , and farmlands . About three miles west of Hinton , the train crosses an impressive trestle over Prairie Creek with the Athabasca still in sight . The train crosses a curved trestle over Sundance Creek then over the McLoed River on a 1066 ft bridge and Wolf Creek on a 652 ft bridge . The train rides along the shores of three lakes : to the north the Octopus Lake ; to the south , Wabamun and Chip . Westbound , train passengers should be able to start seeing mountains ( still way off in the distance ) just out of Edson crossing the Sundance Creek trestle . The train finally reaches West Junction which serves as a wye , where the train accesses the Edmonton Via Rail station by backing into it . Both east and westbound trains do this . The train is scheduled to be at the station for an hour as there will be a crew change and other servicing . The Panorama car travels only between Vancouver and Edmonton . Here , the car is taken off ( eastbound ) or put on ( westbound ) . The Edmonton City Centre Airport ( Blatchford Field ) is across the street . The skyline of downtown Edmonton is off in the distance . Historically , this is the northwest point of a loop trains once used to go into downtown Edmonton . Westbound , for example , trains would divert from the mainline at East Junction , head south as far as the CN passenger station , which was inside the CN Tower . The present-day Edmonton Light Rail Transit parallels some of the route , and remnants of the former mainline and railyards can still be seen along the way . The City Centre Campus of Grant MacEwan University lies on what was once CN railyards to the west of the former station . Trains would then swing north and rejoin the mainline at West Junction just north of the present station . Currently trains depart the station by heading out and going to the left westbound , or to the right eastbound . Edmonton to Saskatoon After reversing out of Edmonton station , the train cuts across the Canadian prairies for nearly 470 kilometers ( 272 miles ) , paralleling Alberta Hwy . 14 . The train stops in the rural communities of Viking , Alberta and Wainwright , Alberta before turning south to follow Alberta Hwy . 610 and crossing the Alberta-Saskatchewan border , stopping in Unity , Saskatchewan before passing over the Killsquaw Lakes en route to Biggar . Now paralleling Saskatchewan Hwy . 14 , the CN tracks branch off , and the train continues west on the main set of tracks . the train enters Saskatoon from the East , stopping at a modern station south of downtown on the site of the CN railyards via a short spur line . Saskatoon to Winnipeg After re-joining the CN main line , the train follows Saskatchewan Hwy . 11 out of the urban core of Saskatoon before once again paralleling the Yellowhead Highway . Now heading southwest , it begins to follow Saskatchewan Hwy . 2 into the town of Watrous , where the tracks branch off once more . Staying on the CN main line , it heads west towards Melville , paralleling Hwy . 15 , and heads southwest towards the Saskatchewan-Manitoba border . After entering Manitoba , the train stops in Rivers , near the city of Brandon , and heads west to the city of Portage la Prairie , now following the Trans-Canada Highway . It then continues west towards Winnipeg , where the tracks turn north , following the Assiniboine River , and enter the historic Winnipeg Union Station . Here , passengers can transfer to the Winnipeg-Churchill train . Northwest of Union Station , the train crosses over the Red River Of The North , and heads east through CN 's Transcona Yards . This section has a distance of nearly 714 kilometers ( 443 miles ) . Winnipeg to Toronto With its journey through the praires almost over , the train heads out of the yards and continues west , following Manitoba Provincial Trunk Hwy . 15 , towards the rural community of Elma , Manitoba , then turning West-Northwest towards Brereton Lake , Manitoba , Ophir , Manitoba and Winnitoba , Manitoba , and crosses the Manitoba-Ontario border after traversing Whiteshell Provincial Park . Now in Ontario , the train travels through the rugged Canadian Shield , stopping at Rice Lake , Ontario , near White , and Copelands Landing , Ontario en route to Malachi . After Malachi , the train loops around and heads through Ottermere , near Wade , Minaki , Redditt , Farlane , Canyon and Red Lake Road . after Red Lake Road , it loops around once more and stops at Richan , near Amesdale and Millidge

qf_3563--Canadian_(train).txt

In which Canadian city is the Lion's Gate Bridge?

An opioid use disorder is a medical condition that is characterized by the compulsive use of opioids despite adverse consequences from continued use and the development of a withdrawal syndrome when opioid use stops . It involves both an addiction to and dependence upon opioids . Opioids include substances such as morphine , heroin , codeine , oxycodone , hydrocodone , etc . The necessary descriptive characteristics of the medical diagnosis are preoccupation with a desire to obtain and take the drug and persistent drug-seeking behaviour . The opioid dependence-withdrawal syndrome involves both psychological dependence and marked physical dependence upon opioid compounds . Opioid use disorders resulted in 51,000 deaths worldwide in 2013 , up from 18,000 deaths in 1990 . Symptoms of withdrawal Symptoms of withdrawal from opiates include , but are not limited to : Early symptoms * Altered perception of temperature ( hot/cold flashes ) * Agitation * Anxiety * Change in libido ( abnormally high or low ) * Dehydration * Fatigue * Muscle aches * Mental fog/confusion/lack of motivation * Increased tearing * Insomnia * Restless legs * Runny nose * Sweating * Yawning * Skin-Crawling Late symptoms * Abdominal cramping * Sneezing * Diarrhea * Dilated pupils * Goose bumps * Nausea * Vomiting Cause It has been demonstrated that most people who are opioid-dependent have at least one other psychiatric comorbidity . Opioid dependence often develops as a result of self medication . Opioids are excellent acute pain medication , but it is their ability to produce euphoria that makes them attractive to addicts . Scoring systems have been derived to assess the likelihood of opiate addiction in chronic pain patients . Mechanism Addiction Overexpression of the gene transcription factor `` ΔFosB '' in the nucleus accumbens plays a crucial role in the development of opioid addiction by directly modulating compulsive drug-seeking behaviors . Like many other forms of behavioral addiction and drug addiction , overuse of opiates leads to increased ΔFosB expression in the nucleus accumbens . Opiates affect dopamine neurotransmission in the nucleus accumbens through their disinhibition of the GABA-based negative dopaminergic feedback system in the rostromedial tegmental nucleus . Dependence Furthermore , some studies suggest a permanent dysregulation of the endogenous opioid receptor system after chronic exposure to opioids . A recent study has shown that an increase in brain-derived neurotrophic factor ( BDNF ) in the ventral tegmental area ( VTA ) in rats can cause opiate-naive rats to begin displaying opiate-dependent behavior , including withdrawal and drug-seeking behavior . It has been shown that when an opiate-naive person begins using opiates at levels inducing euphoria , this same increase in BDNF occurs . Upregulation of the cyclic adenosine monophosphate ( cAMP ) signal transduction pathway by cAMP response element binding protein ( CREB ) , a gene transcription factor , in the nucleus accumbens is a common mechanism of psychological dependence among several classes of drugs of abuse . Upregulation of the same pathway in the locus coeruleus is also a mechanism responsible for certain aspects of opioid-induced physical dependence . Opioid receptors A genetic basis for the efficacy of opioids in the treatment of pain has been demonstrated for a number of specific variations ; however , the evidence for clinical differences in opioid effects is ambiguous . The pharmacogenomics of the opioid receptors and their endogenous ligands has been the subject of intensive activity in association studies . These studies test broadly for a number of phenotypes , including opioid dependence , cocaine dependence , alcohol dependence , methamphetamine dependence/psychosis , response to naltrexone treatment , personality traits , and others . Major and minor variants have been reported for every receptor and ligand coding gene in both coding sequences , as well as regulatory regions . Newer approaches shift away from analysis of specific genes and regions , and are based on an unbiased screen of genes across the entire genome , which have no apparent relationship to the phenotype in question . These GWAS studies yield a number of implicated genes , although many of them code for seemingly unrelated proteins in processes such as cell adhesion , transcriptional regulation , cell structure determination , and RNA , DNA , and protein handling/modifying . Currently there are no specific pharmacogenomic dosing recommendations for opioids due to a lack of clear evidence connecting genotype to drug effect , toxicity , or likelihood of dependence . 118A > G variant While over 100 variants have been identified for the opioid mu-receptor , the most studied mu-receptor variant is the non-synonymous 118A > G variant , which results in functional changes to the receptor , including lower binding site availability , reduced mRNA levels , altered signal transduction , and increased affinity for beta-endorphin . In theory , all of these functional changes would reduce the impact of exogenous opioids , requiring a higher dose to achieve the same therapeutic effect . This points to a potential for a greater addictive capacity in these individuals who require higher dosages to achieve pain control . However , evidence linking the 118A > G variant to opioid dependence is mixed , with associations shown in a number of study groups , but negative results in other groups . One explanation for the mixed results is the possibility of other variants which are in linkage disequilibrium with the 118A > G variant and thus contribute to different haplotype patterns that more specifically associate with opioid dependence . Non-opioid receptor genes The preproenkephalin gene , PENK , encodes for the endogenous opiates that modulate pain perception , and are implicated in reward and addiction . ( CA ) repeats in the 3 ' flanking sequence of the PENK gene was associated with greater likelihood of opiate dependence in repeated studies . Variability in the MCR2 gene , encoding melanocortin receptor type 2 has been associated with both protective effects and increased susceptibility to heroin addiction . The CYP2B6 gene of the cytochrome P450 family also mediates breakdown of opioids and thus may play a role in dependence and overdose . Diagnosis The WHO and DSM-IV-TR clinical guidelines for a definite diagnosis require that three or more of the following six characteristic features be experienced or exhibited : # A strong desire or sense of compulsion to take the drug ; # Difficulties in controlling drug-taking behaviour in terms of its onset , termination , or levels of use ; # A physiological withdrawal state when drug use is stopped or reduced , as evidenced by : the characteristic withdrawal syndrome for the substance ; or use of the same ( or a closely related ) substance with the intention of relieving or avoiding withdrawal symptoms ; # Evidence of tolerance , such that increased doses of the drug are required in order to achieve effects originally produced by lower doses ; # Progressive neglect of alternative pleasures or interests because of drug use , increased amount of time necessary to obtain or take the drug or to recover from its effects ; # Persisting with drug use despite clear evidence of overtly harmful consequences , such as harm to the liver , depressive mood states or impairment of cognitive functioning . According to position papers on the treatment of opioid dependence published by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime and the World Health Organization , care providers should not mistake opioid dependence for a weakness of character or will . Accordingly , detoxification alone does not constitute adequate treatment . Management Opioid dependence is a complex health condition that often requires long-term treatment and care . The goal of management is to reduce health risks for the consumer , reducing criminal behaviour and improving the long-term physical and psychological condition of the patient . Most strategies aim ultimately to reduce drug use and lead to abstinence , but often do not make this a condition . As no single treatment is effective for all individuals with opioid dependence , diverse treatment options are needed , including psychosocial approaches and pharmacological treatment . Relapse following detoxification alone is extremely common , and therefore detoxification rarely constitutes an adequate treatment of substance dependence on its own . However , it is a first step for many forms of longer-term abstinence-based treatment . Both detoxification with subsequent abstinence-oriented treatment and substitution maintenance treatment are essential components of an effective treatment system for people with opioid dependence . Current trends in the US reveal a significant increase of prescription opioid abuse compared to illicit opiates such as heroin . This development has also implications for the prevention , treatment and therapy of opioid dependence . Medications Opioid replacement therapy ( ORT ) ( also called opioid substitution therapy or opioid maintenance therapy ) involves replacing an illegal opioid , such as heroin , with a longer acting but less euphoric opioid ; methadone or buprenorphine are typically used and the drug is taken under medical supervision . The driving principle behind ORT is the program 's capacity to facilitate a resumption of stability in the user 's life , while the patient experiences reduced symptoms of drug withdrawal and less intense drug cravings ; a strong euphoric effect is not experienced as a result of the treatment drug . In some countries ( not the US , UK , Canada , or Australia ) , regulations enforce a limited time period for people on ORT programs that conclude when a stable economic and psychosocial situation is achieved . ( Patients suffering from HIV/AIDS or Hepatitis C are usually excluded from this requirement . ) In practice , 40-65 % of patients maintain complete abstinence from opioids while receiving opioid replacement therapy , and 70-95 % are able to reduce their use significantly , while experiencing a concurrent elimination or reduction in medical ( improper diluents , non-sterile injecting equipment ) , psychosocial ( mental health , relationships ) , and legal ( arrest and imprisonment ) issues that can arise from the use of illicit opioids . Clonidine or lofexidine can help treat the symptoms of withdrawal . ORT has proven to be the most effective treatment for improving the health and living condition of people experiencing problematic illicit opiate use or dependence , including mortality reduction and overall societal costs , such as the economic loss from drug-related crime and healthcare expenditure . Opioid Replacement Therapy is endorsed by the World Health Organization , United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime and UNAIDS as being effective at reducing injection , lowering risk for HIV/AIDS , and promoting adherence to antiretroviral therapy . Currently , 55 countries worldwide use methadone replacement therapy , while some countries such as Russia do not offer it . Methadone Methadone maintenance treatment ( MMT ) , a form of opioid replacement therapy , reduces and/or eliminates the use of illicit opiates , the criminality associated with opiate use , and allows patients to improve their health and social productivity . In addition , enrollment in methadone maintenance has the potential to reduce the transmission of infectious diseases associated with opiate injection , such as hepatitis and HIV . The principal effects of methadone maintenance are to relieve narcotic craving , suppress the abstinence syndrome , and block the euphoric effects associated with opiates . Methadone maintenance has been found to be medically safe and non-sedating . It is also indicated for pregnant women addicted to opiates . Methadone maintenance treatment is given to addicted individuals who feel unable to go the whole way and get clean . For those individuals who wish to completely move away from drugs , a methadone reduction program is indicated , where the individual is prescribed an amount of methadone which is titrated up until withdrawal symptoms subside , followed by a period of stability , the dose will then be gradually reduced until the individual is either free of the need for methadone or is at a level which allows a switch to a different opiate with an easier withdrawal profile , such as Suboxone . Methadone toxicity has been shown to be associated with specific phenotypes of CYP2B6 . Buprenorphine Studies have shown buprenorphine to be a safer alternative over methadone in opiate replacement therapy , primarily due to its lower instance of overdose related deaths during the course of treatment . Buprenorphine sublingual preparations are often used in the management of opioid dependence ( that is , dependence on heroin , oxycodone , hydrocodone , morphine , oxymorphone , fentanyl or other opioids ) . The Suboxone and Subutex preparations were approved for this indication by the United States Food and Drug Administration in October 2002 . Some formulations of buprenorphine incorporate the opiate antagonist naloxone during the production of the pill form to prevent people from crushing the tablets and injecting them , instead of using the sublingual ( under the tongue ) route of administration . Diamorphine In Switzerland , Germany , the Netherlands , and the United Kingdom , long-term injecting drug users who do not benefit from methadone and other medication options are treated with pure injectable diamorphine that is administered under the supervision of medical staff . For this group of patients , diamorphine treatment has proven superior in improving their social and health situation . Dihydrocodeine Dihydrocodeine in both extended-release and immediate-release form are also sometimes used for maintenance treatment as an alternative to methadone or buprenorphine in some European countries . Heroin-assisted treatment Heroin-assisted treatment ( HAT , the medical prescription of heroin ) has been available in Switzerland since 1994 . A 2001 study found a high rate of treatment retention and significant improvement in health , social situation and likelihood to leave the illegal drug scene in enrolled participants . The study found that the most common reason for discharge was the start of abstinence treatment or methadone treatment . The study also found that heroin-assisted treatment is cost-beneficial on a society level due to reduced criminality and improved overall health of participants . The heroin-assisted treatment program was introduced in Switzerland to combat the increase in heroin use in the 1980s and 1990s and written into law 2010 as one pillar of a four-pillar strategy using repression , prevention , treatment and risk reduction . Usually , only a small percentage of patients receive heroin and have to fulfil a number of criteria . Since then , HAT programs have been adopted in the Netherlands , United Kingdom , Germany , Spain , Denmark , Belgium , Canada , and Luxembourg . LAAM Levacetylmethadol was previously used to treat opioid dependence . In 2003 the drug 's manufacturer discontinued production . There are no available generic versions . LAAM produced long-lasting effects , which allowed the person receiving treatment to visit a clinic only three times per week , as opposed to daily as with methadone . In 2001 , levacetylmethadol was removed from the European market due to reports of life-threatening ventricular rhythm disorders . In 2003 , Roxane Laboratories , Inc. discontinued Orlaam in the US . Morphine ( extended-release ) According to a Cochrane review in 2013 , extended-release morphine confers a possible reduction of opioid use and with fewer depressive symptoms but overall more adverse effects when compared to other forms of long-acting opioids . Retention in treatment was not found to be significantly different . It used in Switzerland . Naltrexone Naltrexone was approved by the FDA in 1984 for the treatment of opioid dependence . It is available both as an oral medication and as a monthly injectable ( approved in 2010 ) . Some authors question whether oral Naltrexone is as effective in the treatment of opioid dependence as methadone and buprenorphine mainly due to non-compliance . Therapy 12-step support groups While medical treatment may help with the initial symptoms of opioid withdrawal , once an opiate addict overcomes the first stages of withdrawal , a method for long-term preventative care is attendance at 12-step groups such as Alcoholics Anonymous or Narcotics Anonymous . Attendance and participation in a 12 step program is an effective way to obtain and maintain sobriety . Among primarily inner city minorities who had a `` long severe history of ( primarily ) crack and/or heroin use '' , 51.7 % of the individuals with continuous 12-step attendance had over 3 years of sustained abstinence , in contrast to 13.5 % among those who had less than continuous 12-step attendance . Epidemiology Opioid use disorders resulted in 51,000 deaths in 2013 up from 18,000 deaths in 1990 . Deaths from all causes rose from 47.5 million in 1990 to 54·9 million in 2013 . Among adults , the rate of inpatient hospital stays in the United States related to opioid overuse increased by an average of 5 % annually from 1993–2012 . The percentage of inpatient stays due to opioid overuse that were admitted from the emergency department increased from 43 % in 1993 to 64 % in 2005 , but have remained relatively constant since . Research Each of these treatments is experimental , and some remain quite far from having been proven to be effective . * Clonidine * Dextromethorphan * Ibogaine * Ketamine * Mitragynine

qg_2944--Opioid_use_disorder.txt

What synthetic opioid is used to help treat heroin addiction?

ARA General Belgrano was an Argentine Navy light cruiser in service from 1951 until 1982 . Previously named , she saw action in the Pacific theatre of World War II before being sold to Argentina . The vessel was the second to have been named after the Argentine founding father Manuel Belgrano ( 1770–1820 ) . The first vessel was a 7,069-ton armoured cruiser completed in 1896 . After almost 31 years of service , she was sunk on 2 May 1982 during the Falklands War ( ) by the Royal Navy submarine with the loss of 323 lives . Losses from General Belgrano totalled just over half of Argentine military deaths in the war . She is the only ship ever to have been sunk during military operations by a nuclear-powered submarine and the second sunk in action by any type of submarine since World War II , the first being the Indian frigate by the Pakistani Submarine during the 1971 Indo-Pakistani War . The sinking of General Belgrano was highly controversial in both the United Kingdom and Argentina at the time and remains so to this day . Early career The warship was built as , the sixth of the class , in Camden , New Jersey by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation starting in 1935 , and launched in March 1938 . She survived the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 undamaged , and went on to earn nine battle stars for World War II service . At the end of the war , she was placed in reserve at Philadelphia on 28th February 1946 , decommissioned on 3rd July that year and remained laid up at Philadelphia . Phoenix was sold to Argentina in October 1951 with another of her class , ( , which was renamed ARA Nueve de Julio ) , for US $ 7.8 million ( Nueve de Julio was scrapped in 1978 ) . She was renamed 17 de Octubre after the `` People 's Loyalty day '' , an important symbol for the political party of the then-president Juan Perón . She was one of the main naval units that joined the 1955 coup in which Perón was overthrown , and the ship was renamed General Belgrano after General Manuel Belgrano , who had fought for Argentine independence from 1811 to 1819 and founded the Escuela de Náutica ( School of Navigation ) in 1799 . The cruiser accidentally rammed her sister Nueve de Julio on exercises in 1956 , which resulted in damage to both cruisers . General Belgrano was outfitted with the Sea Cat anti-aircraft missile system between 1967 and 1968 . Sinking After the 1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands , on 2 April 1982 Britain declared a Maritime Exclusion Zone of 200 nautical miles around the Falkland Islands within which any Argentine warship or naval auxiliary entering the MEZ might be attacked by British nuclear-powered submarines ( SSN ) . On 23 April , the British Government clarified in a message that was passed via the Swiss Embassy in Buenos Aires to the Argentine government that any Argentine ship or aircraft that was considered to pose a threat to British forces would be attacked . On 30 April this was upgraded to a Total Exclusion Zone within which any sea vessel or aircraft from any country entering the zone might be fired upon without further warning . The zone was stated to be `` ... without prejudice to the right of the United Kingdom to take whatever additional measures may be needed in exercise of its right of self-defence , under Article 51 of the United Nations Charter . '' The concept of a Total Exclusion Zone was a novelty in maritime law ; the Law of the Sea Convention had no provision for such an instrument . The purpose of it seems to have been to reduce the amount of time needed to ascertain whether any vessel in the zone was hostile or not . The zone was widely respected by the shipping of neutral nations , possibly more out of prudence than respect for the United Kingdom 's legal position . The Argentine military junta began to reinforce the islands in late April when it was realised that the British Task Force was heading south . As part of these movements , Argentine Naval units were ordered to take positions around the islands . Two Task Groups , designated 79.1 which included the aircraft carrier , ARA Veinticinco de Mayo plus two Type 42 destroyers , and 79.2 which included three Exocet missile armed Drummond-class corvettes , both sailed to the north . General Belgrano had left Ushuaia in Tierra del Fuego on 26 April . Two destroyers , ARA Piedra Buena and ARA Bouchard ( both also ex-USN vessels ) were detached from Task Group 79.2 and together with the tanker , YPF Puerto Rosales joined General Belgrano to form Task Group 79.3 . By 29 April the ships were patrolling the Burdwood Bank , south of the islands . On 30 April General Belgrano was detected by the British nuclear-powered hunter-killer submarine . The submarine approached over the following day . On 1 May 1982 , Admiral Juan Lombardo ordered all Argentine naval units to seek out the British task force around the Falklands and launch a “ massive attack ” the following day . General Belgrano , which was outside and to the south-west of the exclusion zone , was ordered south-east . Lombardo ’ s signal was intercepted by British Intelligence . As a result , Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and her War Cabinet , meeting at Chequers the following day , agreed to a request from Admiral Sir Terence Lewin , the Chief of the Defence Staff , to alter the rules of engagement and allow an attack on General Belgrano outside the exclusion zone . Although the group was outside the British-declared Total Exclusion Zone of 370 km ( 200 nautical miles ) radius from the islands , the British decided that it was a threat . After consultation at Cabinet level , Thatcher agreed that Commander Chris Wreford-Brown should attack General Belgrano . At 15:57 ( Falkland Islands Time ) on 2 May , Conqueror fired three 21 inch Mk 8 mod 4 torpedoes ( conventional , non-guided , torpedoes ) , each with an 805-pound ( 363 kg ) Torpex warhead . While Conqueror was also equipped with the newer Mark 24 Tigerfish homing torpedo , there were doubts about its reliability . Initial reports from Argentina claimed that Conqueror fired two Tigerfish torpedoes on General Belgrano . Two of the three torpedoes hit General Belgrano . According to the Argentine government , General Belgranos position was . One of the torpedoes struck 10 to aft of the bow , outside the area protected by either the ship 's side armour or the internal anti-torpedo bulge . This blew off the ship 's bow , but the internal torpedo bulkheads held and the forward powder magazine for the 40 mm gun did not detonate . It is believed that none of the ship 's company were in that part of the ship at the time of the explosion . The second torpedo struck about three-quarters of the way along the ship , just outside the rear limit of the side armour plating . The torpedo punched through the side of the ship before exploding in the aft machine room . The explosion tore upward through two messes and a relaxation area called `` the Soda Fountain '' before finally ripping a 20-metre-long hole in the main deck . Later reports put the number of deaths in the area around the explosion at 275 men . After the explosion , the ship rapidly filled with smoke . The explosion also damaged General Belgranos electrical power system , preventing her from putting out a radio distress call . Though the forward bulkheads held , water was rushing in through the hole created by the second torpedo and could not be pumped out because of the electrical power failure . In addition , although the ship should have been `` at action stations '' , she was sailing with the water-tight doors open . The ship began to list to port and to sink towards the bow . Twenty minutes after the attack , at 16:24 , Captain Bonzo ordered the crew to abandon ship . Inflatable life rafts were deployed , and the evacuation began without panic . The two escort ships were unaware of what was happening to General Belgrano , as they were out of touch with her in the gloom and had not seen the distress rockets or lamp signals . Adding to the confusion , the crew of Bouchard felt an impact that was possibly the third torpedo striking at the end of its run ( an examination of the ship later showed an impact mark consistent with a torpedo ) . The two ships continued on their course westward and began dropping depth charges . By the time the ships realised that something had happened to General Belgrano , it was already dark and the weather had worsened , scattering the life rafts . Argentine and Chilean ships rescued 772 men in all from 3 to 5 May . In total , 323 were killed in the attack : 321 members of the crew and two civilians who were on board at the time . Naval outcome Following the loss of General Belgrano , the Argentinian fleet returned to its bases and played no major role in the rest of the conflict . British nuclear submarines continued to operate in the sea areas between Argentina and the Falkland Islands , gathering intelligence , providing early warning of air raids and posing a considerable threat in being . A further effect was that the Argentinian Navy 's carrier-borne aircraft had to operate from land bases at the limit of their range , rather than from an aircraft carrier at sea . The minimal role of the Navy in the rest of the campaign led to a considerable loss of credibility and influence within the Junta . Controversy over the sinking The legality of the sinking of General Belgrano has been disputed due to disagreement on the exact nature of the Maritime Exclusion Zone and whether General Belgrano had been returning to port at the time of the sinking . Through a message passed via the Swiss Embassy in Buenos Aires to the Argentine government nine days before the sinking , the UK made clear that it no longer considered the 200-mile ( 370 km ) exclusion zone as the limit of its military action . On 1 May 1982 , Admiral Juan Lombardo ordered all Argentine naval units to seek out the British task force around the Falklands and launch a “ massive attack ” the following day . The sinking also became a cause célèbre for anti-war campaigners such as Labour MP Tam Dalyell . Early reports wrongly claimed or suggested that more than 1,000 Argentine sailors may have been killed in the sinking ; it was in fact a little less than a third of that total . The sinking occurred 14 hours after President of Peru Fernando Belaúnde proposed a comprehensive peace plan and called for regional unity , although Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and diplomats in London did not see this document until after the sinking of General Belgrano . Diplomatic efforts to that point had failed completely . After the sinking , Argentina rejected the plan but the UK indicated its acceptance on 5 May . The news was subsequently dominated by military action and it is not well known that the British continued to offer ceasefire terms until 1 June that were rejected by the Junta . Argentine response On 3 May 1982 , Argentina ’ s Chancellery released a statement in the name of the Argentinian government that read : Legal situation At no time during the Falklands conflict did either the United Kingdom or Argentina declare war against the other country . Combat was confined to the area around and on the islands themselves . General Belgrano was sunk outside the 200 nmi total exclusion zone around the Falklands , delimited by the UK . Through a message passed via the Swiss Embassy in Buenos Aires to the Argentine government on 23 April , the UK made clear that it no longer considered the 200-mile ( 370 km ) exclusion zone as the limit of its military action . The message read : Interviews conducted by Martin Middlebrook for his book , Argentine Fight For The Falklands , indicated that Argentine naval officers understood the intent of the message was to indicate that any ships operating near the exclusion zone could be attacked . Argentine Rear Admiral Allara , who was in charge of the task force of which General Belgrano was part , said , `` After that message of 23 April , the entire South Atlantic was an operational theatre for both sides . We , as professionals , said it was just too bad that we lost the Belgrano '' . Captain Bonzo also told Middlebrook that he was not angry about the attack on his ship and `` The limit [ exclusion zone ] did not exclude danger or risks ; it was all the same in or out . I would like to be quite precise that , as far as I was concerned , the 200-mile limit was valid until 1 May , that is while diplomatic negotiations were taking place and/or until a real act of war took place , and that had happened on 1 May '' . Admiral Sandy Woodward , who commanded the British task force during the war , wrote in his 1997 book One Hundred Days that HMS Conqueror received a signal changing the rules of engagement and that `` The change said quite clearly he may now attack the Belgrano , outside the TEZ '' . Later political controversy Some details of the action were leaked to a British Member of Parliament , Tam Dalyell , in 1985 by the senior civil servant Clive Ponting , resulting in the unsuccessful prosecution of the latter under the Official Secrets Act 1911 . The documents revealed that the Belgrano was sailing away from the exclusion zone when she was attacked and sunk . In May 1983 , Mrs Thatcher appeared on Nationwide , a live television show on BBC1 , where a teacher , Diana Gould questioned her about the sinking , saying that the ship was already west of the Falklands and heading towards the Argentinian mainland to the west . Gould also said that the Peruvian peace proposal must have reached London in the 14 hours between its publication and the sinking of General Belgrano , and the escalation of the war could have thus been prevented . In the emotional exchange that followed , Thatcher answered that the vessel was a threat to British ships and lives and denied that the peace proposal had reached her . She added that `` One day , all of the facts , in about 30 years time , will be published '' , apparently a reference to a classified report prepared by intelligence officer Major David Thorp for Thatcher after the incident . Diana Gould died in December 2011 , just a few weeks before the existence of the report was made public . After the show , Thatcher 's husband Denis lashed out at the producer of the show in the entertainment suite , saying that his wife had been `` stitched up by bloody BBC poofs and Trots . '' Thatcher herself commented during the interview `` I think it could only be in Britain that a prime minister was accused of sinking an enemy ship that was a danger to our navy , when my main motive was to protect the boys in our navy . '' According to the British historian Sir Lawrence Freedman , neither Thatcher nor the Cabinet was aware of General Belgranos change of course before the cruiser was attacked . In his book , One Hundred Days , Admiral Woodward claims that General Belgrano was part of the southern part of a pincer movement aimed at the task force , and had to be sunk quickly . He wrote : The Sun newspaper 's `` Gotcha '' headline The Suns headline `` Gotcha '' is probably the most notorious headline in a British newspaper about the incident . Kelvin MacKenzie , editor of the popular tabloid , is reported to have used an impromptu exclamation by The Suns Features Editor , Wendy Henry , as the inspiration for the headline . The accompanying text reported that General Belgrano had only been hit and damaged , not sunk . After early editions went to press further reports suggested a major loss of life and Mackenzie toned down the headline in later editions to read `` Did 1,200 Argies drown ? '' Despite its notoriety , few readers in the UK saw the headline at first hand as it was only used on copies of the first northern editions ; southern editions and later editions in the north carried the toned-down headline . Aftermath The area where General Belgrano sank is classified as a War Grave under Argentine Congress Law 25.546 . In August 1994 , an official Argentine Defence Ministry report written by armed forces auditor Eugenio Miari was released which described the sinking of the Belgrano as `` a legal act of war '' , explaining that `` acts of war can be carried out in all of the enemy 's territory '' and `` they can also take place in those areas over which no state can claim sovereignty , in international waters '' . Argentinian veterans were said to be dismayed at the conclusion about the Belgrano and the President of the Federation of Argentine War Veterans Luis Ibáñez hoped to produce more witnesses to show that the sinking was a war crime . In 1999 , Sir Michael Boyce , First Sea Lord of the Royal Navy , visited the Puerto Belgrano naval base and paid tribute to those who died . In 2003 a search team aboard Seacor Lenga , crewed by Argentine and British veterans , was sponsored by National Geographic to find the sunken cruiser but failed to locate the ship . In 2000 , lawyers representing the families of the sailors killed onboard General Belgrano attempted to sue the British Government in the European Court of Human Rights on the grounds that the attack took place outside the exclusion zone . It was an attempt to pressure the Argentine government to lodge an action against the UK in the International Court of Justice , but was ruled inadmissible by the Court of Human Rights on the grounds that it had been submitted too late . La Nación published a reader 's letter from Admiral Enrique Molina Pico ( head of the Argentine Navy in the 1990s ) in 2005 in which Pico wrote that General Belgrano was part of an operation that posed a real threat to the British task force , but was holding off for tactical reasons . Pico added that `` To leave the exclusion zone was not to leave the combat zone to enter a protected area '' . Pico explicitly stated that the sinking was not a war crime , but a combat action . General Belgranos captain , Héctor Bonzo , died on 22 April 2009 , aged 76 . He had spent his last years working for an association called Amigos del Crucero General Belgrano ( Friends of the Cruiser General Belgrano ) whose purpose was to help those affected by the sinking . Captain Bonzo also wrote his memories about the sinking in the book 1093 Tripulantes del Crucero ARA General Belgrano , published in 1992 . In this book he wrote that it is `` improper to accept that ( ... ) the attack by HMS Conqueror was a betrayal '' . During an interview in 2003 he had stated that General Belgrano was only temporarily sailing to the west at the time of the attack , and his orders were to attack any British ships which came within range of the cruiser 's armament . In late 2011 , Major David Thorp , a former British military intelligence officer who led the signals intercept team aboard , released the book The Silent Listener detailing the role of intelligence in the Falklands War . In the book he stated that despite the fact that General Belgrano was observed by Conqueror sailing away from the Falklands at the time of the attack , she had actually been ordered to proceed to a rendezvous point within the Exclusion Zone . A report prepared by Thorp for Thatcher several months after the incident stated the destination of the vessel was not to her home port as the Argentine Junta stated ; the report was not released because the Prime Minister did not want to compromise British signals intelligence capabilities . In 2012 the President of Argentina , Cristina Fernández de Kirchner , referred to the sinking of General Belgrano as a `` war crime '' . However , the Argentine Navy has historically held the view that the sinking was a legitimate act of war , a position that was asserted by the Argentine Navy before various courts in 1995 .

bt_3162--ARA_General_Belgrano.txt

Which British submarine sank the General Belgrano in the Falklands War

Mark David Chapman ( born May 10 , 1955 ) is an American prison inmate who murdered John Lennon on December 8 , 1980 . Chapman shot Lennon outside The Dakota apartment building in New York City . Chapman fired at Lennon five times , hitting him four times in the back . Chapman later remained at the crime scene reading J. D. Salinger 's novel The Catcher in the Rye until the police arrived and arrested him . He repeatedly said that the novel was his statement . Chapman 's legal team put forward an insanity defense based on expert testimony that he was in a delusional psychotic state at the time , but nearing the trial , Chapman instructed his lawyer that he wanted to plead guilty , based on what he had decided was the will of God . The judge allowed the plea change without further psychiatric assessment after Chapman denied hearing voices , and sentenced him to a prison term of 20 years to life with a stipulation that mental health treatment be provided . Chapman was imprisoned in 1981 and has been denied parole eight times amidst campaigns against his release . Personal background Chapman was born in Fort Worth , Texas in 1955 . His father , David Curtis Chapman , was a staff sergeant in the U.S. Air Force , and his mother , Diane Elizabeth ( née Pease ) , was a nurse . His younger sister , Susan , was born seven years later . Chapman stated that as a boy , he lived in fear of his father , who he said was physically abusive towards his mother and unloving towards him . Chapman began to fantasize about having king-like power over a group of imaginary `` little people '' who lived in the walls of his bedroom . Chapman attended Columbia High School in Decatur , Georgia . By the time he was fourteen , Chapman was using drugs , skipping classes , and he once ran away from home to live on the streets of Atlanta for two weeks . He said that he was bullied at school because he was not a good athlete . In 1971 , Chapman became a born again Presbyterian and distributed Biblical tracts . He met his first girlfriend , Jessica Blankenship . He began work as a YMCA summer camp counselor ; he was very popular with the children , who nicknamed him `` Nemo '' . He won an award for Outstanding Counselor and was made assistant director . Those who knew him in the caretaking professions unanimously called him an outstanding worker . A friend recommended The Catcher in the Rye to Chapman , and the story eventually took on great personal significance for him , to the extent that he reportedly wished to model his life after its protagonist , Holden Caulfield . After graduating from Columbia High School , Chapman moved for a time to Chicago and played guitar in churches and Christian nightspots while his friend did impersonations . He worked successfully for World Vision with Vietnamese refugees at a resettlement camp at Fort Chaffee in Arkansas , after a brief visit to Lebanon for the same work . He was named an area coordinator and a key aide to the program director , David Moore , who later said that Chapman cared deeply for the children and worked hard . Chapman accompanied Moore to meetings with government officials , and President Gerald Ford shook his hand . Chapman joined his girlfriend , Jessica Blankenship , as a student at Covenant College , an evangelical Presbyterian liberal arts college in Lookout Mountain , Georgia . However , Chapman fell behind in his studies and became obsessed with guilt over having an affair . He started having suicidal thoughts and began to feel like a failure . He dropped out of Covenant College , and his girlfriend broke off their relationship soon after . He returned to work at the resettlement camp , but left after an argument . Chapman worked as a security guard , eventually taking a week-long course to qualify as an armed guard . He again attempted college but dropped out . He went to Hawaii and then began contemplating suicide . In 1977 , Chapman attempted suicide by carbon monoxide asphyxiation . He connected a hose to his car 's exhaust pipe , but the hose melted and the attempt failed . A psychiatrist admitted him to Castle Memorial Hospital for clinical depression . Upon his release , he began working at the hospital . His parents began divorce proceedings , and his mother joined Chapman in Hawaii . In 1978 , Chapman went on a six-week trip around the world , inspired partly by the film Around the World in Eighty Days , visiting Tokyo , Seoul , Hong Kong , Singapore , Bangkok , Delhi , Beirut , Geneva , London , Paris and Dublin . He began a relationship with his travel agent , a Japanese-American woman named Gloria Abe . They married on June 2 , 1979 . Chapman went to work at Castle Memorial Hospital as a printer , working alone rather than with staff and patients . He was fired by the Castle Memorial Hospital , rehired , then got into a shouting match with a nurse and quit . He took a job as a night security guard and began drinking heavily . Chapman developed a series of obsessions , including artwork , The Catcher in the Rye , music , and John Lennon . In September 1980 , he wrote a letter to a friend , Lynda Irish , in which he stated , `` I 'm going nuts . '' He signed the letter , `` The Catcher in the Rye '' . Chapman had no criminal convictions up to this point . Plan to murder John Lennon Chapman allegedly started planning to kill Lennon three months prior to the murder . He had been a big Beatles fan , idolizing Lennon , and played guitar himself , but turned against him after becoming a Christian ; he was angered at Lennon 's comment that the Beatles were `` more popular than Jesus . '' In the South , there were demonstrations , album burnings , boycotts , and projectiles were thrown . Some members of Chapman 's prayer group made a joke `` It went , 'Imagine , imagine if John Lennon was dead . ' '' Chapman 's childhood friend Miles McManushe recalls his referring to the song as `` communist '' . Jan Reeves , sister of one of Chapman 's best friends , reports that Chapman `` seemed really angry toward John Lennon , and he kept saying he could not understand why John Lennon had said it [ that the Beatles were more popular than Jesus ] . According to Mark , there should be nobody more popular than the Lord Jesus Christ . He said it was blasphemy . '' Chapman had later also been influenced by reading in a library book ( John Lennon : One Day at a Time by Anthony Fawcett ) about Lennon 's life in New York . According to his wife Gloria , `` He was angry that Lennon would preach love and peace but yet have millions [ of dollars ] . '' Chapman later said that `` He told us to imagine no possessions , and there he was , with millions of dollars and yachts and farms and country estates , laughing at people like me who had believed the lies and bought the records and built a big part of their lives around his music . '' He said that he chose Lennon after seeing him on the cover of The Beatles ' album , Sgt . Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band . He also recalls having listened to Lennon 's John Lennon/Plastic Ono Band album in the weeks before the murder and has stated : `` I would listen to this music and I would get angry at him , for saying that he did n't believe in God ... and that he did n't believe in the Beatles . This was another thing that angered me , even though this record had been done at least 10 years previously . I just wanted to scream out loud , 'Who does he think he is , saying these things about God and heaven and the Beatles ? ' Saying that he does n't believe in Jesus and things like that . At that point , my mind was going through a total blackness of anger and rage . So I brought the Lennon book home , into this The Catcher in the Rye milieu where my mindset is Holden Caulfield and anti-phoniness . '' Chapman also said that he had a further list of people in mind , including Johnny Carson , Marlon Brando , Walter Cronkite , Elizabeth Taylor , George C. Scott , and Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis , but John Lennon seemed to be the easiest to find . He separately said that he was particularly infatuated by Lennon . Chapman 's planning has been described as 'muddled ' . Chapman went to New York in October 1980 , intending to kill Lennon . He left in order to obtain ammunition from his unwitting friend in Atlanta , Dana Reeves , and returned to New York in November . After being inspired by the film Ordinary People , Chapman returned to Hawaii , telling his wife he had been obsessed with killing Lennon . He showed her the gun and bullets , but she did not inform the police or mental health services . He made an appointment to see a clinical psychologist , but before it occurred he flew back to New York , on December 6 , 1980 . At one point , he considered committing suicide by jumping from the Statue of Liberty . Chapman says that the message `` Thou Shalt Not Kill '' flashed on the TV at him , and was also on a wall hanging put up by his wife in their apartment ; on the night before the murder , Chapman and his wife discussed on the phone about getting help with his problems by first working on his relationship with God . On December 7 , 1980 , the day before the killing , Chapman accosted singer-songwriter James Taylor at the 72nd Street subway station . According to Taylor , `` The guy had sort of pinned me to the wall and was glistening with maniacal sweat and talking some freak speak about what he was going to do and his stuff with how John was interested , and he was going to get in touch with John Lennon . '' He also reportedly offered cocaine to a taxi driver . On the day of the murder , David Bowie was appearing on Broadway in the play The Elephant Man . `` I was second on his list , '' Bowie later said . `` Chapman had a front-row ticket to The Elephant Man the next night . John and Yoko were supposed to sit front-row for that show , too . So the night after John was killed there were three empty seats in the front row . I can ’ t tell you how difficult that was to go on . I almost didn ’ t make it through the performance . ” Murder of John Lennon On December 8 , 1980 , Chapman left his room at the Sheraton Hotel , leaving personal items behind which the police would later find , and bought a copy of The Catcher in the Rye in which he wrote `` This is my statement '' , signing it `` Holden Caulfield '' . He then spent most of the day near the entrance to The Dakota apartment building where Lennon and Yoko Ono lived , talking to fans and the doorman . Early in the morning , a distracted Chapman missed seeing Lennon step out of a cab and enter the Dakota . Later in the morning , Chapman met Lennon 's housekeeper who was returning from a walk with their five-year-old son Sean . Chapman reached in front of the housekeeper to shake Sean 's hand and said that he was a beautiful boy , quoting Lennon 's song `` Beautiful Boy ( Darling Boy ) '' . Around 5:00 p.m. , Lennon and Ono left The Dakota for a recording session at Record Plant Studios . As they walked toward their limousine , Chapman shook hands with Lennon and asked for him to sign a copy of his album , Double Fantasy . Photographer Paul Goresh took a photo of Lennon signing Chapman 's album . Chapman later said in an interview that he tried to get Goresh to stay , and that he asked another Lennon fan lingering at the building 's entrance to go out with him that night . He suggested that if the girl had accepted his invitation , or the photographer had stayed , he would not have murdered Lennon that evening ; but he probably would have tried another day . Around 10:50 p.m. , the Lennons ' limousine returned to the Dakota . Lennon and Ono got out , passed Chapman and walked toward the archway entrance of the building . From the street behind them , Chapman fired five shots from a .38 special revolver , four of which hit Lennon in the back and left shoulder , puncturing the left lung and left subclavian artery . At the time , one newspaper reported that , before firing , Chapman softly called out `` Mr. Lennon '' and dropped into a crouched position . Chapman said that he does not recall saying anything and that Lennon did not turn around . Chapman remained at the scene , appearing to be reading The Catcher in the Rye , until the police arrived . The New York City Police Department officers who first responded , recognizing that Lennon 's wounds were severe , decided to transport him to Roosevelt Hospital . Chapman was arrested without incident . In his statement to police three hours later , Chapman stated , `` I ’ m sure the big part of me is Holden Caulfield , who is the main person in the book . The small part of me must be the Devil . '' Lennon was pronounced dead by Dr. Stephan Lynn at 11:07 p.m. at St. Luke's-Roosevelt Hospital Center . Legal process Chapman was charged with second degree murder . He told police that he had used hollow-point bullets `` because they are more deadly '' and `` to ensure Lennon 's death '' . Gloria Chapman , who had known of her husband 's preparations for killing Lennon but took no action , was not charged . Chapman later said that he harbored a `` deep-seated resentment '' toward his wife , `` that she did n't go to somebody , even the police , and say , 'Look , my husband 's bought a gun and he says he 's going to kill John Lennon ' . '' Mental state assessment More than a dozen psychologists and psychiatrists studied Chapman in the six months prior to trial—three for the prosecution , six for the defense , and several more on behalf of the court . A battery of standard diagnostic procedures and over 200 hours of clinical interviews were conducted . All six defense experts concluded that Chapman was psychotic ; five diagnosed paranoid schizophrenia , while the sixth felt his symptoms were more consistent with manic depression . The three prosecution experts declared that his delusions fell short of psychosis , and instead diagnosed various personality disorders . The court-appointed experts concurred with the prosecution 's examiners that he was delusional , yet competent to stand trial . The examinations were notable for the fact that Chapman was more cooperative with the prosecution 's mental health experts than with those for the defense , possibly ( according to one psychiatrist ) because he did not wish to be considered `` crazy '' , and persuaded himself that the defense experts only declared him insane because they were hired to do so . The Rev . Charles McGowan , who had been pastor of Chapman 's old church , Chapel Woods Presbyterian in Decatur , Ga. , visited Chapman as well , and told him of his conviction that religion held the key to his crime . `` I believe there was a demonic power at work , '' he said . Chapman initially embraced his old religion with new fervor as a result ; but after McGowan revealed information to the press that Chapman had told him in confidence , Chapman disavowed his renewed interest in Christianity and reverted to his initial explanation : that he had killed Lennon to promote the reading of The Catcher in the Rye . When asked why it was so important for people to read the book , Chapman said he `` did n't know '' and `` did n't really care either—that was not his job . '' Plea Lawyer Herbert Adlerberg was assigned to represent Chapman but , amid threats of lynching , withdrew . Police feared that Lennon fans might storm the hospital so they transferred Chapman to Rikers Island . In January 1981 , at the initial hearing , Chapman 's new lawyer , Jonathan Marks , entered a plea of not guilty by reason of insanity . In February , Chapman sent a handwritten statement to The New York Times urging everyone to read The Catcher in the Rye , calling it an `` extraordinary book that holds many answers . '' The defense team sought to establish witnesses as to Chapman 's mental state at the time of the killing . It was reported they were confident he would be found not guilty by reason of insanity , in which case he would have been committed to a state mental hospital and received treatment . However , in June , Chapman told Marks he wanted to drop the insanity defense and plead guilty . Marks objected with `` serious questions '' over Chapman 's sanity , and legally challenged his competence to make this decision . In the pursuant hearing on June 22 , Chapman said that God had told him to plead guilty and that he would not change his plea or ever appeal , regardless of his sentence . Marks told the court that he opposed Chapman 's change of plea but that Chapman would not listen to him . Judge Dennis Edwards refused a further assessment , saying that Chapman had made the decision of his own free will , and declared him competent to plead guilty . Sentencing On August 24 , 1981 , the sentencing hearing took place . Two experts gave evidence on Chapman 's behalf . Judge Edwards interrupted Dorothy Otnow Lewis , a research psychiatrist then relatively inexperienced in the courtroom , indicating that the purpose of the hearing was to determine the sentence and that there was no question of Chapman 's criminal responsibility . Lewis has maintained that Chapman 's decision to change his plea did not appear reasonable or explicable , and she implies the judge did not want to allow an independent competency assessment . The district attorney argued that Chapman committed the murder as an easy route to fame . When Chapman was asked if he had anything to say , he rose and read the passage from The Catcher in the Rye , when Holden tells his little sister , Phoebe , what he wants to do with his life : Anyway , I keep picturing all these little kids playing some game in this big field of rye and all . Thousands of little kids , and nobody 's around – nobody big , I mean – except me . And I 'm standing on the edge of some crazy cliff . What I have to do , I have to catch everybody if they start to go over the cliff – I mean if they 're running and they do n't look where they 're going I have to come out from somewhere and catch them . That 's all I do all day . I 'd just be the catcher in the rye and all . The judge ordered psychiatric treatment in prison and sentenced Chapman to 20-years-to-life , 5 years less than the maximum sentence of 25-years-to-life . Chapman was given five years less than the maximum because he pleaded guilty to second degree murder , thereby avoiding the time and expense of a trial . Imprisonment In 1981 , Chapman was imprisoned at Attica , outside of Buffalo , New York . After Chapman fasted for 26 days in February 1982 , the New York State Supreme Court authorized the state to force feed him . Martin Von Holden , the director of the Central New York Psychiatric Center , said that Chapman still refused to eat with other inmates but agreed to take liquid nutrients . Chapman was confined to a Special Handling Unit ( SHU ) for violent and at-risk prisoners , in part due to concern that he might be harmed by Lennon 's fans in the general population . There were 105 prisoners in the building who were `` not considered a threat to him , '' according to the New York State Department of Correctional Services . He had his own prison cell , but spent `` most of his day outside his cell working on housekeeping and in the library . '' Chapman worked in the prison as a legal clerk and kitchen helper . He was barred from participating in the Cephas Attica workshops , a charitable organization which helps inmates to adjust to life outside prison . He was also prohibited from attending the prison 's violence and anger management classes due to concern for his safety . Chapman reportedly likes to read and write short stories . At his parole board hearing in 2004 , he described his plans ; `` I would immediately try to find a job , and I really want to go from place to place , at least in the state , church to church , and tell people what happened to me and point them the way to Christ . '' He also said that he thought that there was a possibility he could find work as a farmhand or return to his previous trade as a printer . Chapman is in the Family Reunion Program , and is allowed one conjugal visit a year with his wife , since he accepted solitary confinement . The program allows him to spend up to 42 hours alone with his wife in a specially built prison home . He also gets occasional visits from his sister , clergy , and a few friends . In 2004 , James Flateau , a spokesman for the state 's Department of Correctional Services , said that Chapman had been involved in three `` minor incidents '' between 1989 and 1994 for delaying an inmate count and refusing to follow an order . Chapman was transferred to the Wende Correctional Facility in Alden , New York , which is east of Buffalo , on May 15 , 2012 . Parole applications and campaigns As the result of his sentence of 20 years to life , Chapman first became eligible for parole in 2000 , and is entitled to a hearing every two years . Since that time , Chapman has been denied parole eight times by a three-member board . Shortly before Chapman 's first hearing , Yoko Ono sent a letter to the board opposing his release from prison . In addition , New York State Senator Michael Nozzolio , chairman of the Senate Crime Victims , Crime and Correction Committee , wrote to Parole Board Chairman Brion Travis saying : `` It is the responsibility of the New York State Parole Board to ensure that public safety is protected from the release of dangerous criminals like Chapman . '' At the 50-minute hearing in 2000 , Chapman said that he was not a danger to society . The parole board concluded that releasing Chapman would `` deprecate the seriousness of the crime and serve to undermine respect for the law '' and that Chapman 's granting of media interviews represented a continued interest in `` maintaining your notoriety . '' They noted that although Chapman had a good disciplinary record while in prison , he had been in the SHU and did n't access `` anti-violence and/or anti-aggression programming . '' Robert Gangi , a lawyer for the Correctional Association of New York , said that he thought it unlikely Chapman would ever be freed because the board would not risk the `` political heat '' of releasing Lennon 's killer . In 2002 , the parole board stated again that releasing Chapman after 22 years in prison would `` deprecate the seriousness '' of the crime , and that while his behavioral record continued to be positive , it was no predictor of his potential community behavior . The parole board held a third hearing in 2004 , and declined parole yet again . One of the reasons given by the board was having subjected Ono to `` monumental suffering by her witnessing the crime . '' Another factor was concern for Chapman 's safety ; several Lennon fans had threatened to kill him if he were released . Ono 's letter opposing his release stated that Chapman would not be safe outside of prison . The board reported that its decision was based on the interview , a review of records and deliberation . Around 6,000 people had signed an online petition against Chapman 's release by this time . In October 2006 , the parole board held a 16-minute hearing and concluded that his release would not be in the best interest of the community or his own personal safety . On December 8 , 2006 , the 26th anniversary of Lennon 's death , Yoko Ono published a one-page advertisement in several newspapers saying that December 8 should be a `` day of forgiveness , '' and that she was not yet sure if she was ready to forgive Chapman . Chapman 's fifth hearing was on August 12 , 2008 . He was denied parole `` due to concern for the public safety and welfare . '' On July 27 , 2010 , in advance of Chapman 's scheduled sixth parole hearing , Ono said that she would again oppose parole for Chapman stating that her safety , that of John 's sons , and Chapman 's would be at risk . She added , `` I am afraid it will bring back the nightmare , the chaos and confusion [ of that night ] once again . '' On August 11 , 2010 , the parole board postponed the hearing until September , stating that it was awaiting the receipt of additional information to complete Chapman 's record . On September 7 , the board denied Chapman 's latest parole application , with the panel stating `` release remains inappropriate at this time and incompatible with the welfare of the community . '' Chapman 's seventh parole hearing was held before a three-member board on August 22 , 2012 . The following day , the denial of his application was announced , with the board stating , “ Despite your positive efforts while incarcerated , your release at this time would greatly undermine respect for the law and tend to trivialize the tragic loss of life which you caused as a result of this heinous , unprovoked , violent , cold and calculated crime. ” Chapman 's eighth parole application was denied in August 2014 . At the hearing , Chapman said , `` I am sorry for being such an idiot and choosing the wrong way for glory . '' `` I found my peace in Jesus , '' he continued . `` I know him . He loves me . He has forgiven me . He has helped in my life like you would n't believe . '' Chapman 's next parole hearing is scheduled for August 2016 . Impact Following the murder , and for the first six years in Attica , Chapman refused all requests for interviews . James R. Gaines interviewed him and wrote a three-part , 18,000-word People magazine series in February and March 1987 . Chapman told the parole board he regretted the interview . Chapman later gave a series of audio-taped interviews to Jack Jones of the Democrat and Chronicle . In 1992 Jones published a book , Let Me Take You Down : Inside the Mind of Mark David Chapman , the Man Who Killed John Lennon . Also in 1992 , Chapman gave two

qg_2685--Mark_David_Chapman.txt

Mark David Chapman was scheduled to appear before the New York State parole board next week for his 6th attempt at getting out of prison for the 1980 murder of whom?

The Big Dipper ( US ) or Plough ( UK ) is an asterism consisting of the seven brightest stars of the constellation Ursa Major ; six of them are of second magnitude and one , Megrez ( δ ) , of third magnitude . Four define a `` bowl '' or `` body '' and three define a `` handle '' or `` head '' . It is recognized as a distinct grouping in many cultures . The North Star ( Polaris ) , the current northern pole star and the tip of the handle of the Little Dipper , can be located by extending an imaginary line from Merak ( β ) through Dubhe ( α ) . This makes it useful in celestial navigation . Names Origin The constellation of Ursa Major has been seen as a bear by many distinct civilizations . This may stem from a common oral tradition stretching back for thousands of years . Using statistical and phylogenetic tools , Julien d'Huy reconstructs the following Palaeolithic state of the story : `` There is an animal that is a horned herbivore , especially an elk . One human pursues this ungulate . The hunt locates or get to the sky . The animal is alive when it is transformed into a constellation . It forms the Big Dipper '' . North America In Canada and the United States , the asterism is known as the Big Dipper because the major stars can be seen to follow the rough outline of a large ladle or `` dipper '' . A widespread American Indian figuration had the bowl as a bear . Some groups considered the handle to be three cubs following their mother , while others pictured three hunters tracking the bear . The Anishinaabe or Ojibway First Nation know the Big Dipper as the `` Fisher Star '' ( Ojig-anang ) after the small mammal known as the fisher . Europe In both Ireland and the United Kingdom , this pattern is known as the Plough . The symbol of the Starry Plough has been used as a political symbol by Irish Republican and left wing movements . Another former name was the Great Wain ( i.e. , wagon ) . In northern England , it is occasionally still known as the Butcher 's Cleaver , and in the northeast , as Charlie 's Wagon . This derives from the earlier Charles 's Wain and Charles his Wain , which derived from the still older Carlswæn . A folk etymology holds that this derived from Charlemagne , but the name is common to all the Germanic languages and intended the churls ' wagon ( i.e. , `` the men 's wagon '' ) , in contrast with the women 's wagon ( the Little Dipper ) . An older `` Odin 's Wain '' may have preceded these Nordic designations . In German , it is known as the `` Great Wagon '' ( ' ) and , less often , the `` Great Bear '' ( ' ) . In Scandinavia , it is known by variations of `` Charles 's Wagon '' ( Karlavagnen , Karlsvogna , or Karlsvognen ) . In Dutch , its official name is the `` Great Bear '' ( ' ) , but it is popularly known as the `` Saucepan '' ( ' ) . In Italian , too , it is called the `` Great Wagon '' ( ' ) . In Romanian and most Slavic languages , it is known as the `` Great Wagon '' but , in Hungarian , it is commonly called `` Göncöl 's Wagon '' ( ' ) or , less often , `` Big Göncöl '' ( ' ) after a táltos ( shaman ) in Hungarian mythology who carried medicine that could cure any disease . In Finnish , the figure is known as the `` Salmon Net '' ( ' ) and widely used as a cultural symbol . The brown bear in Finnish actually became known as otava , but this is claimed to stem from its resemblance to—and mythical origin from—the asterism rather than vice versa . Book XVIII of Homer 's Iliad mentions it as `` the Bear , which men also call the Wain '' . In Latin , these seven stars were known as the `` Seven Oxen '' ( ' , from ' ) . ' is a hapax legomenon , occurring only in a single passage by Varro , where he glosses it as meaning `` plough oxen '' . The derivation is acceptable but the meaning , if Varro is right that it derives from terō ( `` thresh grain by rubbing '' ) , is surely `` threshing oxen '' : the seven stars wheel around the pole star like oxen on a threshing floor . The name is the origin of ' the Latin word for north , from which came the adjective septentrional ( `` northern '' ) in English , French , Italian , Portuguese , and Spanish . Asia In traditional Chinese astronomy , which continues to be used for throughout East Asia ( e.g. , in astrology ) , these stars are generally considered to compose the Right Wall of the Purple Forbidden Enclosure which surrounds the Northern Celestial Pole , although numerous other groupings and names have been made over the centuries . Similarly , each star has a distinct name , which likewise has varied over time and depending upon the asterism being constructed . The Western asterism is now known as the `` Northern Dipper '' ( ) or the `` Seven Stars of the Northern Dipper '' ( ) . The personification of the Big Dipper itself is also known as `` Doumu '' ( ) in Chinese folk religion and Taoism , and Marici in Buddhism . In Malaysian , it is known as the `` Dipper Stars '' ( ' ) ; in Indonesian , as the `` Canoe Stars '' ( Bintang Biduk ) . In Hindu astronomy , it is referred to as the `` Collection of Seven Great Sages '' ( Saptarshi Mandal ) , as each star is named after a mythical Hindu sage . An Arabian story has the four stars of the Plough 's bowl as a coffin , with the three stars in the handle as mourners , following it . In Mongolian , it is known as the `` Seven Gods '' ( ) . In Kazakh , they are known as the Jetiqaraqshi ( Жетіқарақшы ) and , in Kyrgyz , as the Jetigen ( Жетиген ) . Stars Within Ursa Major the stars of the Big Dipper have Bayer designations in consecutive Greek alphabetical order from the bowl to the handle . In the same line of sight as Mizar , but about one light-year beyond it , is the star Alcor ( 80 UMa ) . Together they are known as the `` Horse and Rider '' . At fourth magnitude , Alcor would normally be relatively easy to see with the unaided eye , but its proximity to Mizar renders it more difficult to resolve , and it has served as a traditional test of sight . Mizar itself has four components and thus enjoys the distinction of being part of an optical binary as well as being the first-discovered telescopic binary ( 1617 ) and the first-discovered spectroscopic binary ( 1889 ) . Five of the stars of the Big Dipper are at the core of the Ursa Major Moving Group . The two at the ends , Dubhe and Alkaid , are not part of the swarm , and are moving in the opposite direction . Relative to the central five , they are moving down and to the right in the map . This will slowly change the Dipper 's shape , with the bowl opening up and the handle becoming more bent . In 50,000 years the Dipper will no longer exist as we know it , but be re-formed into a new Dipper facing the opposite way . The stars Alkaid to Phecda will then constitute the bowl , while Phecda , Merak , and Dubhe will be the handle . Guidepost Not only are the stars in the Big Dipper easily found themselves , they may also be used as guides to yet other stars . Thus it is often the starting point for introducing Northern Hemisphere beginners to the night sky : * Polaris , the North Star , is found by imagining a line from Merak ( β ) to Dubhe ( α ) and then extending it for five times the distance between the two Pointers . * Extending a line from Megrez ( δ ) to Phecda ( γ ) , on the inside of the bowl , leads to Regulus ( α Leonis ) and Alphard ( α Hydrae ) . A mnemonic for this is `` A hole in the bowl will leak on Leo . '' * Crossing the top of the bowl from Megrez ( δ ) to Dubhe ( α ) takes one in the direction of Capella ( α Aurigae ) . A mnemonic for this is `` Cap to Capella . '' * Castor ( α Geminorum ) is reached by imagining a diagonal line from Megrez ( δ ) to Merak ( β ) and then extending it for approximately five times that distance . * By following the curve of the handle from Alioth ( ε ) to Mizar ( ζ ) to Alkaid ( η ) , one reaches Arcturus ( α Boötis ) and Spica ( α Virginis ) . A mnemonic for this is `` Arc to Arcturus then speed ( or spike ) to Spica . '' Additionally , the Dipper may be used as a guide to telescopic objects : * The approximate location of the Hubble Deep Field can be found by following a line from Phecda ( γ ) to Megrez ( δ ) and continuing on for the same distance again . * Crossing the bowl diagonally from Phecda ( γ ) to Dubhe ( α ) and proceeding onward for a similar stretch leads to the bright galaxy pair M81 and M82 . * Two spectacular spiral galaxies flank Alkaid ( η ) , the Pinwheel ( M101 ) to the north and the Whirlpool ( M51 ) to the south . * Projecting a line from Alkaid through the pole star will point to Cassiopeia . Cultural associations The `` Seven Stars '' referenced in the Bible 's Book of Amos may refer to these stars or , more likely , to the Pleiades . In addition , the constellation has also been used in corporate logos and the Alaska flag .

odql_14306--Big_Dipper.txt

The seven brightest stars of Ursa Major form 'The Plough'. What is this called in North America?

The International Radiotelephony Spelling Alphabet , commonly known as the NATO phonetic alphabet and also known as the ICAO radiotelephonic , phonetic or spelling alphabet and the ITU radiotelephonic or phonetic alphabet , is the most widely used radiotelephonic spelling alphabet . Although often called `` phonetic alphabets '' , spelling alphabets are not associated with phonetic transcription systems such as the International Phonetic Alphabet . Instead , the International Civil Aviation Organization ( ICAO ) alphabet assigned codewords acrophonically to the letters of the English alphabet , so that critical combinations of letters and numbers can be pronounced and understood by those who exchange voice messages by radio or telephone regardless of language barriers or the quality of the communication channel . The 26 code words in the NATO phonetic alphabet are assigned to the 26 letters of the English alphabet in alphabetical order as follows : Alfa , Bravo , Charlie , Delta , Echo , Foxtrot , Golf , Hotel , India , Juliett , Kilo , Lima , Mike , November , Oscar , Papa , Quebec , Romeo , Sierra , Tango , Uniform , Victor , Whiskey , X-ray , Yankee , Zulu . International adoption After the phonetic alphabet was developed by the International Civil Aviation Organization ( ICAO ) ( see history below ) it was adopted by many other international and national organizations , including the North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) , the International Telecommunication Union ( ITU ) , the International Maritime Organization ( IMO ) , the American Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) , the Alliance for Telecommunications Industry Solutions ( ATIS ) , and the International Amateur Radio Union ( IARU ) . It is a subset of the much older International Code of Signals ( INTERCO ) , which originally included visual signals by flags or flashing light , sound signals by whistle , siren , foghorn , or bell , as well as one , two , or three letter codes for many phrases . The same alphabetic code words are used by all agencies , but each agency chooses one of two different sets of numeric code words . NATO uses the regular English numeric words ( Zero , One , with some alternative pronunciations ) , whereas the IMO provides for compound numeric words ( Nadazero , Unaone , Bissotwo ... ) . In practice these are used very rarely , as they frequently result in confusion between speakers of different languages . NATO A common name for this spelling alphabet , `` NATO phonetic alphabet , '' exists because it appears in Allied Tactical Publication ATP-1 , Volume II : Allied Maritime Signal and Maneuvering Book used by all allied navies of NATO , which adopted a modified form of the International Code of Signals . Because the latter allows messages to be spelled via flags or Morse code , it naturally named the code words used to spell out messages by voice its `` phonetic alphabet '' . The name NATO phonetic alphabet became widespread because the signals used to facilitate the naval communications and tactics of NATO have become global . However , ATP-1 is marked NATO Confidential ( or the lower NATO Restricted ) so it is not available publicly . Nevertheless , a NATO unclassified version of the document is provided to foreign , even hostile , militaries , even though they are not allowed to make it available publicly . The spelling alphabet is now also defined in other unclassified international military documents . The NATO alphabet appeared in some United States Air Force Europe publications during the Cold War . A particular example was the Ramstein Air Base , Telephone Directory published between 1969 and 1973 ( currently out of print ) . The American and NATO versions had differences and the translation was provided as a convenience . Differences included Alfa , Bravo and Able , Baker for the first two letters . History The ICAO developed this system in the 1950s in order to account for discrepancies that might arise in communications as a result of multiple alphabet naming systems coexisting in different places and organizations . In the official version of the alphabet , the non-English spellings Alfa and Juliett are used . Alfa is spelled with an f as it is in most European languages because the English and French spelling alpha would not be pronounced properly by native speakers of some other languages – who may not know that ph should be pronounced as f. Juliett is spelled with a tt for French speakers , because they may otherwise treat a single final t as silent . In some English versions of the alphabet , one or both of these may have their standard English spelling . Code words The final choice of code words for the letters of the alphabet and for the digits was made after hundreds of thousands of comprehension tests involving 31 nationalities . The qualifying feature was the likelihood of a code word being understood in the context of others . For example , football has a higher chance of being understood than foxtrot in isolation , but foxtrot is superior in extended communication . The pronunciation of the code words varies according to the language habits of the speaker . To eliminate wide variations in pronunciation , recordings and posters illustrating the pronunciation desired by the ICAO are available . However , there are still differences in pronunciation between the ICAO and other agencies , and the ICAO has conflicting Roman-alphabet and IPA transcriptions . Also , although all codes for the letters of the alphabet are English words , they are not in general given English pronunciations . Assuming that the transcriptions are not intended to be precise , only 11 of the 26—Bravo , Echo , Hotel , Juliet ( t ) , Kilo , Mike , Papa , Quebec , Romeo , Whiskey , and Zulu—are given English pronunciations by all these agencies , though not always the same English pronunciations . Letters Digits Pronunciation Pronunciations are somewhat uncertain because the agencies , while ostensibly using the same pronunciations , give different transcriptions , which are often inconsistent from letter to letter . The ICAO gives different pronunciations in IPA transcription than in respelling , and the FAA also gives different pronunciations depending on the publication consulted , the FAA Aeronautical Information Manual ( § 4-2-7 ) , the FAA Flight Services manual ( § 14.1.5 ) , or the ATC manual ( § 2-4-16 ) . ATIS gives English spellings , but does not give pronunciations or numbers . The ICAO , NATO , and FAA use modifications of English numerals , with stress on one syllable , while the ITU and IMO compound pseudo-Latinate numerals with a slightly different set of modified English numerals , and with stress on each syllable . Numbers 10–99 are spelled out ( that is , 17 is `` 1–7 '' and 60 is `` 6–0 '' ) , while for hundreds and thousands the English words hundred and thousand are used.International Civil Aviation Organization , Aeronautical Telecommunications : Annex 10 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation , Volume II ( Fifth edition , 1995 ) , Chapter 5 , 38–40 . The pronunciation of the digits 3 , 4 , 5 , and 9 differs from standard English – being pronounced tree , fower , fife , and niner . The digit 3 is specified as tree so that it is not pronounced sri ; the long pronunciation of 4 ( still found in some English dialects ) keeps it somewhat distinct from for ; 5 is pronounced with a second `` f '' because the normal pronunciation with a `` v '' is easily confused with `` fire '' ( a command to shoot ) ; and 9 has an extra syllable to keep it distinct from German nein 'no ' . Only the ICAO prescribes pronunciation with the IPA , and then only for letters . Several of the pronunciations indicated are slightly modified from their normal English pronunciations : , partially due to the substitution of final schwas with the ah vowel ; in addition , the intended distinction between the short vowels and the long vowels is obscure , and has been ignored in the consolidated transcription above . Both the IPA and respelled pronunciations were developed by the ICAO before 1956 with advice from the governments of both the United States and United Kingdom , L.J . Rose , `` Aviation 's ABC : The development of the ICAO spelling alphabet '' , ICAO Bulletin 11/2 ( 1956 ) 12–14 . so the pronunciations of both General American English and British Received Pronunciation are evident , especially in the rhotic and non-rhotic accents . The respelled version is usually at least consistent with a rhotic accent ( ' r ' pronounced ) , as in , , , , and , whereas the IPA version usually specifies a non-rhotic accent ( ' r ' pronounced only before a vowel ) , as in , , , and . Exceptions are , and . The IPA form of Golf implies it is pronounced gulf , which is not either General American English or British Received Pronunciation . Different agencies assign different stress patterns to Bravo , Hotel , Juliett , November , Papa , X-ray ; the ICAO has different stresses for Bravo , Juliett , X-ray in its respelled and IPA transcriptions . The mid back vowel transcribed in Oscar and Foxtrot is actually a low vowel in both Received British and General American , and has been interpreted as such above . Furthermore , the pronunciation prescribed for `` whiskey '' has no initial [ h ] , although some speakers in both General American and RP pronounce an h here , and an initial [ h ] is categorical in Scotland and Ireland . Prior Alphabets The first internationally recognized spelling alphabet was adopted by the ITU during 1927 . The experience gained with that alphabet resulted in several changes being made during 1932 by the ITU . The resulting alphabet was adopted by the International Commission for Air Navigation , the predecessor of the ICAO , and was used for civil aviation until World War II . It continued to be used by the IMO until 1965 : British and American armed forces had each developed their spelling alphabets before both forces adopted the ICAO alphabet during 1956 . British forces adopted the RAF phonetic alphabet , which is similar to the phonetic alphabet used by the Royal Navy during World War I . At least two of the terms are sometimes still used by UK civilians to spell words over the phone , namely ' F for Freddie ' and 'S for Sugar ' . The U.S. adopted the Joint Army/Navy Phonetic Alphabet during 1941 to standardize systems among all branches of its armed forces . The U.S. alphabet became known as Able Baker after the words for A and B . The United Kingdom adapted its RAF alphabet during 1943 to be almost identical to the American Joint-Army-Navy ( JAN ) one . After World War II , with many aircraft and ground personnel from the allied armed forces , `` Able Baker '' continued to be used for civil aviation . But many sounds were unique to English , so an alternative `` Ana Brazil '' alphabet was used in Latin America . But the International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) , recognizing the need for a single universal alphabet , presented a draft alphabet to the ICAO during 1947 that had sounds common to English , French , Spanish and Portuguese . After further study and modification by each approving body , the revised alphabet was implemented on for civil aviation ( but it may not have been adopted by any military ) : Problems were soon found with this list . Some users believed that they were so severe that they reverted to the old `` Able Baker '' alphabet . To identify the deficiencies of the new alphabet , testing was conducted among speakers from 31 nations , principally by the governments of the United Kingdom and the United States . Confusion among words like Delta , Nectar , Victor , and Extra , or the unintelligibility of other words during poor receiving conditions were the main problems . After much study , only the five words representing the letters C , M , N , U , and X were replaced . The ICAO sent a recording of the new Radiotelephony Spelling Alphabet to all member states in November 1955 . The final version given in the table above was implemented by the ICAO on , and the ITU adopted it no later than 1959 when they mandated its usage via their official publication , Radio Regulations . Because the ITU governs all international radio communications , it was also adopted by all radio operators , whether military , civilian , or amateur . It was finally adopted by the IMO in 1965 . During 1947 the ITU adopted the compound number words ( Nadazero Unaone , etc . ) , later adopted by the IMO during 1965 . Usage A spelling alphabet is used to spell parts of a message containing letters and numbers to avoid confusion , because many letters sound similar , for instance `` n '' and `` m '' or `` f '' and `` s '' ; the potential for confusion increases if static or other interference is present . For instance the message `` proceed to map grid DH98 '' could be transmitted as `` proceed to map grid Delta-Hotel-Niner-Ait '' . Using `` Delta '' instead of `` D '' avoids confusion between `` DH98 '' and `` BH98 '' or `` TH98 '' . The unusual pronunciation of certain numbers was designed to reduce confusion . In addition to the traditional military usage , civilian industry uses the alphabet to avoid similar problems in the transmission of messages by telephone systems . For example , it is often used in the retail industry where customer or site details are spoken by telephone ( to authorize a credit agreement or confirm stock codes ) , although ad hoc coding is often used in that instance . It has been used often by information technology workers to communicate serial/reference codes ( which are often very long ) or other specialised information by voice . Most major airlines use the alphabet to communicate Passenger Name Records ( PNRs ) internally , and in some cases , with customers . It is often used in a medical context as well , to avoid confusion when transmitting information . Several letter codes and abbreviations using the spelling alphabet have become well-known , such as Bravo Zulu ( letter code BZ ) for `` well done '' , Checkpoint Charlie ( Checkpoint C ) in Berlin , and Zulu Time for Greenwich Mean Time or Coordinated Universal Time . During the Vietnam War , Viet Cong guerrillas and the group itself were referred to as VC , or Victor Charlie ; the name `` Charlie '' became synonymous with this force . Variants Aviation * `` Delta '' is replaced by `` Data '' , `` Dixie '' or `` David '' at airports that have a majority of Delta Air Lines flights , such as Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport , in order to avoid confusion because `` Delta '' is also Delta 's callsign . Telegrams * As early as 1928 , the U.S. public was taught to use the following list when composing telegrams : Other Many unofficial spelling alphabets are in use that are not based on a standard , but are based on words the transmitter can remember easily , including first names , states , or cities . The LAPD phonetic alphabet has many first names . The German spelling alphabet ( `` Deutsches Funkalphabet '' ( literally `` German Radio Alphabet '' ) ) also uses first names . Also , during the Vietnam war , soldiers used 'Cain ' instead of 'Charlie ' because 'Charlie ' meant Viet Cong ( Charlie being short for Victor Charlie , the NATO alphabet spelling of the initials VC ) . Additions in other languages Certain languages ' standard alphabets have letters , or letters with diacritics ( e.g. , umlauts ) , that do not exist in the English alphabet . If these letters have two-letter ASCII substitutes , the ICAO/NATO code words for the two letters are used . Spanish In Spanish the word `` Ñoño '' is used for ñ . German and Swedish In German and Swedish , Alfa-Alfa ( aa ) is used for `` å '' , Alfa-Echo ( ae ) for `` ä '' , Oscar-Echo ( oe ) for `` ö '' , Sierra-Sierra ( ss ) for `` ß '' , and Uniform-Echo ( ue ) for `` ü '' . Danish and Norwegian In Danish and Norwegian the letters `` æ '' , `` ø '' and `` å '' have their own code words . In Danish Ægir , Ødis and Åse represent the three letters , while in Norwegian the three code words are Ægir , Ørnulf and Ågot for civilians and Ærlig , Østen and Åse for military personnel . Czech Czech `` ů '' , historically uo , is Uniform-Oscar ( uo ) . Finnish In Finnish there are special code words for the letters å , ä and ö. Åke is used to represent å , Äiti is used for ä and Öljy for ö . These code words are used only in national operations , the last remnants of the Finnish radio alphabet . Estonian Estonian has 4 special letters , õ , ä , ö and ü. Õnne represents õ , Ärni for ä , Ööbik for ö and Ülle for ü .

qb_1383--NATO_phonetic_alphabet.txt

In the NATO phonetic alphabet which word represents the letter ‘C’?

The Speaker of the House of Commons is the presiding officer of the House of Commons , the United Kingdom 's lower chamber of Parliament . The office is currently held by John Bercow , who was initially elected on 22 June 2009 , following the resignation of Michael Martin . He was returned as an MP in the 2010 general election and was re-elected as Speaker when the House sat at the start of the new Parliament on 18 May 2010 . He was again returned as an MP in the 2015 general election and was re-elected , unopposed , as Speaker when the House sat at the start of the new Parliament on 18 May 2015 . The Speaker presides over the House 's debates , determining which members may speak . The Speaker is also responsible for maintaining order during debate , and may punish members who break the rules of the House . Unlike presiding officers of legislatures in many other countries , the Speaker remains strictly non-partisan , and renounces all affiliation with his or her former political party when taking office as well as when leaving the office . The Speaker does not take part in debate or vote ( except to break ties ; and even then , the convention is that the speaker casts the tie-breaking vote according to Speaker Denison 's rule ) . Aside from duties relating to presiding over the House , the Speaker also performs administrative and procedural functions , and remains a constituency Member of Parliament ( MP ) . The Speaker has the right and obligation to reside in Speaker 's House at the Palace of Westminster . History The office of Speaker is almost as old as Parliament itself . The earliest year for which a presiding officer has been identified is 1258 , when Peter de Montfort presided over the Parliament held in Oxford . Early presiding officers were known by the title parlour or prolocutor . The continuous history of the office of Speaker is held to date from 1376 when Sir Peter de la Mare spoke for the commons in the `` Good Parliament '' as they joined leading magnates in purging the chief ministers of the Crown and the most unpopular members of the king 's household . Edward III was frail and in seclusion , his prestigious eldest son , Edward the Black Prince , terminally ill . It was left to the next son , a furious John of Gaunt , to fight back . He arrested De la Mare and disgraced other leading critics . In the next , `` Bad Parliament '' , in 1377 , a cowed Commons put forward Gaunt 's steward , Thomas Hungerford , as their spokesman in retracting their predecessors ' misdoings of the previous year . Gaunt evidently wanted a 'mirror-image ' as his form of counter-coup and this notion , born in crisis , of one 'speaker ' , who quickly also became 'chairman ' and organiser of the Commons ' business , was recognised as valuable and took immediate root after 1376-7 . On 6 October 1399 , Sir John Cheyne of Beckford ( Gloucester ) was elected speaker . The powerful Archbishop of Canterbury , Thomas Arundel , is said to have voiced his fears of Cheyne 's reputation as a critic of the Church . Eight days later , Cheyne resigned on grounds of ill-health , although he remained in favour with the king and active in public life for a further 14 years . Although the officer was elected by the Commons at the start of each Parliament , with at least one contested election known , in 1420 ( Roger Hunt prevailing by a majority of just four votes ) , in practice the Crown was usually able to get whom it wanted , indicating that the famous 'defence of the Commons ' privilege ' should not be seen in isolation as the principal thread in the office 's evolution . Whilst the idea of giving this spokesman personal immunity from recrimination as only being the voice of the whole body was quickly adopted and did enhance the Commons ' role , the Crown found it useful to have one person with the authority to select and lead the lower house 's business and responses to the Crown 's agenda , much more often than not in the way the Crown wanted . Thus , Whig ideas of the Commons growing in authority as against royal power are somewhat simplistic – the Crown used the Commons as and when it found it advantageous to do so , and the speakership was part of the process of making the Commons a more cohesive , defined and effective instrument of the king 's government . Throughout the medieval and early modern period , every speaker was an MP for a county , reflecting the implicit situation that such shire representatives were of greater standing in the house than the more numerous burgess MPs . Although evidence is almost non-existent , it has been surmised that any vote was by count of head , but by the same token perhaps the fact so very little is said about actual votes suggests that most decisions , at least of a general kind , were reached more through persuasion and the weight by status of the county MPs . In such a situation , the influence of the speaker should not be underestimated . Sir Thomas More was the first speaker to go on to become Lord Chancellor . Until the 17th century , members of the House of Commons often continued to view their Speaker ( correctly ) as an agent of the Crown . As Parliament evolved , however , the Speaker 's position grew into one that involved more duties to the House than to the Crown ; such was definitely the case by the time of the English Civil War . This change is sometimes said to be reflected by an incident in 1642 , when King Charles I entered the House in order to search for and arrest five members for high treason . When the King asked him if he knew of the location of these members , the Speaker , William Lenthall , famously replied : `` May it please your Majesty , I have neither eyes to see nor tongue to speak in this place but as the House is pleased to direct me , whose servant I am here . '' The development of Cabinet government under King William III in the late 17th century caused further change in the nature of the Speakership . Speakers were generally associated with the ministry , and often held other government offices . For example , Robert Harley served simultaneously as Speaker and as a Secretary of State between 1704 and 1705 . The Speaker between 1728 and 1761 , Arthur Onslow , reduced ties with the government , though the office did remain to a large degree political . The Speakership evolved into its modern form—in which the holder is an impartial and apolitical officer who does not belong to any party—only during the middle of the 19th century . Over 150 individuals have served as Speaker of the House of Commons . Their names are inscribed in gold leaf around the upper walls of Room C of the House of Commons Library . The three most recent Speakers have been notable for a series of firsts . Betty Boothroyd , elected in 1992 , was the first woman Speaker . Michael Martin , elected in 2000 , was the first Roman Catholic Speaker since the Reformation . John Bercow , elected in 2009 , is the first Jewish Speaker . By convention , Speakers are normally addressed in Parliament as `` Mr Speaker '' , and their deputies as `` Mr Deputy Speaker '' . Betty Boothroyd was , at her request , addressed as `` Madam Speaker '' . When Betty Harvie Anderson had served in the 1970s as a Deputy Speaker , on the other hand , she had been addressed as `` Mr Deputy Speaker '' . Election MPs elect the Speaker from amongst their own ranks . The House must elect a Speaker at the beginning of each new parliamentary term after a general election , or after the death or resignation of the incumbent . Once elected , a Speaker continues in office until the dissolution of Parliament , unless he or she resigns prior to this . Customarily , the House re-elects Speakers who desire to continue in office for more than one term . Theoretically , the House could vote against re-electing a Speaker , but such an event is extremely unlikely . The procedure for electing a Speaker has changed in recent years . Until 1971 , the Clerk of the House of Commons became temporary Chairman of the House . As the Clerk is never a Member , and therefore is not permitted to speak , he would silently stand and point at the Member who was to speak . However , this procedure broke down at the election of a new Speaker in 1971 ( see below ) and had to be changed . Since that time , as recommended by a Select Committee , the Father of the House ( the member of the House with the longest period of unbroken service who is not a Minister ) becomes the presiding officer . Until 2001 , the election of a Speaker was conducted as a routine matter of House of Commons business , as it used motions and amendments to elect . A member would move `` That Mr ( s ) [ X ] do take the Chair of this House as Speaker '' , and following debate ( which may have included an amendment to replace the name of the member on whom the Speakership was to be conferred ) , a routine division of the House would resolve in favour of one candidate . There was , however , a considerable amount of behind-the-scenes lobbying before suitable candidates were agreed upon , and so it was very rare for a new Speaker to be opposed . However , this system broke down in 2000 when 12 rival candidates declared for the job and the debate occupied an entire Parliamentary day . The House of Commons Procedure Committee then re-examined the means of electing a Speaker and recommended a new system that came into effect in 2007 and was first used in June 2009 , following the resignation of Michael Martin . Under the new system , candidates must be nominated by at least twelve members , of whom at least three must be of a different party from the candidate . Each member may nominate no more than one candidate . The House then votes by secret ballot ; an absolute majority ( in the UK sense , i.e . more than 50 % of the votes cast ) is required for victory . If no candidate wins a majority , then the individual with the fewest votes is eliminated , as are any other candidates who receive less than five percent of the votes cast . The House continues to vote , for several rounds if necessary , until one member receives the requisite majority . Then , the House votes on a formal motion to appoint the member in question to the Speakership . ( In the unlikely event that this motion fails , the House must hold a fresh series of ballots on all of the nominees . ) If only one candidate is nominated , then no ballot is held , and the House proceeds directly to the motion to appoint the candidate to the Speakership . A similar procedure is used if a Speaker seeks a further term after a general election : no ballot is held , and the House immediately votes on a motion to re-elect the Speaker . If the motion to re-elect the Speaker fails , candidates are nominated , and the House proceeds with voting ( as described above ) . Upon the passage of the motion , the Speaker-elect is expected to show reluctance at being chosen ; he or she is customarily `` dragged unwillingly '' by MPs to the Speaker 's bench . This custom has its roots in the Speaker 's original function of communicating the Commons ' opinions to the monarch . Historically , the Speaker , representing the House to the Monarch , potentially faced the Monarch 's anger and therefore required some persuasion to accept the post . The Speaker-elect must receive the Sovereign 's approval , or the `` approbation '' , before he or she may take office . On the day of the election , the Speaker-elect leads the Commons to the Chamber of the House of Lords , where Lords Commissioners appointed by the Crown confirm him or her in the monarch 's name . Thereafter , the Speaker symbolically requests `` in the name and on behalf of the Commons of the United Kingdom , to lay claim , by humble petition to Her Majesty , to all their ancient and undoubted rights and privileges , especially to freedom of speech in debate , to freedom from arrest , and to free access to Her Majesty whenever occasion shall require . '' After the Lords Commissioners , on the behalf of the Sovereign , confirm the Commons ' rights and privileges , the Commons return to their Chamber . If a Speaker is chosen in the middle of a Parliament due to a vacancy in the office , he or she must receive the royal approbation as described above , but does not again lay claim to the Commons ' rights and privileges . Speaker 's seat When Speaker Edward FitzRoy , previously a Conservative MP , was opposed by a Labour Party candidate at the 1935 general election , there was strong disapproval from other parties and a sub-committee of the Cabinet considered whether a special constituency should be created for the Speaker to remove the obligation to take part in electoral contests . The sub-committee came to the conclusion that Parliamentary opinion would not favour this suggestion ; however in December 1938 , with a general election expected within a year or so , a motion from the Prime Minister was put down to nominate a Select Committee to examine the suggestion . The committee , chaired by former Prime Minister David Lloyd George , reported in April 1939 that no change should be made ; it found that preventing opposition to a sitting Speaker would be `` a serious infringement of democratic principles '' and that `` to alter the status of the Speaker so that he ceased to be returned to the House of Commons by the same electoral methods as other members or as a representative of a Parliamentary constituency would be equally repugnant to the custom and tradition of the House '' . With the outbreak of the Second World War , no general election was held until 1945 . Notable elections Though the election of a Speaker is normally non-partisan , there have been several controversial elections in history . For example , in 1895 , the sudden retirement of Arthur Peel came at a time when partisan feelings were running high . The Conservatives and Liberal Unionists put forward Sir Matthew White Ridley , a well-respected MP who had many years of experience , and hoped for a unanimous election as the previous Speaker had been a Liberal . However , the Liberals decided to oppose him and nominated William Court Gully who had been an MP for only nine years and had been a relatively quiet presence . On a party-line vote , Gully was chosen by 285 to 274 . Although Gully proved his impartiality to the satisfaction of most of his opponents , and was unanimously re-elected after the 1895 general election , the episode left many Unionists bitter . During that year 's general election , Gully became one of the few Speakers to be opposed in his own constituency , a sign of the bitterness of the time . It was not until the mid-1930s that it became common for a Speaker to face some form of opposition for re-election . The 1951 election was similarly controversial . After the incumbent Speaker , Douglas Clifton Brown , retired at the 1951 general election , there was a great demand from the Labour Party for Major James Milner to become the first Labour Speaker after he had served as Deputy Speaker for eight years . However , the Conservatives ( who had just regained power ) nominated William Shepherd Morrison against him . The vote again went down party lines , and Morrison was elected . Milner received a peerage as compensation . In 1971 , having had early warning that Horace King would be retiring , the Conservatives took the lead in offering to the Labour Party either Selwyn Lloyd or John Boyd-Carpenter as potential Speakers . The Labour Party chose Selwyn Lloyd , partly because he was perceived as a weak figure . However , when the House of Commons debated the new Speaker , Conservative MP Robin Maxwell-Hyslop and Labour MP Willie Hamilton nominated Geoffrey de Freitas , a senior and respected backbench Labour MP . De Freitas was taken aback by the sudden nomination and urged the House not to support him ( a genuine feeling , unlike the feigned reluctance which all Speakers traditionally show ) . Lloyd was elected , but there was a feeling among all parties that the system of election needed to be overhauled . Now , a candidate 's consent is required before he or she can be nominated . The last three instances of the election of a new Speaker ( 1992 , 2000 and 2009 ) have all been relatively controversial . Bernard Weatherill had announced his impending retirement a long time before the 1992 general election , leading to a long but suppressed campaign for support . Betty Boothroyd , a Labour MP who had been Deputy Speaker , was known to be extremely interested in becoming the first woman Speaker ( and in doing so , finished the chances of fellow Labour MP Harold Walker who had also been Deputy Speaker ) . The Conservative former Cabinet member Peter Brooke was put forward at a late stage as a candidate . Unlike previous elections , there was an active campaign among Conservative MPs to support Boothroyd and about 70 of them did so , ensuring her election . She was the only speaker elected in the 20th century not to be a member of the governing party at the time of her first election . Betty Boothroyd announced her retirement shortly before the summer recess in 2000 , which left a long time for would-be Speakers to declare their candidature but little opportunity for Members of Parliament to negotiate and decide on who should be chosen . Many backbench Labour MPs advanced the claims of Michael Martin . Most Conservatives felt strongly that the recent alternation between the main parties ought to be maintained and a Conservative Speaker chosen . The most prominent Conservative choices were Sir George Young and Deputy Speaker Sir Alan Haselhurst . With several additional candidates announcing themselves , the total number of Members seeking the Speakership was 14 , none of whom would withdraw . A lengthy sitting of the House saw Michael Martin first proposed , then each of the other candidates proposed in turn as amendments , which were all voted down . In points of order before the debate , many members demanded a secret ballot . Non-partisanship The Speaker , by convention , severs all ties with his or her political party , as it is considered essential that the Speaker be seen as an impartial presiding officer . In many cases , individuals have served in ministerial or other political positions before being elected Speaker . For example , Selwyn Lloyd and George Thomas had both previously served as high-ranking Cabinet members , whilst Bernard Weatherill was previously a party whip . In the House , the Speaker does not vote on any motion , except in order to resolve ties . After leaving office , the Speaker normally takes no part in party politics ; if elevated to the House of Lords , he or she would normally sit as a crossbencher . If the current Speaker decides to contest a general election , he/she does not stand under a party label , but is entitled to describe himself/herself on the ballot as `` The Speaker seeking re-election '' , under the Political Parties , Elections and Referendums Act . In the past , the Speaker could sometimes be returned unopposed ; this has not happened in the last few decades , but they have sometimes faced opposition only from fringe candidates . However , the convention that major parties do not stand against the Speaker is not as firmly established as is sometimes suggested . Generally , former Labour Speakers have faced only fringe candidates , but former Conservative Speakers have faced major party candidates . The Labour and Liberal parties stood against Selwyn Lloyd in both elections in 1974 , and Labour and the SDP stood against Bernard Weatherill in 1987 . Speakers who represented Scottish or Welsh constituencies have also faced nationalist opponents : Plaid Cymru stood against George Thomas in 1979 , and the Scottish National Party stood against Michael Martin in 2001 and 2005 . At the 2010 general election , Speaker John Bercow faced Nigel Farage , former and new leader of UKIP , who obtained 17.4 % of the vote ( up from 3.5 % ) , and John Stevens , from the Buckinghamshire Campaign for Democracy party , who obtained 21.4 % of the vote . Bercow won with only 47 % of the vote . Role Presiding officer The Speaker 's primary function is to preside over the House of Commons . Traditionally , the Speaker when presiding wore court dress—a black coat with white shirt and bands , beneath a black gown , with stockings and buckled shoes , and a full-bottomed wig . But in 1992 Betty Boothroyd , the first female Speaker , eschewed the wig . Her successor , Michael Martin , also declined to wear the wig ; moreover , he chose to simplify other aspects of the costume , doing away with the once customary buckled court shoes and silk stockings . His successor John Bercow abandoned traditional dress , wearing a plain black gown over his lounge suit when presiding . For ceremonial occasions such as the State Opening , the Speaker wears a black and gold robe with a train ; previously , this was worn over court dress with a white waterfall cravat , but the present Speaker wears plain morning dress . Whilst presiding , the Speaker sits in a chair at the front of the House . Traditionally , members supporting the Government sit on his or her right , and those supporting the Opposition on his or her left . The Speaker 's powers are extensive — much more so than those of his or her Lords counterpart , the Lord Speaker . Most importantly , the Speaker calls on members to speak ; no member may make a speech without the Speaker 's prior permission . By custom , the Speaker alternates between members supporting the Government and those supporting the Opposition . Members direct their speeches not to the whole House , but to the Speaker , using the words `` Mister Speaker '' or `` Madam Speaker '' . Members must refer to each other in the third person by the name of their constituency or their ministerial titles ( not their names ) ; they may not directly address anyone other than the Speaker ( who does call them by name ) . In order to maintain his or her impartiality , the Speaker generally refrains from making speeches , although there is nothing to prevent him or her from doing so . For example , on Wednesday 3 December 2008 , Speaker Martin addressed the House on the subject of the arrest of Damian Green MP and the subsequent searching of his office within the precincts of the House of Commons . During debate , the Speaker is responsible for maintaining discipline and order . He or she rules on all points of order ( objections made by members asserting that a rule of the House has been broken ) ; the decisions may not be appealed . The Speaker bases decisions on the rules of the House and on precedent ; if necessary , he or she may consult with the Parliamentary Clerks before issuing a ruling . In addition , the Speaker has other powers that he may use to maintain orderly debate . Usually , the Speaker attempts to end a disruption , or `` calls members to order '' , by repeating `` Order ! Order ! '' If members do not follow his or her instructions , the Speaker may punish them by demanding that they leave the House for the remainder of the day 's sitting . For grave disobedience , the Speaker may `` name '' a member , by saying `` I name [ Mr X ] . '' ( deliberately breaching the convention that members are only referred to by reference to their constituency , `` The [ Right ] Honourable Member for [ Y ] '' ) . The House may then vote to suspend the member `` named '' by the Speaker . In case of `` grave disorder '' , the Speaker may immediately adjourn the entire sitting . This power has been invoked on several occasions since it was conferred in 1902 . In addition to maintaining discipline , the Speaker must ensure that debate proceeds smoothly . If the Speaker finds that a member is making irrelevant remarks , is tediously repetitive , or is otherwise attempting to delay proceedings , he or she may order the member to end the speech . Furthermore , before debate begins , the Speaker may invoke the `` Short Speech '' rule , under which he or she may set a time limit ( at least eight minutes ) , which will apply to every speech . At the same time , however , the Speaker is charged with protecting the interests of the minority by ensuring sufficient debate before a vote . Thus , the Speaker may disallow a closure , which seeks to end debate and immediately put the question to a vote , if he or she finds that the motion constitutes an abuse of the rules or breaches the rights of the minority . Before the House votes on any issue , the Speaker `` puts the question '' ; that is , he or she orally states the motion on which the members are to vote . He or she then assesses the result of a voice vote , but any member may demand a division ( a recorded vote ) . The Speaker may overrule a request for a division and maintain the original ruling ; this power , however , is used only rarely , usually when members make frivolous requests for divisions in order to delay proceedings . The Speaker does not vote in the division , except when the Ayes and Noes are tied , in which case he or she must use the casting vote . In exercising the casting vote , the Speaker may theoretically vote as he or she pleases , but , in practice , always votes in accordance with certain unwritten conventions , such as Speaker Denison 's rule . First , the Speaker votes to give the House further opportunity to debate a bill or motion before reaching a final decision . ( For example , the Speaker would be obliged to vote against a closure motion . ) Secondly , any final decision should be approved by the majority . ( Thus , for instance , the Speaker would vote against the final passage of a bill . ) Finally , the Speaker should vote to leave a bill or motion in its existing form ; in other words , the Speaker would vote against an amendment . Since the House of Commons is a very large body , Speakers are rarely called upon to use the casting vote . Since 1801 , there have been only 49 instances of tied divisions . The last tied votes were on 30 January 1980 , when the House divided 201-201 on a motion to grant leave to bring the Televising of Parliament Bill ( the then Deputy Speaker Bernard Weatherill voted Aye ) and on 21 June 1990 , 197–197 on an Amendment of Law Relating to Termination of Pregnancy ( the Deputy Speaker Sir Paul Dean voted

wh_1314--Speaker_of_the_House_of_Commons_(United_Kingdom).txt

Who did Betty Boothroyd replace as Speaker of the House of Commons on April 27th 1992?

Pakistan ( or ) , officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan , is a country in South Asia . It is the sixth-most populous country with a population exceeding 201 million people . It is the 36th largest country in the world in terms of area with an area covering 881,913 km2 ( ) . Pakistan has a 1046 km coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by India to the east , Afghanistan to the west , Iran to the southwest and China in the far northeast respectively . It is separated from Tajikistan by Afghanistan 's narrow Wakhan Corridor in the north , and also shares a maritime border with Oman . The territory that now constitutes Pakistan is considered a cradle of civilization which was previously home to several ancient cultures , including the Mehrgarh of the Neolithic and the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilisation , and was later home to kingdoms ruled by people of different faiths and cultures , including Hindus , Indo-Greeks , Muslims , Turco-Mongols , Afghans and Sikhs . The area has been ruled by numerous empires and dynasties , including the Indian Mauryan Empire , the Persian Achaemenid Empire , Alexander of Macedonia , the Arab Umayyad Caliphate , the Delhi Sultanate , the Mongol Empire , the Mughal Empire , the Durrani Empire , the Sikh Empire and the British Empire . Pakistan is unique among Muslim countries as it is the only country to have been created in the name of Islam.Hussain , Rizwan . `` Pakistan . '' In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World . Oxford Islamic Studies Online . 04-Apr-2016 . http : //www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0616 > . As a result of the Pakistan Movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and the subcontinent 's struggle for independence , Pakistan was created in 1947 as an independent nation for Muslims from the regions in the east and west of the Subcontinent where there was a Muslim majority . Initially a dominion , Pakistan adopted a new constitution in 1956 , becoming an Islamic republic . A civil war in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh . Pakistan is a federal parliamentary republic consisting of four provinces and four federal territories . It is an ethnically and linguistically diverse country , with a similar variation in its geography and wildlife . A regional and middle power , Pakistan has the seventh largest standing armed forces in the world and is also a nuclear power as well as a declared nuclear-weapons state , being the only nation in the Muslim world , and the second in South Asia , to have that status . It has a semi-industrialised economy with a well-integrated agriculture sector , its economy is the 26th largest in the world in terms of purchasing power and 45th largest in terms of nominal GDP and is also characterized among the emerging and growth-leading economies of the world . The post-independence history of Pakistan has been characterised by periods of military rule , political instability and conflicts with neighbouring India . The country continues to face challenging problems , including overpopulation , terrorism , poverty , illiteracy , and corruption . Despite these factors it maintains strategic endowments and development potential while it has made substantial progress in reducing poverty giving it the second lowest headcount poverty rate in South Asia . The nation has recently witnessed a rapid expansion of its prosperous middle class , the 18th largest worldwide . Pakistan 's stock exchange is Asia 's highest performing stock market and , as of 2016 , is part of the MSCI 's emerging markets index . It is a member of the United Nations , the Commonwealth of Nations , the Next Eleven Economies , Shanghai Cooperation Organisation , ECO , UfC , D8 , Cairns Group , Kyoto Protocol , ICCPR , RCD , UNCHR , Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank , Group of Eleven , CPFTA , Group of 24 , the G20 developing nations , ECOSOC , founding member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation , SAARC and CERN . Etymology The name Pakistan literally means `` Land of the Pure '' in Urdu and Persian . It comes from the word pāk meaning pure in Persian and Pashto while the word istān is a Persian word meaning place of ; it is a cognate of the Sanskrit word sthāna ( Devanagari : ) . It was coined in 1933 as Pakstan by Choudhry Rahmat Ali , a Pakistan Movement activist , who published it in his pamphlet Now or Never , using it as an acronym ( `` thirty million Muslim brethren who live in PAKSTAN '' ) referring to the names of the five northern regions of the British Raj : Punjab , Afghania , Kashmir , Sindh , and Baluchistan . The letter i was incorporated to ease pronunciation and form the linguistically correct and meaningful name . History Early and medieval age Some of the earliest ancient human civilisations in South Asia originated from areas encompassing present-day Pakistan . The earliest known inhabitants in the region were Soanian during the Lower Paleolithic , of whom stone tools have been found in the Soan Valley of Punjab . The Indus region , which covers most of present day Pakistan , was the site of several successive ancient cultures including the Neolithic Mehrgarh and the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilisation ( 2800–1800 BC ) at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro . The Vedic Civilization ( 1500–500 BC ) , characterised by Indo-Aryan culture , laid the foundations of Hinduism , which would become well established in the region . Multan was an important Hindu pilgrimage centre . The Vedic civilisation flourished in the ancient Gandhāran city of Takṣaśilā , now Taxila in Punjab . Successive ancient empires and kingdoms ruled the region : the Persian Achaemenid Empire around 519 BC ) , Alexander the Great 's empire in 326 BC and the Maurya Empire founded by Chandragupta Maurya and extended by Ashoka the Great until 185 BC . The Indo-Greek Kingdom founded by Demetrius of Bactria ( 180–165 BC ) included Gandhara and Punjab and reached its greatest extent under Menander ( 165–150 BC ) , prospering the Greco-Buddhist culture in the region . Taxila had one of the earliest universities and centres of higher education in the world . The Medieval period ( 642–1219 AD ) is defined by the spread of Islam in the region . During this period , Sufi missionaries played a pivotal role in converting a majority of the regional Buddhist and Hindu population to Islam . The Rai Dynasty ( 489–632 AD ) of Sindh , at its zenith , ruled this region and the surrounding territories . The Pala Dynasty was the last Buddhist empire that under Dharampala and Devapala stretched across South Asia from what is now Bangladesh through Northern India to Pakistan . The Arab conqueror Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Indus valley from Sindh to Multan in southern Punjab in 711 AD . The Pakistan government 's official chronology identifies this as the point where the `` foundation '' of Pakistan was laid . This conquest set the stage for the rule of several successive Muslim empires in the region , including the Ghaznavid Empire ( 975–1187 AD ) , the Ghorid Kingdom and the Delhi Sultanate ( 1206–1526 AD ) . The Lodi dynasty , the last of the Delhi Sultanate , was replaced by the Mughal Empire ( 1526–1857 AD ) . The Mughals introduced Persian literature and high culture , establishing the roots of Indo-Persian culture in the region . In the early 16th century , the region remained under the Mughal Empire ruled by Muslim emperors . By the early 18th century , the increasing European influence slowly disintegrated the empire as the lines between commercial and political dominance were increasingly blurred . During this time , the English East India Company had established coastal outposts . Control over the seas , greater resources , technology , and military force projection by East India Company of British Empire led it to increasingly flex its military muscle ; a factor that was crucial in allowing the Company to gain control over the subcontinent by 1765 and sidelining the European competitors . Expanding access beyond Bengal and the subsequent increased strength and size of its army enabled it to annex or subdue most of region by the 1820s . To many historians , this marked the starting of region 's colonial period . By this time , with its economic power severely curtailed by the British parliament and itself effectively made an arm of British administration , the Company began to more consciously enter non-economic arenas such as education , social reform , and culture . Such reforms included the enforcement of English Education Act in 1835 and the introduction of the Indian Civil Service ( ICS ) . Traditional madrasahs – primary institutions of higher learning for Muslims in the subcontinent – were no longer supported by the English Crown , and nearly all of the madrasahs lost their financial endowment . Colonial period The gradual decline of the Mughal Empire in the early 18th century enabled the Sikh Empire 's influence to control larger areas until the British East-India Company gained ascendancy over the Indian subcontinent . The rebellion in 1857 ( or Sepoy mutiny ) was the region 's major armed struggle against the British Empire and Queen Victoria . Divergence in the relationship between Hinduism and Islam created a major rift in British India ; thus instigating racially motivated religious violence in India . The language controversy further escalated the tensions between Hindus and Muslims . The Hindu renaissance witnessed the awakening of intellectualism in traditional Hinduism and saw the emergence of more assertive influence in the social and political spheres in British India . Intellectual movement to counter the Hindu renaissance was led by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan who helped founding the All-India Muslim League in 1901 and envisioned as well as advocated for the two-nation theory . In contrast to the Indian Congress 's anti-British efforts , the Muslim League was a pro-British whose political program inherited the British values that would shape Pakistan 's future civil society . In events during World War I , British Intelligence foiled an anti-English conspiracy involving the nexus of Congress and the German Empire . The largely non-violent independence struggle led by the Indian Congress engaged millions of protesters in mass campaigns of civil disobedience in the 1920s and 1930s against the British Empire . The Muslim League slowly rose to mass popularity in the 1930s amid fears of under-representation and neglect of Muslims in politics . In his presidential address of 29 December 1930 , Allama Iqbal called for `` the amalgamation of North-West Muslim-majority Indian states '' consisting of Punjab , North-West Frontier Province , Sind and Baluchistan . Muhammad Ali Jinnah , the founder of Pakistan , greatly espoused the two-nation theory and led the Muslim League to adopt the Lahore Resolution of 1940 , popularly known as the Pakistan Resolution . In World War II , Jinnah and British educated founding fathers in the Muslim League supported the United Kingdom 's war efforts , countering opposition against it whilst working towards Sir Syed 's vision . As the cabinet mission failed in India , the Great Britain announced the intentions to end its raj in India in 1946–47 . Nationalists in British India – including Jawaharlal Nehru and Abul Kalam Azad of Congress , Jinnah of Muslim League , and Master Tara Singh representing the Sikhs—agreed to the proposed terms of transfer of power and independence in June 1947 . As the United Kingdom agreed upon partitioning of India in 1947 , the modern state of Pakistan was established on 14 August 1947 in amalgamating the Muslim-majority eastern and northwestern regions of British India . It comprised the provinces of Balochistan , East Bengal , the North-West Frontier Province , West Punjab and Sindh ; thus forming Pakistan . The partitioning of Punjab and Bengal led to the series of violent communal riots across India and Pakistan ; millions of Muslims moved to Pakistan and millions of Hindus and Sikhs moved to India . Dispute over Jammu and Kashmir led to the First Kashmir War in 1948 . Independence and modern Pakistan After independence and the partition of India in 1947 , Muhammad Ali Jinnah , the President of Muslim League , became nation 's first Governor-General as well as first President-Speaker of the Parliament . Meanwhile , Pakistan 's founding fathers agreed upon appointing Liaquat Ali Khan , the secretary-general of the party , the nation 's first Prime Minister . With dominion status in the Commonwealth of Nations , independent Pakistan had two British monarchs before it became a republic . Maulānā Shabbīr Ahmad Usmānī , a respected Deobandī ʿālim ( scholar ) who occupied the position of Shaykh al-Islām in Pakistan in 1949 , and Maulana Mawdudi of Jamāʿat-i Islāmī played a pivotal role in the demand for an Islamic constitution . Mawdūdī demanded that the Constituent Assembly make an explicit declaration affirming the `` supreme sovereignty of God '' and the supremacy of the sharīʿah in Pakistan.Hussain , Rizwan . `` Pakistan . '' In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World . Oxford Islamic Studies Online . 04-Apr-2016 . http : //www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0616 > . A significant result of the efforts of the Jamāʿat-i Islāmī and the ʿulamāʿ was the passage of the Objectives Resolution in March 1949 . The Objectives Resolution , which Liaquat Ali Khan called the second most important step in Pakistan 's history , declared that `` sovereignty over the entire universe belongs to God Almighty alone and the authority which He has delegated to the State of Pakistan through its people for being exercised within the limits prescribed by Him is a sacred trust '' . The Objectives Resolution has been incorporated as a preamble to the constitutions of 1956 , 1962 , and 1973 . Democracy was stalled by the martial law enforced by President Iskander Mirza who was replaced by army chief , General Ayub Khan . Forming presidential system in 1962 , the country experienced exceptional growth until a second war with India in 1965 which led to economic downfall and wide-scale public disapproval in 1967 . Consolidating the control from Ayub Khan in 1969 , President Yahya Khan had to deal with a devastating cyclone which caused 500,000 deaths in East Pakistan . In 1970 , Pakistan held its first democratic elections since independence , that were meant to mark a transition from military rule to democracy , but after the East Pakistani Awami League won against Pakistan Peoples Party ( PPP ) ; Yahya Khan and military establishment refused to hand over power . Operation Searchlight , a military crackdown on the Bengali nationalist movement , led to a declaration of independence and the waging of a war of liberation by the Bengali Mukti Bahini forces in East Pakistan , with support from India . However , in West Pakistan the conflict was described as a civil war as opposed to War of Liberation . Independent researchers think that between 300,000 and 500,000 civilians died during this period while the Bangladesh government puts the figure of dead at three million , a number which is now universally regarded as excessively inflated . Some academics such as Rudolph Russel and Rounaq Jahan accused both sides of genocide whereas others such as Richard Sisson and Leo E. Rose believe there was no genocide . Preemptive strikes on India by the Pakistan 's air force , navy , and marines , in response to India 's support for the insurgency in East Pakistan , sparked the conventional war in 1971 which witnessed the Indian victory and East Pakistan gaining independence as Bangladesh . With Pakistan surrendering in the war , Yahya Khan was replaced by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto as President ; the country worked towards promulgating constitution and putting the country on roads of democracy . Democratic rule resumed from 1972 to 1977– an era of self-consciousness , intellectual leftism , nationalism , and nationwide reconstruction . During this period , Pakistan embarked on ambitiously developing the nuclear deterrence in 1972 in a view to prevent any foreign invasion ; the country 's first nuclear power plant was inaugurated , also the same year . Accelerated in response to first nuclear test by India in 1974 , this crash program completed in 1979 . Democracy ended with a military coup in 1977 against the leftist PPP , which saw General Zia-ul-Haq become the president in 1978 . From 1977 to 1988 , President Zia 's corporatisation and economic Islamisation initiatives led to Pakistan becoming one of the fastest-growing economies in South Asia . While consolidating the nuclear development , increasing Islamization , and the rise of homegrown conservative philosophy , Pakistan helped subsidize and distribute U.S. resources to factions of the mujahideen against the USSR 's intervention in communist Afghanistan . President Zia died in a plane crash in 1988 , and Benazir Bhutto , daughter of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto , was elected as the country 's first female Prime Minister . The Pakistan Peoples Party followed by conservative Pakistan Muslim League ( N ) , and over the next decade whose two leaders fought for power , alternating in office while the country 's situation worsened ; economic indicators fell sharply , in contrast to the 1980s . This period is marked by prolonged stagflation , instability , corruption , nationalism , geopolitical rivalry with India , and the clash of left wing-right wing ideologies . As PML ( N ) secured a supermajority in elections in 1997 , Sharif authorised the nuclear testings ( See : Chagai-I and Chagai-II ) , as a retaliation to second nuclear tests ordered by India , led by Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in May 1998 . Military tension between the two countries in the Kargil district led to the Kargil War of 1999 , and a turbulence in civic-military relations allowed General Pervez Musharraf took over through a bloodless coup d'état . Musharraf governed Pakistan as chief executive from 1999 to 2001 and as President from 2001 to 2008— a period of enlightenment , social liberalism , extensive economic reforms , and direct involvement in the U.S.-led war on terrorism . When the National Assembly historically completed its first full five-year term on 15 November 2007 , the new elections were called by the Election Commission . After the assassination of Benazir Bhutto in 2007 , the PPP secured largest votes in the elections of 2008 , appointing party member Yousaf Raza Gillani as Prime Minister . Threatened with facing impeachment , President Musharraf resigned on 18 August 2008 , and was succeeded by Asif Ali Zardari . Clashes with the judicature prompted Gillani 's disqualification from the Parliament and as the Prime Minister in June 2012 . By its own financial calculations , Pakistan 's involvement in the war on terrorism has cost up to ~ $ 67.93 billion , thousands of casualties and nearly 3 million displaced civilians . The general election held in 2013 saw the PML ( N ) almost achieve a supermajority , following which Nawaz Sharif became elected as the Prime Minister , returning to the post for the third time after fourteen years , in a democratic transition . Government and politics Pakistan is a democratic parliamentary federal republic with Islam as the state religion . The first set was adopted in 1956 but suspended by Ayub Khan in 1958 who replaced it with the second set in 1962 . Complete and comprehensive Constitution was adopted in 1973—suspended by Zia-ul-Haq in 1977 but reinstated in 1985—is the country 's most important document , laying the foundations of the current government . The Pakistani military establishment has played an influential role in mainstream politics throughout Pakistan 's political history . There were military coups which resulted in imposition of martial law and military commanders continued governing as de-facto presidents from 1958–1971 , 1977–1988 , and 1999–2008 . As of now , Pakistan has a multi-party parliamentary system with clear division of powers and responsibilities between branches of government . The first successful demonstrative transaction was held in May 2013 . Politics in Pakistan is centered and dominated by the homegrown conceive social philosophy , consisting the ideas of socialism , conservatism , and the third way . As of the general elections held in 2013 , the three main dominated political parties in the country : the centre-right conservative Pakistan Muslim League-N ( PML-N ) ; the centre-left socialist Pakistan Peoples Party ( PPP ) ; and the centrist and third-way Pakistan Movement for Justice ( PTI ) led by cricketer Imran Khan . * Head of State : The President who is elected by an Electoral College is the ceremonial head of the state and is the civilian commander-in-chief of the Pakistan Armed Forces ( with Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee as its principal military adviser ) , but military appointments and key confirmations in the armed forces are made by the Prime Minister after reviewing the reports on their merit and performances . Almost all appointed officers in the judicature , military , chairman joint chiefs and joint staff , and legislatures require the executive confirmation from the Prime Minister , whom the President must consult , by law . However , the powers to pardon and grant clemency vest with the President of Pakistan . * Legislative : The bicameral legislature comprises a 100-member Senate ( upper house ) and a 342-member National Assembly ( lower house ) . Members of the National Assembly are elected through the first-past-the-post system under universal adult suffrage , representing electoral districts known as National Assembly constituencies . According to the constitution , the 70 seats reserved for women and religious minorities are allocated to the political parties according to their proportional representation . Senate members are elected by provincial legislators , with all of provinces have equal representation . * Executive : The Prime Minister is usually the leader of the majority rule party or a coalition in the National Assembly— the lower house . The Prime Minister serves as the head of government and is designated to exercise as the country 's chief executive . The Prime Minister is responsible for appointing a cabinet consisting of ministers and advisers as well as running the government operations , taking and authorizing executive decisions , appointments and recommendations that require executive confirmation of the Prime Minister . * Provincial governments : Each of the four province has a similar system of government , with a directly elected Provincial Assembly in which the leader of the largest party or coalition is elected Chief Minister . Chief Ministers oversees the provincial governments and head the provincial cabinet , it is common in Pakistan to have different ruling parties or coalitions in each provinces . The provincial assemblies have power to make laws and approve provincial budget which is commonly presented by the provincial finance minister every fiscal year . Provincial governors who play role as the ceremonial head of province are appointed by the President . * Judicature : The judiciary of Pakistan is a hierarchical system with two classes of courts : the superior ( or higher ) judiciary and the subordinate ( or lower ) judiciary . The Chief Justice of Pakistan is the chief judge who oversees the judicature 's court system at all levels of command . The superior judiciary is composed of the Supreme Court of Pakistan , the Federal Shariat Court and five High Courts , with the Supreme Court at the apex . The Constitution of Pakistan entrusts the superior judiciary with the obligation to preserve , protect and defend the constitution . Neither the Supreme Court nor a High Court may exercise jurisdiction in relation to Tribal Areas , except otherwise provided for . The disputed regions of Azad Kashmir and Gilgit–Baltistan have separate court systems . Foreign relations of Pakistan As the Muslim world 's second most populous nation-state ( after Indonesia ) and its only nuclear power state , Pakistan has an important role in the international community . With a semi-agricultural and semi-industrialized economy , its foreign policy determines its standard of interactions for its organizations , corporations and individual citizens . Its geostrategic intentions were explained by Jinnah in a broadcast message in 1947 , which is featured in a prominent quotation on the homepage of Pakistan 's Ministry of Foreign Affairs website : `` The foundation of our foreign policy is friendship with all nations across the globe . '' Since then , Pakistan has attempted to balance its relations with foreign nations . A non-signatory party of the Treaty on the Nuclear Non-Proliferation , Pakistan is an influential member of the IAEA . In recent events , Pakistan has blocked an international treaty to limit fissile material , arguing that the `` treaty would target Pakistan specifically . '' In the 20th century , Pakistan 's nuclear deterrence program focused on countering India 's nuclear ambitions in the region , and nuclear tests by India eventually led Pakistan to reciprocate the event to maintain geopolitical balance as becoming a nuclear power . Currently , Pakistan maintains a policy of credible minimum deterrence , calling its program vital nuclear deterrence against foreign aggression . Located in strategic and geopolitical corridor of the world 's major maritime oil supply lines , communication fiber optics , Pakistan has proximity to the natural resources of Central Asian countries . Pakistan is an influential and founding member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation ( OIC ) and is a major non-NATO ally of the United States in the war against terrorism— a status achieved in 2004 . Pakistan 's foreign policy and geostrategy mainly focus on economy and security against threats to its national identity and territorial integrity , and on the cultivation of close relations with other Muslim countries . Briefing on country 's foreign policy in 2004 , the Pakistani senator reportedly explains : `` Pakistan highlights sovereign equality of states , bilateralism , mutuality of interests , and non-interference in each other 's domestic affairs as the cardinal features of its foreign policy . '' Pakistan is an active member of the United Nations and has a Permanent Representative to represent Pakistan 's policy in international politics . Pakistan has lobbied for the concept of `` Enlightened Moderation '' in the Muslim world . Pakistan is also a member of Commonwealth of Nations , the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation ( SAARC ) , the Economic Cooperation Organisation ( ECO ) and the G20 developing nations . Pakistan does not have diplomatic relations with Israel ; nonetheless some Israeli citizens have visited the country on a tourist visas . Based on mutual cooperation , the security exchange have taken place between two countries using Turkey as a communication conduit . Despite Pakistan being the only country in the world that has not established a diplomatic relations with Armenia , the Armenian community still resides in Pakistan . Maintaining cultural , political , social , and economic relations with the Arab world and other countries in the Muslim World is a vital factor in Pakistan 's foreign policy . Pakistan was the first country to have established diplomatic relations with China and relations continues to be warm since China 's war with India in 1962 . In the 1960s–1980s , Pakistan greatly helped China in reaching out to the world 's major countries and helped facilitate U.S. President Nixon 's state visit to China . Despite the change of governments in Pakistan , variations in the regional and global situation , China policy in Pakistan continues to be dominant factor at all time . In return , China is Pakistan 's largest trading partner and economic cooperation have reached high points , with substantial Chinese investment in Pakistan 's infrastructural expansion including the Pakistani deep-water port at Gwadar . Sino-Pak friendly relations touched new heights as both the countries signed 51 agreements and Memorandums of Understanding ( MoUs ) in 2015 for cooperation in different fields . Both countries have signed the Free Trade Agreement in the 2000s , and Pakistan continues to serve as China 's communication bridge in the Muslim World . Because of difficulties in relations with its geopolitical rival India , Pakistan maintains close political relations with Turkey and Iran . Saudi Arabia also maintains a respected position in Pakistan 's foreign policy , and both countries has been a focal point in Pakistan 's foreign policy . The Kashmir conflict remains the major point of rift ; three of their four wars were over this territory . Due to ideological differences , Pakistan opposed the Soviet Union in the 1950s and during Soviet-Afghan War in the 1980s , Pakistan was one of the closest allies of the United States . Relations with Russia have greatly improved since 1999 and cooperation with various sectors have increased between Russia and

tb_1061--Pakistan.txt

Mohenjo-daro and Harappa in present-day Pakistan were the most important city settlements of a Bronze Age civilization that is named after what major geographic feature?

Pierce Brendan Brosnan OBE Hon ( born 16 May 1953 ) is an Irish actor and film producer who after leaving comprehensive school at age 16 , began training in commercial illustration . He then went on to train at the Drama Centre in London for three years . Following a stage acting career he rose to popularity in the television series Remington Steele ( 1982–87 ) , which blended the genres of romantic comedy , drama , and detective procedural . After the conclusion of Remington Steele , Brosnan appeared in films such as the Cold War spy film The Fourth Protocol ( 1987 ) and the comedy Mrs. Doubtfire ( 1993 ) . In 1994 , Brosnan became the fifth actor to portray secret agent James Bond in the Eon Productions film series , starring in four films from 1995 to 2002 ( GoldenEye , Tomorrow Never Dies , The World Is Not Enough and Die Another Day ) . He lent his likeness for Bond in the video games James Bond 007 : Nightfire and James Bond 007 : Everything or Nothing , providing his voice too for the latter . During this period , he also took the lead in other films such as the epic disaster adventure film Dante 's Peak ( 1997 ) and the remake of the heist film The Thomas Crown Affair ( 1999 ) . Since leaving the role of Bond , he has starred in such films as the musical/romantic comedy Mamma Mia ! ( 2008 ) , the Roman Polanski-directed political thriller The Ghost Writer ( 2010 ) and the action spy thriller The November Man ( 2014 ) . In 1996 , along with Beau St. Clair , Brosnan formed Irish DreamTime , a Los Angeles-based production company . In later years , he has become known for his charitable work and environmental activism . He was married to Australian actress Cassandra Harris from 1980 until her death in 1991 . He married American journalist and author Keely Shaye Smith in 2001 , and became an American citizen in 2004 . He has earned two Golden Globe Award nominations , first for the television miniseries Nancy Astor ( 1982 ) and next for the dark comedy film The Matador ( 2005 ) . Early life Brosnan was born in Our Lady of Lourdes Hospital in Drogheda , County Louth , Ireland , the only child of Thomas Brosnan , a carpenter , and May ( née Smith , born circa 1934 ) . He lived in Navan , County Meath for 12 years and considers it his home town . Brosnan 's father abandoned the family when Pierce was an infant . When he was four years old , his mother moved to London to work as a nurse . From that point on , he was largely brought up by his grandparents , Philip and Kathleen Smith . After their deaths , he lived with an aunt and then an uncle , but was subsequently sent to live in a boarding house run by a woman named Eileen . He was educated at Elliott School , now known as Ark Putney Academy , a coeducational secondary school with academy status in South West London . According to Brosnan , Brosnan was brought up in a Roman Catholic family and educated in a local school run by the de la Salle Brothers while serving as an altar boy . Brosnan left Ireland on 12 August 1964 and was reunited with his mother and her new husband , William Carmichael , now living in the Scottish village of Longniddry , East Lothian . Carmichael took Brosnan to see a James Bond film for the first time ( Goldfinger ) , at the age of 11 . Later moving back to London , Brosnan was educated at Elliott School , a state comprehensive school in Putney , south west London . Brosnan has spoken about the transition from Ireland to England and his education in London ; `` When you go to a very large city , a metropolis like London , as an Irish boy of 10 , life suddenly moves pretty fast . From a little school of , say , seven classrooms in Ireland , to this very large comprehensive school , with over 2,000 children . And you 're Irish . And they make you feel it ; the British have a wonderful way of doing that , and I had a certain deep sense of being an outsider . '' When he attended school , his nickname was `` Irish '' . After leaving school at 16 , he decided to be a painter and began training in commercial illustration at Saint Martin 's School of Art.Jonathan Jones ( 30 September 2011 ) . [ http : //www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2011/sep/30/saint-martins-kings-cross-premises Saint Martins emerges blinking in bright new home . But is it art ? : King 's Cross premises a far cry from Soho 'hell ' , but some students fear college will have lost its charm ] . The Guardian . Accessed August 2013 . While attending a rehearsal for a workshop at the Oval House , a fire eater was teaching people how to eat fire and he decided to join . A circus agent saw him busking and hired him for three years . He later trained for three years as an actor at the Drama Centre London . Brosnan has described the feeling of becoming an actor and the impact it had on his life : `` When I found acting , or when acting found me , it was a liberation . It was a stepping stone into another life , away from a life that I had , and acting was something I was good at , something which was appreciated . That was a great satisfaction in my life . '' Career Early career After graduating from the Drama Centre in 1975 , Brosnan began working as an acting assistant stage manager at the York Theatre Royal , making his acting debut in Wait Until Dark . Within six months , he was selected by playwright Tennessee Williams to play the role of McCabe in the British première of The Red Devil Battery Sign . His performance caused a stir in London and Brosnan still has the telegram sent by Williams , stating only `` Thank God for you , my dear boy '' . In 1977 he was picked by Franco Zeffirelli to appear in the play Filumena by Eduardo De Filippo opposite Joan Plowright and Frank Finlay . He continued his career making brief appearances in films such as The Long Good Friday ( 1980 ) and The Mirror Crack 'd ( 1980 ) , as well as early television performances in The Professionals , Murphy 's Stroke , and Play for Today . He became a television star in the United States with his leading role in the popular miniseries Manions of America . He followed this with his 1982 Masterpiece Theatre documentary that chronicled the life of Lady Nancy Astor , the first woman to sit in British Parliament . His portrayal of Robert Gould Shaw II garnered him a 1985 Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor . In 1982 , Brosnan moved to Southern California and rose to popularity in the United States playing the title role in the NBC romantic detective series Remington Steele . The Washington Post noted that same year that Brosnan `` could make it as a young James Bond . '' After Remington Steele ended in 1987 , Brosnan went on to appear in several films , including The Fourth Protocol ( 1987 ) , a Cold War thriller in which he starred alongside Michael Caine , The Deceivers and James Clavell 's Noble House both in ( 1988 ) , and The Lawnmower Man ( 1992 ) . In 1992 , he shot a pilot for NBC called Running Wilde , playing a reporter for Auto World magazine . Jennifer Love Hewitt played his daughter . The pilot never aired , however . In 1993 he played a supporting role in the comedy film Mrs. Doubtfire . He also appeared in several television films , including Victim of Love ( 1991 ) , Death Train ( 1993 ) and Night Watch ( 1995 ) , a spy thriller set in Hong Kong . James Bond ( 1994–2005 ) Brosnan first met James Bond films producer Albert R. Broccoli on the sets of For Your Eyes Only because his first wife , Cassandra Harris , starred as Countess Lisl von Schlaf , mistress to Milos Columbo . Broccoli said , `` if he can act ... he 's my guy '' to inherit the role of Bond from Roger Moore . It was reported by both Entertainment Tonight and the National Enquirer , that Brosnan was going to inherit another role of Moore 's , that of Simon Templar in The Saint . Brosnan denied the rumours in July 1993 but added , `` it 's still languishing there on someone 's desk in Hollywood . '' In 1987 , NBC cancelled Remington Steele and Brosnan was offered the role as James Bond , but the publicity revived Remington Steele . His contract with the Remington Steele producers required him to resume his role and he regretfully declined the Bond role . The producers instead hired Timothy Dalton for The Living Daylights ( 1987 ) , and Licence to Kill ( 1989 ) . Legal squabbles between the Bond producers and the studio over distribution rights resulted in the cancellation of a proposed third Dalton film in 1991 and put the Bond series on a hiatus for several years . After the legal issues had been resolved , Dalton decided not to return for a third film . On 7 June 1994 , Brosnan was announced as the fifth actor to play Bond . Brosnan was signed for a three-film Bond deal with the option of a fourth . The first , 1995 's GoldenEye , grossed US $ 350 million worldwide , the fourth highest worldwide gross of any film in 1995 , making it the most successful Bond film since Moonraker , adjusted for inflation . It holds an 80 % Rotten tomato rating , while Metacritic holds it at 65 % . In the Chicago Sun-Times , Roger Ebert gave the film 3 stars out of 4 , saying that Brosnan 's Bond was `` somehow more sensitive , more vulnerable , more psychologically complete '' than the previous ones , also commenting on Bond 's `` loss of innocence '' since previous films . James Berardinelli described Brosnan as `` a decided improvement over his immediate predecessor '' with a `` flair for wit to go along with his natural charm '' , but added that `` fully one-quarter of Goldeneye is momentum-killing padding . '' In 1996 , Brosnan formed a film production company entitled `` Irish DreamTime '' along with producing partner and longtime friend Beau St. Clair . Brosnan and St. Clair released Irish DreamTime 's first production , The Nephew , in 1998 . One year later , the company 's second studio project , The Thomas Crown Affair , was released and met both critical and box office success . Brosnan returned in 1997 's Tomorrow Never Dies and 1999 's The World Is Not Enough , which were also successful . In 2002 , Brosnan appeared for his fourth time as Bond in Die Another Day , receiving mixed reviews but was a success at the box office . Brosnan himself subsequently criticised many aspects of his fourth Bond movie . During the promotion , he mentioned that he would like to continue his role as James Bond : `` I 'd like to do another , sure . Connery did six . Six would be a number , then never come back . '' Brosnan asked Eon Productions , when accepting the role , to be allowed to work on other projects between Bond films . The request was granted , and for every Bond film , Brosnan appeared in at least two other mainstream films , including several he produced , playing a wide range of roles , ranging from a scientist in Tim Burton 's Mars Attacks ! , to the title role in Grey Owl which documents the life of Englishman Archibald Stansfeld Belaney , one of Canada 's first conservationists . Shortly after the release of Die Another Day , the media began questioning whether or not Brosnan would reprise the role for a fifth time . At that time , Brosnan was approaching his 50th birthday . Brosnan kept in mind that both fans and critics were very unhappy with Roger Moore playing the role until he ( Moore ) was 58 , but he was receiving popular support from both critics and the franchise fanbase for a fifth instalment . For this reason , he remained enthusiastic about reprising his role . In October 2004 , Brosnan said he considered himself dismissed from the role . Although Brosnan had been rumoured frequently as still in the running to play 007 , he had denied it several times , and in February 2005 he posted on his website that he was finished with the role . Daniel Craig took over the role on 14 October 2005 . In an interview with The Globe and Mail , Brosnan was asked what he thought of Daniel Craig as the new James Bond . He replied , `` I 'm looking forward to it like we 're all looking forward to it . Daniel Craig is a great actor and he 's going to do a fantastic job '' . He reaffirmed this support in an interview to the International Herald Tribune , stating that `` [ Craig 's ] on his way to becoming a memorable Bond . '' During his tenure on the James Bond films , Brosnan also took part in James Bond video games . In 2002 , Brosnan 's likeness was used as the face of Bond in the James Bond video game Nightfire ( voiced by Maxwell Caulfield ) . In 2004 , Brosnan starred in the Bond game Everything or Nothing , contracting for his likeness to be used as well as doing the voice-work for the character . He also starred along with Jamie Lee Curtis and Geoffrey Rush in The Tailor of Panama in 2001 , and lent his voice to The Simpsons episode `` Treehouse of Horror XII '' , as a machine with Pierce Brosnan 's voice . Post-James Bond Since 2004 , Brosnan has talked of backing a film about Caitlin Macnamara , wife of poet Dylan Thomas , the title role to be played by Miranda Richardson . Brosnan 's first post-Bond role was that of Daniel Rafferty in 2004 's Laws of Attraction . Garreth Murphy , of entertainment.ie , described Brosnan 's performance as `` surprisingly effective , gently riffing off his James Bond persona and supplementing it with a raffish energy '' . In the same year , Brosnan starred in After the Sunset alongside Salma Hayek and Woody Harrelson . The film elicited generally negative reviews and a 17 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes . Brosnan 's next film was 2005 's The Matador . He starred as Julian Noble , a jaded , neurotic assassin who meets a travelling salesman ( Greg Kinnear ) in a Mexican bar . The film garnered generally positive reviews . Roger Ebert for the Chicago Sun-Times called Brosnan 's performance the best of his career . Brosnan was nominated for a Golden Globe award for Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy , but lost to Joaquin Phoenix for Walk the Line . In December 2005 , Brosnan was reported to be starring in The November Man , an adaptation of Bill Granger 's novel , There Are No Spies . but the project was cancelled in 2007 . In 2006 , Brosnan narrated The Official Film of the 2006 FIFA World Cup , directed by Michael Apted . In 2007 , Brosnan appeared in the film Seraphim Falls alongside fellow Irishman Liam Neeson . The film was released for limited screenings on 26 January 2007 to average reviews . Kevin Crust of the Los Angeles Times noted that Brosnan and Neeson made `` fine adversaries ; '' Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter thought that they were `` hard-pressed to inject some much-needed vitality into their sparse lines . '' During the same year , Brosnan spoke of making a western with fellow Irishmen Gabriel Byrne and Colm Meaney . In that same year Brosnan starred as Tom Ryan in Butterfly on a Wheel . The film was released in the United States under the name of Shattered , and in Europe as Desperate Hours . In 2008 , Brosnan joined Meryl Streep in the film adaption of the ABBA musical Mamma Mia ! . He played Sam Carmichael , one of three men rumoured to be the father of lead Amanda Seyfried , while Streep played her mother . Judy Craymer , producer to the film , said `` Pierce brings a certain smooch factor , and we think he 'll have great chemistry with Meryl in a romantic comedy . '' Brosnan 's preparation in singing for the role included walking up and down the coast and singing karaoke to his own voice for about six weeks , followed by rehearsals in New York in which he noted he `` sounded dreadful . '' Brosnan 's singing in the film was generally disparaged by critics , with his singing compared in separate reviews to the sound of a water buffalo , a donkey , and a wounded raccoon . In September 2008 , Brosnan provided the narration for the Thomas & Friends special The Great Discovery . He was originally set to narrate for both US and UK from Season 12 and onward , but withdraw from it for unknown reasons . In 2009 , Brosnan starred in The Big Biazarro , ( alternative title The Ace ) , an adaptation of the Leonard Wise novel , directed by Vondie Curtis-Hall . Brosnan portrayed a card player who mentors a headstrong protégé . Also in 2009 , Brosnan finished the well-received The Ghost Writer , playing a disgraced British Prime Minister , directed and produced by Roman Polanski . The film won a Silver Bear at the Berlin International Film Festival . He starred as Charles Hawkins in the film Remember Me and as Chiron in Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief , both released in 2010 . In 2012 , Brosnan played the role of Philip in the Danish romantic comedy Love Is All You Need . His latest announced project is a role in the Danny DeVito-helmed feature Charlotte Doyle , an adaptation of the novel The True Confessions of Charlotte Doyle , in which he will appear alongside Morgan Freeman . His production company Irish DreamTime is developing The Topkapi Affair , a follow-up to The Thomas Crown Affair for MGM . In February 2013 Brosnan was awarded honorary patronage of the Dublin University Players society at Trinity College , Dublin . Brosnan is also said to be playing a `` heroic government agent '' in an action thriller called The Coup ( later renamed to No Escape ) alongside Owen Wilson . Brosnan will also be headlining Last Man Out , which is an adaptation of Stuart Neville 's crime novel titled The Twelve ( released as Ghosts of Belfast in the US ) , scripted by Craig Ferguson and Ted Mulkerin , with Terry Loan will be helming the project . In 2013 , Brosnan appeared in television commercials as a tongue in cheek version of himself to promote the launch of Sky Broadband in Ireland . After its cancellation in 2007 , Brosnan 's production company , `` Irish DreamTime '' resurrected The November Man film project in 2012 with an announcement made on his part that he was jumping back to the spy arena . Filming took place in Serbia a year later , with Brosnan in action as a retired CIA operative called Devereaux , alongside co-star Olga Kurylenko in a supporting role . The film received negative reception with a 34 % on Rotten Tomatoes and a 38/100 on Metacritic . In 2015 , he appeared alongside Milla Jovovich in suspense thriller movie written by Phil Shelby , called Survivor , which began filming in January 2014 , with Charles and Irwin Winkler producing , and James McTeigue directing . Brosnan later starred in a revenge thriller called I.T. , which is still yet to be released . In January 2016 Pierce Brosnan was seen filming The Foreigner in London , co-starring with Jackie Chan , taking on a role of a former IRA man turned government official Liam Hennessy . The film is directed by Martin Campbell , who previously worked with Brosnan on his debut James Bond film , GoldenEye . It was noted that Brosnan bore a strong resemblance to Sinn Féin leader Gerry Adams . An announcement was made that Brosnan and Campbell will team up once again in a film adaptation of an Ernest Hemingway novel , Across the River and into the Trees , in which Brosnan will play the role of the protagonist , Colonel Cantwell . He 's also set to appear alongside Dave Bautista in Final Score . Brosnan replaced actor Sam Neill in the role of Eli McCullough in a television miniseries adaptation of Philipp Meyer 's novel The Son , with Kevin Murphy serving as both executive producer and showrunner of a ten-episode miniseries , which begins production in June 2016 , aiming for a 2017 release . Personal life Brosnan married twice , was widowed once and has five children and three grandchildren as of 2015 . Brosnan met Australian actress Cassandra Harris through her stepson David Harris , one of Richard Harris ' nephews , in 1977 , shortly after he left drama school . On meeting her , he has described his feelings , saying , `` What a beautiful looking woman . I never for an instant thought she was someone I 'd spend 17 years of my life with . I did n't think of wooing her , or attempting to woo her ; I just wanted to enjoy her beauty and who she was . '' They began dating , and eventually bought a house in Wimbledon . They married on 27 December 1980 and had one son together , Sean , who was born on 13 September 1983 . They lived with her children , Charlotte ( 1971-2013 ) and Christopher , and after their father Dermot Harris died in 1986 , he adopted them and they took the surname Brosnan . Brosnan supplemented his income by working in West End productions and in a television film about Irish horse racing . After Harris appeared in the James Bond film For Your Eyes Only in 1981 , they secured a bank loan and moved to southern California where Brosnan secured a role in the TV series Remington Steele , easing their financial worries . An episode of Remington Steele that was filmed in Ireland generated significant publicity . One outcome was that Brosnan met his father , who had left when Brosnan was an infant , in a brief get-together at his hotel . Brosnan said he expected to see a very tall man , but described his father as `` a man of medium stature , pushed-back silver hair , flinty eyes and a twizzled jaw . He had a very strong Kerry accent . '' Brosnan was regretful that they met under such public circumstances . He said he would have preferred more private arrangements that would have given him the opportunity to speak privately with his father . While filming The Deceivers in Rajasthan , India , in 1987 , Brosnan 's wife Harris became seriously ill. She was later diagnosed with ovarian cancer and died on 28 December 1991 at age 43 . Brosnan struggled to cope with her cancer and death . `` When your partner gets cancer , then life changes . Your timetable and reference for your normal routines and the way you view life , all this changes . Because you 're dealing with death . You 're dealing with the possibility of death and dying . And it was that way through the chemotherapy , through the first-look operation , the second look , the third look , the fourth look , the fifth look . Cassie was very positive about life . I mean , she had the most amazing energy and outlook on life . It was and is a terrible loss , and I see it reflected , from time to time , in my children . '' Harris had always wanted Brosnan to play the role of James Bond , and in 1995 , four years after her death , Brosnan was given the role in GoldenEye . In 1994 , Brosnan met American journalist Keely Shaye Smith in Mexico . They were married in 2001 at Ballintubber Abbey in County Mayo , Ireland . They have two sons together , Dylan Thomas Brosnan ( born 13 January 1997 ) and Paris Beckett Brosnan ( born 27 February 2001 ) . In July 2003 , the Queen made Brosnan an honorary Officer of the Order of the British Empire for his `` outstanding contribution to the British film industry '' . As an Irish citizen , he is ineligible to receive the full OBE honour , which is awarded only to a citizen of the Commonwealth realms , but he is still allowed the letters `` OBE '' after his name . In 2002 , Brosnan was also awarded an honorary degree from the Dublin Institute of Technology and , a year later , the University College Cork . On 23 September 2004 , Brosnan became a citizen of the United States , but retained his Irish citizenship . Brosnan said that `` my Irishness is in everything I do . It 's the spirit of who I am , as a man , an actor , a father . It 's where I come from . '' Brosnan was asked by a fan if it annoyed him when people get his nationality confused . He said : `` It amuses me in some respects that they should confuse me with an Englishman when I 'm dyed-in-the-wool , born and bred Irishman ... I do n't necessarily fly under any flag . But no , it does n't bother me . '' Brosnan has expressed contempt for his education by the Christian Brothers . However , in 2013 he commented , `` It always helps to have a bit of prayer in your back pocket . At the end of the day , you have to have something and for me that is God , Jesus , my Catholic upbringing , my faith ... God has been good to me . My faith has been good to me in the moments of deepest suffering , doubt and fear . It is a constant , the language of prayer ... I might not have got my sums right from the Christian Brothers or might not have got the greatest learning of literature from them but I certainly got a strapping amount of faith . '' Brosnan attends Mass , but adheres to other spiritual beliefs . In 2008 he said `` I also love the teachings of Buddhist philosophy . It 's my own private faith . I do n't preach it , but it 's a faith that is a comfort to me when the night is long . '' Brosnan and wife Keely Shaye Smith were involved in a riparian water rights legal case ( 1999–2010 ) . The dispute centred on a parcel of land in Wainiha , Hawaii . Brosnan 's daughter Charlotte died on 28 June 2013 of ovarian cancer , the same illness that claimed her mother 's life . Environmental and charitable work Pierce Brosnan has been an Ambassador for UNICEF Ireland since 2001 and recorded a special announcement to mark the launch of UNICEF 's `` Unite for Children , Unite against AIDS '' Campaign with Liam Neeson . Brosnan supported John Kerry in the 2004 presidential election and is a vocal supporter of same-sex marriage . Brosnan first became aware of nuclear disarmament at the age of nine when worldwide condemnation of the 1962 U.S. nuclear tests in Nevada headlined international news . During the 1990s , he participated in news conferences in Washington , D.C. to help Greenpeace draw attention to the issue . Brosnan boycotted the French GoldenEye premiere to support Greenpeace 's protest against the French nuclear testing program . From 1997 to 2000 , Brosnan and wife

qf_1414--Pierce_Brosnan.txt

How many James Bond films did Pierce Brosnan do?

Lapis lazuli , , or lapis for short , is a deep blue semi-precious stone prized since antiquity for its intense color . Lapis lazuli was mined in the Sar-i Sang mines and in other mines in the Badakhshan province in northeast Afghanistan as early as the 7th millennium BC . Lapis beads have been found at neolithic burials in Mehrgarh , the Caucasus , and even as far from Afghanistan as Mauritania . It was used for the eyebrows , among other features , on the funeral mask of Tutankhamun ( 1341–1323 BC ) . ( ed . ) At the end of the Middle Ages , lapis lazuli began to be exported to Europe , where it was ground into powder and made into ultramarine , the finest and most expensive of all blue pigments . It was used by some of the most important artists of the Renaissance and Baroque , including Masaccio , Perugino , Titian and Vermeer , and was often reserved for the clothing of the central figures of their paintings , especially the Virgin Mary . Today mines in northeast Afghanistan and Pakistan are still the major source of lapis lazuli . Important amounts are also produced from mines west of Lake Baikal in Russia , and in the Andes mountains in Chile . Smaller quantities are mined in Italy , Mongolia , the United States and Canada . [ http : //www.gemstone.org/index.php ? option com_content & viewarticle & id 117 : sapphire & catid1 : gem-by-gem & Itemid 14 `` All about colored gemstones , '' the International Colored Gemstones Association ] Etymology ' is the Latin word for `` stone '' and ' is the genitive form of the Medieval Latin ' , which is taken from the Arabic lājaward , itself from the Persian lājavard , which is the name of the stone in Persian and also of a place where lapis lazuli was mined . The name of the stone came to be associated with its color . The English word azure , French ' , Italian ' , Polish ' , Romanian ' and ' , Portuguese and Spanish ' , and Hungarian ' all come from the name and color of lapis lazuli . Science and uses File : Lazurite.jpg|A sample from the Sar-i Sang mine in Afghanistan , where lapis lazuli has been mined since the 7th Millennium BC . File : Lapis lazuli block.jpg|A polished block of lapis lazuli File : Natural ultramarine pigment.jpg|Natural ultramarine pigment made from ground lapis lazuli . This was the most expensive blue pigment during the Renaissance , often reserved for depicting the robes of Angels or the Virgin Mary . Composition Lapis lazuli is a rock whose most important mineral component is lazurite ( 25 % to 40 % ) , a feldspathoid silicate mineral with the formula ( Na , Ca ) 8 ( AlSiO4 ) 6 ( S , SO4 , Cl ) 1-2 . Most lapis lazuli also contains calcite ( white ) , sodalite ( blue ) , and pyrite ( metallic yellow ) . Other possible constituents : augite ; diopside ; enstatite ; mica ; hauynite ; hornblende , and nosean . Some lapis lazuli contains trace amounts of the sulfur-rich löllingite variety geyerite . Lapis lazuli usually occurs in crystalline marble as a result of contact metamorphism . Color The intense blue color is due to the presence of the trisulfur ( ) radical anion in the crystal . An electronic excitation of one electron from the highest doubly filled molecular orbital ( No . 24 ) into the lowest singly occupied orbital ( No . 25 ) results in a very intense absorption line at λmax ~617 nm . Sources Lapis lazuli is found in limestone in the Kokcha River valley of Badakhshan province in northeastern Afghanistan , where the Sar-e-Sang mine deposits have been worked for more than 6,000 years . Afghanistan was the source of lapis for the ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations , as well as the later Greeks and Romans . Ancient Egyptians obtained this material through trade from Afghanistan . During the height of the Indus valley civilization about 2000 BC , the Harappan colony now known as Shortugai was established near the lapis mines . According to the Sorbonne 's mineralogist Pierre Bariand 's leading work on the sources of lapis lazuli in modern times , and to references in Afghanistan 's Blue Treasure : Lapis Lazuli ( 2011 ) by Lailee McNair Bakhtiar , the lapis lazuli is found in `` caves '' not traditionally considered `` mines '' and the stone lapis lazuli is from the primary source of the Hindu Kush Mountains in Afghanistan 's Kochka River Valley and not in Pakistan . In addition to the Afghan deposits , lapis is also extracted in the Andes ( near Ovalle , Chile ) ; and to the west of Lake Baikal in Siberia , Russia , at the Tultui Lazurite deposit . It is mined in smaller amounts in Angola ; Argentina ; Burma ; Pakistan ; Canada ; Italy , India ; and in the United States in California and Colorado . Uses and substitutes Lapis takes an excellent polish and can be made into jewelry , carvings , boxes , mosaics , ornaments , small statues , and vases . It was also ground and processed to make the pigment ultramarine , widely used during the Renaissance in frescoes and oil painting . Its usage as a pigment in oil paint largely ended in the early 19th century when a chemically identical synthetic variety became available . Lapis lazuli is commercially synthesized or simulated by the Gilson process , which is used to make artificial ultramarine and hydrous zinc phosphates . It may also be substituted by spinel or sodalite , or by dyed jasper or howlite . History and art File : Mesolapis.jpg|A Mesopotamian lapis lazuli pendant circa 2900 BC . File : Lapis bowl Iran.JPG|A lapis lazuli bowl from Iran ( End of 3rd , beginning 2nd millennium BC ) File : Ebih-Il Louvre AO17551 n11.jpg|Close-up of the lapis lazuli inlays in the 25th-century BC Statue of Ebih-Il File : Tutmask.jpg|In the funeral mask of Tutankhamun ( 1341-1323 BC ) , lapis lazuli was used for the eyebrows of the young Pharaoh . File : Lapis.elephant.800pix.060203.jpg|An elephant carving on high-quality lapis lazuli , which includes gold-colored pyrite , is a rare example of Mughal inspired art . ( length : 8 cm ) File : Lapis lazuli p1070260.jpg|Carved lapis lazuli mountain scene , from the Chinese Qing Dynasty ( 1644–1912 ) . File : Girl with a Pearl Earring.jpg|Girl with a Pearl Earring ( 1665 ) by Johannes Vermeer is painted with ultramarine , a natural pigment made from lapis lazuli . File : Ermitáž ( 28 ) .jpg|A lapis lazuli urn two meters high from the State Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg , Russia ( 19th century ) . In the ancient world Lapis lazuli has been mined in Afghanistan and exported to the Mediterranean world and South Asia since the Neolithic age . Lapis lazuli beads have been found at Mehrgarh , a neolithic site near Quetta in Pakistan , on the ancient trade route between Afghanistan and the Indus Valley , dating to the 7th millennium BC . Quantities of these beads have also been found at 4th millennium BC settlements in Northern Mesopotamia , and at the Bronze Age site of Shahr-e Sukhteh in southeast Iran ( 3rd millennium BC ) . A dagger with a lapis handle , a bowl inlaid with lapis , and amulets , beads , and inlays representing eyebrows and beards , were found in the Royal Tombs of the Sumerian city-state of Ur from the 3rd Millennium BC . Lapis was also used in ancient Mesopotamia by the Akkadians , Assyrians , and Babylonians for seals and jewelry . In the Mesopotamian poem the Epic of Gilgamesh ( 17th-18th Century BC ) , one of the oldest known works of literature , lapis lazuli is mentioned several times . The Statue of Ebih-Il , a 3rd millennium BC statue found in the ancient city-state of Mari in modern-day Syria , now in the Louvre , uses lapis lazuli inlays for the irises of the eyes . Lapis lazuli also made its way across the Mediterranean to ancient Egypt , where it was a favorite stone for amulets and ornaments such as scarabs ; Lapis jewelry has been found at excavations of the Predynastic Egyptian site Naqada ( 3300–3100 BC ) . At Karnak , the relief carvings of Thutmose III ( 1479-1429 BC ) show fragments and barrel-shaped pieces of lapis lazuli being delivered to him as tribute . Powdered lapis was used as eyeshadow by Cleopatra . In late classical times and as late as the Middle Ages , lapis lazuli was often called sapphire ( sapphirus in Latin , sappir in Hebrew ) , though it had little to do with the stone today known as the blue corundum variety sapphire . In his book on stones , the Greek scientist Theophrastus described `` the sapphirus , which is speckled with gold , '' a description which matches lapis lazuli . There are many references to sapphires in the Old Testament , but most scholars agree that , since sapphires were not known before the Roman Empire , they most likely are references to lapis lazuli . For instance , Exodus 24:10 : `` As they saw the God of Israel , and there was under his feet as it were a paved work of a sapphire stone .. '' ( KJV ) . The term used in the Latin Vulgate Bible in this citation is `` lapidus sapphiri , '' the term for lapis lazuli . Modern translations of the Bible , such as the New Living Translation Second Edition , refer to lapis lazuli in most instances instead of sapphire .

qw_10423--Lapis_lazuli.txt

What colour is lapis lazuli?

Ochroma is a genus of flowering plants in the mallow family , Malvaceae , containing the sole species Ochroma pyramidale , commonly known as the balsa tree . It is a large , fast-growing tree that can grow up to 30 m tall . Balsa wood is a very lightweight material with many uses . Balsa trees are native to southern Brazil and Bolivia north to southern Mexico . Biology A member of the mallow family , O. pyramidale is native to southern Mexico to southern Brazil , but is now found in many other countries ( Papua New Guinea , Indonesia , Thailand , Solomon Islands ) . It is a pioneer plant , which establishes itself in clearings in forests , either man-made or where trees have fallen , or in abandoned agricultural fields . It grows extremely rapidly , up to 90 ft in 10–15 years . The speed of growth accounts for the lightness of the wood , which has a lower density than cork . Trees generally do not live beyond 30 to 40 years . Flowers are produced from the third year onwards , typically at the end of the rainy season when few other trees are in flower . The large flowers open in the late afternoon and remain open overnight . Each may contain a pool of nectar up to 1 in deep . Daytime pollinators include capuchin monkeys . However most pollination occurs at night . It was once thought that the main pollinators were bats ; however recent evidence suggests that two nocturnal arboreal mammals , the kinkajou and the olingo , may be the primary pollinators . Cultivation Ecuador supplies 95 % or more of commercial balsa . In recent years , about 60 % of the balsa has been plantation-grown in densely packed patches of around 1000 trees per hectare ( compared to about two to three per hectare in nature ) . It is evergreen or dry-season deciduous , with large ( 30 - ) weakly palmately lobed leaves . Being a deciduous angiosperm , balsa is classified as a hardwood despite the wood itself being very soft . It is the softest commercial hardwood . The trees are harvested after six to 10 years of growth . The name balsa comes from the Spanish word for `` raft '' . `` balsa , n. '' . OED Online . March 2013 . Oxford University Press . 9 May 2013 . Uses Balsa lumber is very soft and light , with a coarse , open grain . The density of dry balsa wood ranges from 40 – , with a typical density of about 160 kg/m3 . The wood of the living tree has large cells that are filled with water . This gives the wood a spongy texture . It also makes the wood of the living tree not much lighter than water and barely able to float . For commercial production , the wood is kiln-dried for about two weeks , leaving the cells hollow and empty . The large volume-to-surface ratio of the resulting thin-walled empty cells gives the dried wood a large strength-to-weight ratio because the cells are mostly air . Unlike naturally rotted wood , that soon disintegrates in the rainforests where balsa trees grow , the cell walls of kiln-seasoned balsa wood retain their strong structure of cellulose and lignin . Because it is low-density but high in strength , balsa is a very popular material for light , stiff structures in model bridge tests , model buildings , and for the construction of model aircraft — especially free flight model aircraft . However , it also is valued as a component of full-sized light wooden aeroplanes , most notably the World War II de Havilland Mosquito . Balsa is used to make wooden crankbaits for fishing , especially Rapala lures . Sticks of dried balsa are useful as makeshift pens for calligraphy when commercial metal nibs of the desired width are not available . Balsa wood is often used as a core material in composites ; for example , the blades of many wind turbines are partly of balsa . In table tennis bats , a balsa layer is typically sandwiched between two pieces of thin plywood made from other species of wood . Balsa wood is also used in laminates together with glass-reinforced plastic ( fiberglass ) for making high-quality balsa surfboards and for the decks and topsides of many types of boats , especially pleasure craft of less than 30 m in length . Balsa is also used in the manufacture of `` breakaway '' wooden props such as tables and chairs which are designed to be broken as part of theatre , movie and television productions . Starting with the 5th generation Chevrolet Corvette , the floor pan of the Corvette has been composed of balsa sandwiched between sheets of carbon fiber reinforced plastic . Norwegian scientist and adventurer Thor Heyerdahl , convinced that early contact between the peoples of South America and Polynesia was possible , built the raft Kon Tiki from balsa logs , and upon it he and his crew sailed the Pacific Ocean from Peru to the Polynesian Tuamotu Archipelago in 1947 . However , the Kon Tiki logs were not seasoned and owed much of their ( rather slight ) buoyancy to the fact that their sap was of lower density than seawater . This serendipitously may have saved the expedition , because it prevented the seawater from waterlogging the wood and sinking the raft . Balsa wood is also a popular wood type used in the arts of whittling , and surfing . Gallery Image : Ochroma pyramidalis MS 3425.jpg|Balsa on Bota Hill , Limbe Botanical Garden , Cameroon Image : Ochroma pyramidale1FrancesWHorne.jpg|Painting by Frances W. Horne from the Flora Borinqueña File : Ochroma pyramidale Maui.jpg|Ochroma pyramidale at the Large tree habit at Tropical Gardens of Maui Iao Valley Rd , Maui File : Balsas_and_kayak.jpg|Two balsa rafts and a kayak at Lagos de Montebello in Chiapas , Mexico . File : Balsa.jpg|Three different sizes of balsa wood stock . File : Balsa airframe.jpg|Balsa construction in a Paul K. Guillow , Inc. `` stick & tissue '' free flight rubber scale model airplane .

qw_14468--Ochroma.txt

To prove his theories of the diaspora of South American peoples, who sailed in a balsa raft called Kon Tiki across the Pacific Ocean in 1947?

Bad is the seventh studio album by American singer Michael Jackson . It is his third studio album released through Epic Records . It was released on August 31 , 1987 , nearly five years after Jackson 's previous studio album , Thriller . As of 2012 Bad itself has sold between 30 and 45 million copies worldwide , was certified 9 times Platinum in the United States alone , and has been cited as one of the 30 best-selling albums of all time . The album produced a record five Billboard Hot 100 number one singles , the first of two albums to do so , the second being Katy Perry 's 2010 album Teenage Dream . Bad was recorded during the first half of 1987 . The lyrical themes on the record relate to media bias , paranoia , racial profiling , romance , self-improvement and world peace . The album is widely regarded as having cemented Jackson 's status as one of the most successful artists of the 1980s , as well as enhancing his solo career and being one of the best musical projects of his career . Nine of the eleven songs on Bad were released as singles ; one was a promotional single and another was released outside of the United States and Canada . Five of the singles hit number one in the United States , while a sixth charted within the top ten , and a seventh charted within the top twenty on the Hot 100 . Bad peaked at number one in thirteen countries and charted within the top twenty in other territories . The only songs on the album which were not released as a single were `` Speed Demon '' and `` Just Good Friends '' , the latter being the only song on the album to also not have a music video accompanying it . Bad saw Jackson exercise even more artistic freedom than he did with his two previous Epic releases ( Off the Wall and Thriller ) . On Bad , Jackson composed nine of the album 's eleven tracks and received co-producer credit for the entire album . The album continued Jackson 's commercial success in the late 1980s and garnered six Grammy Award nominations , winning two . Aside from commercial success , the album also received critical acclaim from contemporary critics . Bad was ranked number 43 in the 100 Greatest Albums of All Time of the MTV Generation in 2009 by VH1 and number 202 in Rolling Stone magazine 's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . The album marked the final collaboration between Jackson and producer Quincy Jones . Production Jackson 's previous albums , Off the Wall and Thriller , were critically and commercially successful , eventually selling over 20 million and 65 million units worldwide , respectively . Jackson 's aim for Bad was that it would sell 100 million copies . The first studio album Jackson released in almost five years since the release of Thriller , Bad was the third , and final , musical collaboration between Jackson and Quincy Jones . It was produced by Jones , with co-production credit given to Jackson . Jackson began recording demos for the anticipated follow-up to Thriller a few months after the 1984 Victory Tour with the Jacksons and throughout 1985 while preparing for Disney 's 4D film experience Captain EO , which featured an early pre-album extended cut of `` Another Part of Me . '' Album development for Bad began in November 1986 and recording took place between January 5 , 1987 and July 9 , 1987 , at Westlake Audio , where a special wooden stage was built to allow Jackson to dance while recording . Jackson wrote a reported sixty songs for the new album and recorded thirty , wanting to use them all on a three-disc set . Jones had suggested that the album be cut down to a ten-track single LP . When the album was released on CD , a bonus 11th track , `` Leave Me Alone '' , was included . It was later released as a single . Later reissues of the LP also include this song . Jackson was credited for writing nine out of eleven of the songs on the album . Other writing credits included Terry Britten and Graham Lyle for `` Just Good Friends '' and Siedah Garrett and Glen Ballard for `` Man in the Mirror '' . Composition The album 's song lyrics relate to romance and paranoia , the latter being a recurring theme in Jackson 's albums . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic noted that Bad moved Jackson `` deeper into hard rock , deeper into schmaltzy adult contemporary , deeper into hard dance – essentially taking each portion of Thriller to an extreme , while increasing the quotient of immaculate studiocraft . '' `` Bad '' was originally intended as a duet between Jackson and musician Prince . Other artists that were supposed to be featured on the album included Diana Ross , Whitney Houston , Aretha Franklin and Barbra Streisand , but none of those collaborations ended up happening . The song was viewed as a rived `` Hit the Road , Jack '' progression with lyrics that pertain to 'boasting ' . `` Dirty Diana '' was viewed by AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine as `` misogynistic '' and its lyrics , describing a sexual predator , do not aim for the `` darkness '' of `` Billie Jean '' , instead sounding equally intrigued by and apprehensive of a sexual challenge , while having the opportunity to accept or resist it . `` Leave Me Alone '' was described as being a `` paranoid anthem '' . `` Man in the Mirror '' was seen as Jackson going `` a step further '' and offering `` a straightforward homily of personal commitment '' , which can be seen in the lyrics , `` I 'm starting with the man in the mirror/I 'm asking him to change his ways/And no message could have been any clearer/If you wan na make the world a better place/Take a look at yourself and then make a change . '' The lyrics to `` Speed Demon '' are about driving fast . `` Liberian Girl '' 's lyrics were viewed as `` glistening '' with `` gratitude '' for the `` existence of a loved one '' . `` Smooth Criminal '' 's recalled `` the popcorn-chomping manner '' of `` Thriller '' . The track was thought of as an example of `` Jackson 's free-form language '' that keeps people `` aware that we are on the edge of several realities : the film , the dream it inspires , the waking world it illuminates '' . The music in `` I Just Ca n't Stop Loving You '' , a duet with Siedah Garrett , consisted mainly of finger snaps and timpani . `` Just Good Friends '' , a duet with Stevie Wonder , was viewed by critics as sounding good at the beginning of the song , ending with a `` chin-bobbing cheerfulness '' . `` The Way You Make Me Feel '' 's music consisted of blues harmonies . The lyrics of `` Another Part of Me '' deal with being united , as `` we '' . Release Bad was released on August 31 , 1987 . By September 26 , it had debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 , remaining there for the next six consecutive weeks . The Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified Bad nine times platinum for having shipped nine million copies in the United States alone . Though Jackson furthered his stance as a global pop superstar , in the United States Bad failed to match the sales of Thriller , causing some in the media to label the album a `` disappointment '' in comparison . Internationally , Bad was commercially successful . In the United Kingdom , the album sold 500,000 copies in its first five days of release , and is certified 13× platinum , for sales of 3.9 million , making it Jackson 's second biggest-selling album in the United Kingdom . Bad peaked at number one in 25 countries including Austria , Canada , Japan , New Zealand , Norway , Sweden , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . The album also charted at number thirteen in Mexico and at number twenty two in Portugal . Bad has received various certifications worldwide . It was certified 7× platinum for the shipment of over 700,000 units in Canada by the Canadian Recording Industry Association . In Europe , the 2001 reissue was certified platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) for the sales of one million units . The album was also certified platinum by the IFPI for the shipment of over 20,000 units in Hong Kong . Globally , Bad is Jackson 's overall second best-selling album , behind Thriller , with a reported sales between 30 and 45 million units as of 2012 . Promotion By the time Bad was released , Thriller had already sold millions , raising expectations for the new album . A commemorative special on Jackson 's life , The Magic Returns , was aired on CBS around the time of the release of Bad . At the end of the documentary , the channel debuted the video of the title song from the album , `` Bad '' , which was directed by Martin Scorsese and featured then up-and-coming actor Wesley Snipes . The marketing strategy , mastered by Frank DiLeo among others , also included Jackson producing another mini-movie around the time of the Bad World Tour . That film , Moonwalker , included performances of songs from Bad , including `` Speed Demon '' , `` Leave Me Alone '' , `` Man in the Mirror '' and `` Smooth Criminal '' , the latter two released as sole videos at the end of the film . Jackson 's tour for Bad was a major financial success , grossing $ 125 million by the conclusion . Singles The lead single `` I Just Ca n't Stop Loving You '' became the first of five of the album 's singles to reach number one on the Billboard Hot 100 . The song reached number one on September 19 , 1987 . It also charted on Billboards R & B/Hip Hop Songs chart and the Adult Contemporary chart , peaking at number one and number two respectively . Internationally , the song also peaked at number one , in three territories , United Kingdom , for two weeks , four weeks in the Netherlands and seven weeks in Norway . The album 's second single , `` Bad '' , peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 on October 16 , 1987 . The song charted within the top ten internationally . `` The Way You Make Me Feel '' became the album 's third consecutive single to peak at number one on Billboards Hot 100 . The song primarily charted within the top ten and twenty internationally . `` Man in the Mirror '' then charted at number one on Billboards Hot 100 in March 1988 and charted at number four , eight and ten in New Zealand , Australia and Austria . On July 2 , 1988 , `` Dirty Diana '' became the fifth consecutive , and final , single to peak at number one on the Hot 100 . It was successful internationally , charting within the top ten in several countries . `` Another Part of Me '' charted at number eleven on the Billboard Hot 100 , while topping the Billboard R & B/Hip Hop Songs chart . Internationally , it was a mid success compared to its previous singles , peaking at number five , fourteen and thirty two in the Netherlands , New Zealand and France . `` Smooth Criminal '' became the sixth top ten single on the Billboard Hot 100 , and saw similar success internationally , charting within the top ten in five territories . Released outside the United States and Canada , `` Leave Me Alone '' topped the Irish charts , as well as peaking within the top ten in five other countries . The album 's last official single was `` Liberian Girl '' , which did not chart on the Billboard Hot 100 , but was generally successful internationally , charting mainly within the top twenty . The singles success of Bad was extremely successful in the UK , where seven of the singles from the album all reached the UK top ten by 2009 ( six initially , until `` Man in the Mirror '' jumped from position 21 to 2 in 2009 ) , just like Dangerous achieved in 1991–1993 . This was a record for any studio album in the UK until Calvin Harris broke this in 2013 . Critical reception Bad was generally well received although some critics noted that Bad did not measure up to Thrillers success . AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine stated that Jackson `` approached '' Bad much the same way he approached Thriller , which was to `` take the basic formula of the predecessor , expand it slightly , and move it outward . '' He gave the album four and a half out of five stars , commenting that while the album `` rebounds with songs that prove mechanical can be tolerable if delivered with hooks and panache , '' it still made Bad feel like an artifact of its time instead a piece of music that transcends it . '' Davitt Sigerson of Rolling Stone stated that `` even without a milestone recording like `` Billie Jean '' , Bad is still a better record than Thriller . '' Sigerson commented that `` filler '' songs in Bad such as `` Speed Demon '' , `` Dirty Diana '' and `` Liberian Girl '' made Bad `` richer , sexier and better than Thriller 's forgettables . '' Music critic Robert Christgau gave Bad a `` B+ '' grade , remarking the `` closest thing to genius '' is the album 's song `` Leave Me Alone , '' and that the record `` damn near wrecks perfectly good dancin ' and singin ' with subtext . '' He also viewed Bad as `` the strongest and most consistent black pop album in years '' . Jon Pareles of the New York Times described Bad as being a `` gleaming , high-tech dance record that 's just a little eccentric at the edges '' . Pareles also noted that Bad `` sounds up-to-the-minute '' , and that the album also has a `` concocted synthesizer-driven arrangements '' that are `` clear '' and can `` carry a solid kick . '' Richard Cromelin of the Los Angeles Times called Bad `` a fair-to-strong array of soul and rock blends '' , commenting that the record was `` not bad '' and was more `` reminiscent of Off the Walls uniform strength than Thrillers peaks and valleys . '' Cromelin felt that it would be `` disappointing '' if this album 's `` creative level '' is where Jackson wants to stay . In a positive contemporary review , journalist Joseph Vogel posits that `` On Bad , Jackson 's music is largely about creating moods , visceral emotions , and fantastical scenarios .... [ with ] each song work [ ing ] as a dream capsule , inviting the listener into a vivid new sound , story , space . '' He then goes on to credit Bad as `` a compelling , phantasmagorical album , which a handful of critics recognized from the beginning . '' Richard Harrington of the Washington Post commented on the expectations of Bad to Thriller that `` splashy though its prime-time introduction may be , the album begs to be judged by its music , not by its sales figures . '' Harrington felt that while the album could not live up to post-Thriller expectations , it would be `` considerably fairer to compare '' Bad with Off the Wall . His overall opinion on Bad was that it was `` a very good record '' that is `` immaculately produced and with some scintillating vocal performances from Jackson '' . Edna Gundersen of USA Today described Bad as being Jackson 's `` most polished effort to date , '' that is `` calculated but not sterile . '' Thom Duffy of the Orlando Sentinel noted that some of the album 's material `` draws on even older musical roots '' . British writer Colin Larkin provided a more negative review of Bad , commenting : `` In musical terms , Bad certainly broke no fresh ground ; appealing though its soft funk confections were , they lacked substance , and represented only a cosmetic advance over his two earlier albums with [ Quincy Jones ] . '' Bad was the recipient of six Grammy Award nominations , winning two . In 1988 , it was nominated for Album of the Year , Best Pop Vocal Performance – Male , Best R & B Vocal Performance – Male and Record of the Year for `` Man in the Mirror '' the following year . Bad won Best Engineered Recording – Non Classical in 1988 and Best Music Video – Short Form for `` Leave Me Alone '' in 1990 . Legacy Bad made history as being the first album to have five of its singles peak at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 consecutively , as `` I Just Ca n't Stop Loving You '' , `` Bad '' , `` The Way You Make Me Feel '' , `` Man in the Mirror '' and `` Dirty Diana '' all charted at number one on the music chart . To date , only one other album has achieved this milestone : Teenage Dream by Katy Perry , in 2010 . The record has still not been surpassed . Jayson Rodriguez of MTV , noted that `` following the twin cannons that were Off the Wall and Thriller would n't be an easy task for most , but Jackson 's follow-up , 1987 's Bad , was formidable by all accounts . '' Rodriguez commented that the album was `` wrongfully dismissed by critics because it was n't the sales blockbuster that Thriller was '' and that during the Bad era , Jackson 's vocal hiccups and stammered `` shamone '' would become staples in his music that were `` heightening and highlighting the emotion of his lyrics . '' Rolling Stone commented that `` the best way to view '' Bad was not as `` the sequel to Thriller . In 2009 , VH1 said of the album : In 2009 , Jim Farber of the Daily News wrote that Bad `` streamlined the quirks '' of Jackson 's two previous albums to `` create his most smooth work of pop to date . '' A writer for The Daily Telegraph commented that while Bad was another worldwide commercial success , the album `` inevitably failed to match the success of Thriller despite Jackson 's massive and grueling world tour '' . In 2009 , a writer for the Miami Herald reflected back on the anticipation for Bad , describing the album 's release as being the `` most hotly anticipated album in history '' . That same year , Stephen M. Silverman , a writer for People magazine , viewed Bad as being `` when some slippage '' in Jackson 's `` popularity began to show '' . In July 2016 , it was announced by the Official Charts Company that Bad was the ninth best-selling album in British history with sales of 4 million units , charting behind Thriller . Bad , along with other studio albums released by Jackson , is among the best-selling albums of all-time . In 2003 , the album was ranked number 202 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the `` 500 Greatest Albums of All Time '' . It was also included in the book titled 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die . In 2009 , VH1 listed Bad at number 43 on their list of `` 100 Greatest Albums of All Time of the MTV Generation '' . In 2012 , Slant Magazine listed the album at number 48 on its list of `` Best Albums of the 1980s '' . The album 's songs have been covered and parodied by multiple recording artists since its release in the late 1980s . Notable cover versions include Alien Ant Farm 's cover of `` Smooth Criminal '' and Shakaya 's cover of `` The Way You Make Me Feel '' . Notable parody versions include `` Weird Al '' Yankovic , who had previously recorded a parody of Jackson 's song `` Beat It '' . Yankovic parodied `` Bad '' , titling his version `` Fat '' in 1988 ; the song won a Grammy Award the same year for Best Concept Music Video . Accolades Bad 25 It was announced on May 3 , 2012 , that the Estate of Michael Jackson and Epic Records would be releasing a 25th anniversary album of Bad . The album was named Bad 25 and was released on September 18 , 2012 . Since the release of Bad 25 , there has been a discontinuation of the special edition of Bad . Track listing * All songs produced by Quincy Jones and co-produced by Michael Jackson . ; Notes Re-issues of Bad feature a number of changes when compared to the original 1987 release : * `` Bad '' – The original mix was replaced with the 7 '' single mix . The most notable difference is the lack of horns in all the choruses except for the last two . Horns are also missing from the second and third pre-choruses . The rhythm guitar during the choruses is also turned up along with the hi-hats . * `` The Way You Make Me Feel '' – The full-length remix used for the single with louder vocals and ad libs added to the end replaced the original album mix . * `` I Just Ca n't Stop Loving You '' omits Michael Jackson 's spoken intro . * `` Dirty Diana '' is replaced with the single edit of the song . * `` Smooth Criminal '' went through two changes on the album . It was remixed to make the kick drum heavier and the bass synth fatter . The quick-sequenced synclavier behind the bass has been rendered mono as well . The first version of this mix left the breathing intact , but was later removed after some time . * `` Leave Me Alone '' was n't included on the original vinyl nor cassette releases but was included on the CD release and now is included in all releases . Personnel Personnel as listed in the album 's liner notes are : * Writer ( tracks 1–4 , 6 , 8–11 ) , composer ( 1–4 , 6 , 8–11 ) , vocal arrangement ( 1–4 , 6 , 8–11 ) , co-producer ( all tracks ) , solo vocals ( all tracks ) , background vocals ( 1–4 , 6–11 ) : Michael Jackson * Producer : Quincy Jones ( all tracks ) * Recording engineer ( all tracks ) , executive producer , mixing ( all tracks ) , Chief of Police speaking part ( track 10 ) : Bruce Swedien * Background vocals : Siedah Garrett ( tracks 7–8 ) , The Winans ( 7 ) , and The Andraé Crouch Choir ( 7 ) * Bass guitar : Nathan East ( track 8 ) * Hammond B-3 organ solo : Jimmy Smith ( track 1 ) * Synthesizer solo : Greg Phillinganes ( track 1 ) * Drums : John Robinson ( tracks 1–4 , 9–10 ) , Miko Brando ( 3 ) , Ollie E. Brown ( 3 , 5 ) , Ndugu Chancler ( 8 ) , Bill Bottrell ( 10 ) , Bruce Swedien ( 5 , 10 ) , Humberto Gatica ( 5 ) * Drum programming : Douglas Getschal ( tracks 1–4 , 9 ) , Cornelius Mims ( 5 ) , Larry Williams ( 11 ) * Guitar : David Williams ( tracks 1–3 , 6 , 9–10 ) , Bill Bottrell ( 3 ) , Eric Gale ( 2 ) , Danny Hull , Steve Stevens ( solo , 9 ) , Dann Huff ( 7–8 ) , Michael Landau ( 5 ) , Paul Jackson , Jr. ( 6 , 9 , 11 ) * Trumpets : Gary Grant and Jerry Hey ( tracks 1–3 , 5–6 , 10 ) * Sounds engineered : Ken Caillat and Tom Jones * Percussion : Paulinho da Costa ( tracks 1–5 , 8 ) , Ollie E. Brown ( 2 , 7 ) * Keyboards : Stefan Stefanovic , Greg Phillinganes ( track 7 ) * Saxophones : Kim Hutchcroft ( tracks 1–3 , 5–6 , 10 ) , Larry Williams ( 1–2 , 5–6 , 10 ) * Synclavier keyboard synth ( tracks 1–6 , 8–10 ) , digital guitar ( 1 ) , finger snaps ( 2 ) , sound effects ( 3 ) : Christopher Currell * Synthesizers : John Barnes ( tracks 1–4 , 6 , 9–10 ) , Michael Boddicker ( 1–5 , 9–10 ) , Greg Phillinganes ( 2–3 , 5 , 8 , 11 , solo–1 ) , Rhett Lawrence ( 5–6 ) , David Paich ( 4 , 8 ) , Larry Williams ( 4–5 , 11 ) , Glen Ballard ( 7 ) , Randy Kerber ( 7 ) , Randy Waldman ( 9 ) * Piano : John Barnes ( track 8 ) , Kevin Maloney ( 10 ) * Rhythm arrangement : Michael Jackson ( tracks 1–4 , 6 , 9–11 ) , Quincy Jones ( 1 , 3–5 , 7–8 ) , Christopher Currell ( 1 ) , John Barnes ( 4 , 6 , 9–10 ) , Graham Lyle ( 5 ) , Terry Britten ( 5 ) , Glen Ballard ( 7 ) , Jerry Hey ( 9 ) * Horn arrangement : Jerry Hey ( tracks 1–3 , 5–6 , 10 ) * Synthesizer programming : Larry Williams ( tracks 2 ) , Eric Persing ( 3 ) , Steve Porcaro ( 4 , 8 ) , Casey Young ( 11 ) * Midi saxophone solo : Larry Williams ( track 3 ) Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Decade-end charts Certifications |- |bgcolor= '' # F2F2F2 '' |Denmark ( IFPI Denmark ) | |100,000 |- |- |bgcolor= '' # F2F2F2 '' |India ( IMI ) | |200,000 |- |bgcolor= '' # F2F2F2 '' |Italy ( FIMI ) | |1,000,000 |- |bgcolor= '' # F2F2F2 '' |Japan ( RIAJ ) | |1,000,000 |- |- |bgcolor= '' # F2F2F2 '' |Netherlands ( NVPI ) | |500,000 |-

sfq_21770--Bad_(album).txt

Who directed the Michael Jackson video ‘Bad’?

Pay-per-view ( PPV ) is a type of pay television service by which a subscriber of a television service provider can purchase events to view via private telecast . The broadcaster shows the event at the same time to everyone ordering it ( as opposed to video-on-demand systems , which allow viewers to see recorded broadcasts at any time ) . Events can be purchased using an on-screen guide , an automated telephone system , or through a live customer service representative . Events often include feature films , sporting events and other entertainment programs . With the rise of the internet , the term Internet Pay-per-view ( iPPV ) has been used to describe Pay-per-view services accessed online . PPV is most commonly used to distribute combat sports events , such as boxing , mixed martial arts , and professional wrestling . North America United States The Zenith Phonevision system became the first pay-per-view system to be tested in the United States . Developed in 1951 , it used telephone lines to take and receive orders , as well as to descramble a television broadcast signal . The field tests conducted for Phonevision lasted for 90 days and were tested in Chicago , Illinois . The system used IBM punch cards to descramble a signal broadcast during the broadcast station 's `` off-time '' . Both systems showed promise , but the Federal Communications Commission denied them the permits to operate . One of the earliest pay-per-view systems on cable television , the Optical Systems-developed Channel 100 , first began service in 1972 in San Diego , California through Mission Cable ( which was later acquired by Cox Communications ) and TheaterVisioN , which operated out of Sarasota , Florida . These early systems quickly went out of business , as the cable industry adopted satellite technology and as flat-rate pay television services such as Home Box Office ( HBO ) became popular . Boxing was first introduced to pay-per-view with the `` Thrilla in Manila '' fight between Muhammad Ali and Joe Frazier in September 1975 ( which was also transmitted through HBO ) ; there was also another major title fight aired on pay-per-view in 1980 , when Roberto Durán defeated Sugar Ray Leonard . Cable companies offered the match for $ 10 , and about 155,000 customers paid to watch the fight . A major pay-per-view event occurred on September 16 , 1981 , when Sugar Ray Leonard fought Thomas `` Hitman '' Hearns for the World Welterweight Championship . Viacom Cablevision in Nashville , Tennessee – the first system to offer the event – saw over 50 percent of its subscriber base purchase the fight . Leonard visited Nashville to promote the fight , and the event proved such a success that Viacom themed its annual report for that year around it . Viacom marketing director Pat Thompson put together the fight , and subsequently put together additional PPV fights , wrestling matches , and even a televised Broadway play . After leaving Viacom , Thompson became head of Sports View and produced the first pay-per-view football game on October 16 , 1983 , a college football game between the University of Tennessee and the University of Alabama from Birmingham , Alabama . Sports View played a role in building pay-per-view networks , and became the early pioneer in developing TigerVision for Louisiana State University , TideVision for Alabama and UT Vol Seat for Tennessee . Sports View also produced the Ohio State-Michigan football game for pay-per-view in November 1983 . In 1985 , the first pay-per-view cable channels in the United States – Viewer 's Choice ( now In Demand ) , Cable Video Store , First Choice and Request TV – began operation within days of each other . Viewer 's Choice serviced both home satellite dish and cable customers , while Request TV , though broadcasting to cable viewers , would not become available to satellite subscribers until the 1990s . First Choice PPV was available on Rogers Cablesystems in the United States and Canada . After Paragon Cable acquired the Rogers Cablesystems franchise in San Antonio , Texas , First Choice continued to be carried until Time Warner Cable bought Paragon in 1996 . In the United States , pay-per-view broadcasters transmit without advertisements , similar to conventional flat-rate pay television services . The term `` pay-per-view '' did not come into general use until the late 1980s when companies such as Viewer 's Choice , HBO and Showtime started using the system to show movies and some of their productions . Viewer 's Choice carried movies , concerts and other events , with live sporting events such as WrestleMania being the most predominant programming . Prices ranged from $ 3.99 to $ 49.99 , while HBO and Showtime , with their event production legs TVKO and SET Pay Per View , would offer championship boxing matches ranging from $ 14.99 to $ 54.99 . ESPN later began to televise college football and basketball games on pay-per-view through its services ESPN GamePlan and ESPN Full Court , which were eventually sold as full-time out-of-market sports packages . The boxing undercard Latin Fury , shown on June 28 , 2003 , became ESPN 's first boxing card on pay-per-view and also the first pay-per-view boxing card held in Puerto Rico . Pay-per-view has provided a revenue stream for professional wrestling circuits such as WWE , Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) , Ring of Honor ( ROH ) and Asistencia Asesoría y Administración ( AAA ) . WWE chairman and chief executive officer Vince McMahon is considered by many as one of the icons of pay-per-view promotion . McMahon owns the domain name payperview.com , which redirects to the WWE website . HBO PPV In 2006 , HBO generated 3.7 million pay-per-view buys with $ 177 million in gross sales . The only year with more buys previously , 1999 , had a total of 4 million . The former record fell in 2007 when HBO sold 4.8 million PPV buys with $ 255 million in sales . 1999 differed radically from 2006 : 1999 saw four major fight cards : De La Hoya-Trinidad ( 1.4 million buys ) , Holyfield-Lewis I ( 1.2 million ) , Holyfield-Lewis II ( 850,000 ) and De La Hoya-Quartey ( 570,000 ) . By contrast , only one pay-per-view mega-fight took place in 2006 : De La Hoya-Mayorga ( 925,000 buys ) . Rahman-Maskaev bombed with under 50,000 . The other eight PPV cards that year all fell in the 325,000–450,000 range . Pay-per-view fights in that range almost always generate more money for the promoter and fighters than HBO wants to pay for an HBO World Championship Boxing license-fee . In May 2007 , the super-welterweight boxing match between Oscar De La Hoya and Floyd Mayweather Jr. on HBO PPV became the biggest-selling non-heavyweight title fight , with a little more than 2.5 million buyers . The fight itself generated roughly $ 134.4 million in domestic PPV revenue , making it the most lucrative prizefight of all time . The record stood until 2015 before it was broken by Floyd Mayweather , Jr. vs. Manny Pacquiao in a fight dubbed as the `` Fight of the Century '' on May 2 , 2015 which generated 4.4 million ppv buys and a revenue of over $ 400 million . The leading PPV attraction , Floyd `` Money '' Mayweather has generated 14 million buys and $ 943 million in revenue . Oscar De La Hoya , has `` sold '' approximately 12.8 million units in total , giving $ 612 million in domestic television receipts and stands second . In third place in buys , Evander Holyfield has achieved 12.6 million units ( $ 543 million ) ; and at fourth , Mike Tyson has reached 12.4 million units ( $ 545 million ) . Ross Greenburg , then president of HBO Sports , called the expansion of pay-per-view `` the biggest economic issue in boxing '' , stating `` I ca n't tell you that pay-per-view helps the sport because it does n't . It hurts the sport because it narrows our audience , but it 's a fact of life . Every time we try to make an HBO World Championship Boxing fight , we 're up against mythical pay-per-view numbers . HBO does n't make a lot of money from pay-per-view . There 's usually a cap on what we can make . But the promoters and fighters insist on pay-per-view because that 's where their greatest profits lie . '' `` It 's a big problem , '' Greenburg continues . `` It 's getting harder and harder to put fighters like Manny Pacquiao on HBO World Championship Boxing . If Floyd Mayweather beats Oscar , he might never fight on HBO World Championship Boxing again . But if HBO stopped doing pay-per-view , the promoters would simply do it on their own [ like Bob Arum did with Cotto-Malignaggi in June 2006 ] or find someone else who will do it for them . '' Former HBO Sports President Seth Abraham concurs , saying , `` I think , if Lou ( DiBella ) and I were still at HBO , we 'd be in the same pickle as far as the exodus of fights to pay-per-view is concerned . '' Boxing Select HBO/Showtime PPV boxing buy-rates between 1988 and 2015 : UFC ( Ultimate Fighting Championship ) Ultimate Fighting Championship ( UFC ) , a relative newcomer on the pay-per-view scene , matched the once-dominant World Wrestling Entertainment Inc. in pay-per-view revenues during 2006 and surpassed boxing titan HBO . The three companies make up the bulk of the pay-per-view business . According to Deana Myers , a senior analyst at Kagan Research LLC ( which tracks the PPV industry ) , `` UFC has reinvigorated the pay-per-view category . '' The highest buy rates for the UFC are as follows : SOURCE : Note : The UFC does not release official PPV statistics , and the following PPV numbers are as reported by industry insiders . Professional wrestling Professional wrestling has a long history of running pay-per-view events . WWE ( then WWF ) launched its first pay-per-view event in 1985 with WrestleMania I and has run numerous others throughout the years . Other major organisations such as WCW , ECW and TNA have also run pay-per-view events . The highest buy rates for professional wrestling events are as follows : Canada In Canada , most cable , satellite , and IPTV service providers provide pay-per-view programming through one or more services . Historically , PPV operations were required to be outsourced to a third-party operator , such as Viewers Choice , which had sole rights to offer PPV programming in a particular language and/or part of the country regardless of service provider . However , the PPV market was opened to competition in the late 1990s , and since then PPV service ownership has been consolidated under the large Canadian service providers , including Shaw PPV ( Shaw Cable / Shaw Direct ) , Vu ! ( Bell TV ) , Sportsnet PPV ( Rogers ) , Canal Indigo ( Videotron ) , and SaskTel PPV , while Viewers Choice will be winding down operations in September 2014 . In all cases , prices typically range from around C $ 4.99 ( for movies ) up to $ 50 or more for special events . Mexico Latin America Matches of CONMEBOL and CONCACAF Qualifiers are broadcast live on beIN Sports MAX . South America Per nations with Pay-Per-View or PPV system in South América Argentina Torneos y Competencias , is a producer and sports events organization that broadcasts live main matches of Argentine Soccer in four categories on TyC Sports and TyC Max Brazil In the soccer main matches of Serie A ( Six games per matchday ) and Serie B ( Four games per matchday ) in two categories of Brazilian Soccer are broadcast live on Premiere FC and SporTV . The Serie C Championship are broadcast live on SporTV with two games per matchday in Pay TV . In other sports are broadcast live on NBB TV ( Exclusive channel of Brazilian Basketball League in Premium system ) Chile In Chile the exclusive rights of Chilean Soccer are owned by TV Fútbol and broadcast live on a channel called Canal Del Fútbol ( The Soccer Channel ) , also known CDF . Sports Field S.A. has exclusive rights to games on the Chilean professional basketball league , which are broadcast live vía CDO ( Premium Signal ) Paraguay The Teledeportes business have exclusive rights to broadcast live main matches of Paraguayan Soccer in four categories vía Tigo Max and Tigo Sports . Teledeportes have live broadcast live of Paraguayan Basketball League is broadcast live Monday at 7:55 pm on Tigo Max ( K.O 20:10 ) and Thursday at 8:00 pm on Tigo Sports ( K.O 20:15 ) . Uruguay The Tenfield producer business and sports events organization have television exclusive rights for the main matches of Uruguayan soccer and basketball , which are broadcast on VTV Max and VTV Sports . Europe Romania Cable communications operator UPC Romania has notified the National Audiovisual Council ( CNA ) on the intention to introduce in January , February 2014 at the latest , an on-demand audiovisual media service called Agerpres . According to the manager of UPC Romania-owned Smaranda Radoi UPC , will allow customers to watch movies on demand or live events ; as well as broadcasts of performances , concerts and sporting events . Albania In November 2008 , pay-per-view made its debut in Albania through Digitalb on terrestrial and satellite television , with the channel DigiGold . United Kingdom Viewers in the United Kingdom can access pay-per-view via satellite , cable and over-the-internet television services , mainly for films – with services such as Sky Box Office . Broadcasters ( most notably PremPlus ) have largely abandoned their aspirations to introduce PPV into the sports market due to poor take-up ; it carries only occasional boxing matches and all of the WWE pay-per-view events . In February 2014 , WWE launched their subscription-based video streaming service , the WWE Network , which was launched in the UK and Ireland on 13 January 2015 ; this would have a considerable impact on pay-per-view services in the UK . France Launched in the late 1990s , Canalsat ( Ciné+ ) and TPS ( Multivision ) operate their own pay-per-view service . While CanalSat holds the rights to live soccer matches for France 's Ligue 1 , TPS had the rights for Boxe matches . In 2007 , Multivision service ceased by the end of TPS service which merged with Canalsat . Nowadays , Ciné+ is the only existing pay-per-view service in France . Croatia Fight Channel is broadcasting martial arts events organized by the world 's most prominent fighting organizations , such as the UFC , K-1 , HBO Boxing , Dream , Glory WS , World Series of Boxing etc . and its pay-per-view service covers the Balkans region . Australia and the Pacific Islands Foxtel and Optus Vision introduced pay-per-view direct to home television in Australia in the mid-to-late 1990s . Foxtel had Event TV ( until it transformed into its current form ; Main Event ) while , Optus Vision had Main Attraction Pay-Per-View as its provider . As of 2005 , Main Event is the current pay-per-view provider through Foxtel and Optus cable/satellite subscription . Sky Pacific started a service in Fiji in 2005 and then expanded into American Samoa , Cook Islands , Fiji , Kiribati ( East ) , Nauru , New Caledonia , Niue , Papua New Guinea , Samoa , Solomon Islands , Tonga and Vanuatu , with one , out of their 25 channels , being Pay-Per-View . Malaysia In Malaysia , Astro 's Astro Box Office service launched in 2000 in the form of the free-to-air `` Astro Showcase '' . Japan SkyPerfecTV subscribers can receive one-click pay-per-view access to hundreds of channels supplying domestic and international sporting events ( including WWE events ) , movies , and specialty programming , either live or later on continuous repeat on its channel . India In India a pay-per-view service operates ; however , pay-per-view sports broadcasts are not available .

jp_269--Pay-per-view.txt

What pay-per view wrestling event was held for the first time in 1985?

Elvis Aaron Presley ( January 8 , 1935 – August 16 , 1977 ) was an American musician and actor . Regarded as one of the most significant cultural icons of the 20th century , he is often referred to as `` the King of Rock and Roll '' , or simply , `` the King '' . Presley was born in Tupelo , Mississippi , as a twinless twin , and when he was 13 years old , he and his family relocated to Memphis , Tennessee . His music career began there in 1954 , when he recorded a song with producer Sam Phillips at Sun Records . Accompanied by guitarist Scotty Moore and bassist Bill Black , Presley was an early popularizer of rockabilly , an uptempo , backbeat-driven fusion of country music and rhythm and blues . RCA Victor acquired his contract in a deal arranged by Colonel Tom Parker , who managed the singer for more than two decades . Presley 's first RCA single , `` Heartbreak Hotel '' , was released in January 1956 and became a number-one hit in the United States . He was regarded as the leading figure of rock and roll after a series of successful network television appearances and chart-topping records . His energized interpretations of songs and sexually provocative performance style , combined with a singularly potent mix of influences across color lines that coincided with the dawn of the Civil Rights Movement , made him enormously popular—and controversial . In November 1956 , he made his film debut in Love Me Tender . In 1958 , he was drafted into military service . He resumed his recording career two years later , producing some of his most commercially successful work before devoting much of the 1960s to making Hollywood films and their accompanying soundtrack albums , most of which were critically derided . In 1968 , following a seven-year break from live performances , he returned to the stage in the acclaimed televised comeback special Elvis , which led to an extended Las Vegas concert residency and a string of highly profitable tours . In 1973 , Presley was featured in the first globally broadcast concert via satellite , Aloha from Hawaii . Several years of prescription drug abuse severely damaged his health , and he died in 1977 at the age of 42 . Presley is one of the most celebrated and influential musicians of the 20th century . Commercially successful in many genres , including pop , blues and gospel , he is the best-selling solo artist in the history of recorded music , with estimated record sales of around 600 million units worldwide . He won three Grammys , also receiving the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award at age 36 , and has been inducted into multiple music halls of fame . Life and career 1935–53 : Early years Childhood in Tupelo Presley was born on January 8 , 1935 , in Tupelo , Mississippi , the son of Gladys Love ( née Smith ; April 25 , 1912 – August 14 , 1958 ) and Vernon Elvis Presley ( April 10 , 1916 – June 26 , 1979 ) , in the two-room shotgun house built by Vernon 's father in preparation for the child 's birth . Jesse Garon Presley , his identical twin brother , was delivered stillborn 35 minutes before him . As an only child , Presley became close to both parents and formed an especially close bond with his mother . The family attended an Assembly of God , where he found his initial musical inspiration . Although he was in conflict with the Pentecostal church in his later years , he never officially left it . Rev . Rex Humbard officiated at his funeral , as Presley had been an admirer of Humbard 's ministry . Presley 's ancestry was primarily a Western European mix , including Scots-Irish , Scottish , German , and some French Norman . Gladys 's great-great-grandmother , Morning Dove White , was possibly a Cherokee Native American . Gladys was regarded by relatives and friends as the dominant member of the small family . Vernon moved from one odd job to the next , evincing little ambition . The family often relied on help from neighbors and government food assistance . The Presleys survived the F5 tornado in the 1936 Tupelo–Gainesville tornado outbreak . In 1938 , they lost their home after Vernon was found guilty of kiting a check written by the landowner , Orville S. Bean , the dairy farmer and cattle-and-hog broker for whom he then worked . He was jailed for eight months , and Gladys and Elvis moved in with relatives . In September 1941 , Presley entered first grade at East Tupelo Consolidated , where his instructors regarded him as `` average '' . He was encouraged to enter a singing contest after impressing his schoolteacher with a rendition of Red Foley 's country song `` Old Shep '' during morning prayers . The contest , held at the Mississippi-Alabama Fair and Dairy Show on October 3 , 1945 , was his first public performance : dressed as a cowboy , the ten-year-old Presley stood on a chair to reach the microphone and sang `` Old Shep '' . He recalled placing fifth . A few months later , Presley received his first guitar for his birthday ; he had hoped for something else—by different accounts , either a bicycle or a rifle . Over the following year , he received basic guitar lessons from two of his uncles and the new pastor at the family 's church . Presley recalled , `` I took the guitar , and I watched people , and I learned to play a little bit . But I would never sing in public . I was very shy about it . '' Entering a new school , Milam , for sixth grade in September 1946 , Presley was regarded as a loner . The following year , he began bringing his guitar in on a daily basis . He played and sang during lunchtime , and was often teased as a `` trashy '' kid who played hillbilly music . The family was by then living in a largely African-American neighborhood . A devotee of Mississippi Slim 's show on the Tupelo radio station WELO , Presley was described as `` crazy about music '' by Slim 's younger brother , a classmate of Presley 's , who often took him into the station . Slim supplemented Presley 's guitar tuition by demonstrating chord techniques . When his protégé was 12 years old , Slim scheduled him for two on-air performances . Presley was overcome by stage fright the first time , but succeeded in performing the following week . Teenage life in Memphis In November 1948 , the family moved to Memphis , Tennessee . After residing for nearly a year in rooming houses , they were granted a two-bedroom apartment in the public housing complex known as the Lauderdale Courts . Enrolled at L. C. Humes High School , Presley received only a C in music in eighth grade . When his music teacher told him he had no aptitude for singing , he brought in his guitar the next day and sang a recent hit , `` Keep Them Cold Icy Fingers Off Me '' , in an effort to prove otherwise . A classmate later recalled that the teacher `` agreed that Elvis was right when he said that she did n't appreciate his kind of singing . '' He was usually too shy to perform openly , and was occasionally bullied by classmates who viewed him as a `` mama 's boy '' . In 1950 , he began practicing guitar regularly under the tutelage of Jesse Lee Denson , a neighbor two-and-a-half years his senior . They and three other boys—including two future rockabilly pioneers , brothers Dorsey and Johnny Burnette—formed a loose musical collective that played frequently around the Courts . That September , he began ushering at Loew 's State Theater . Other jobs followed , including Precision Tool , Loew 's again , and MARL Metal Products . During his junior year , Presley began to stand out more among his classmates , largely because of his appearance : he grew out his sideburns and styled his hair with rose oil and Vaseline . In his free time , he would head down to Beale Street , the heart of Memphis 's thriving blues scene , and gaze longingly at the wild , flashy clothes in the windows of Lansky Brothers . By his senior year , he was wearing them . Overcoming his reticence about performing outside the Lauderdale Courts , he competed in Humes 's Annual `` Minstrel '' show in April 1953 . Singing and playing guitar , he opened with `` Till I Waltz Again with You '' , a recent hit for Teresa Brewer . Presley recalled that the performance did much for his reputation : `` I was n't popular in school ... I failed music—only thing I ever failed . And then they entered me in this talent show ... when I came onstage I heard people kind of rumbling and whispering and so forth , 'cause nobody knew I even sang . It was amazing how popular I became after that . '' Presley , who never received formal music training or learned to read music , studied and played by ear . He also frequented record stores with jukeboxes and listening booths . He knew all of Hank Snow 's songs , and he loved records by other country singers such as Roy Acuff , Ernest Tubb , Ted Daffan , Jimmie Rodgers , Jimmie Davis , and Bob Wills . The Southern gospel singer Jake Hess , one of his favorite performers , was a significant influence on his ballad-singing style . He was a regular audience member at the monthly All-Night Singings downtown , where many of the white gospel groups that performed reflected the influence of African-American spiritual music . He adored the music of black gospel singer Sister Rosetta Tharpe . Like some of his peers , he may have attended blues venues—of necessity , in the segregated South , on only the nights designated for exclusively white audiences . He certainly listened to the regional radio stations , such as WDIA-AM , that played `` race records '' : spirituals , blues , and the modern , backbeat-heavy sound of rhythm and blues . Many of his future recordings were inspired by local African-American musicians such as Arthur Crudup and Rufus Thomas . B.B . King recalled that he had known Presley before he was popular , when they both used to frequent Beale Street . By the time he graduated from high school in June 1953 , Presley had already singled out music as his future . 1953–55 : First recordings Sam Phillips and Sun Records In August 1953 , Presley walked into the offices of Sun Records . He aimed to pay for a few minutes of studio time to record a two-sided acetate disc : `` My Happiness '' and `` That 's When Your Heartaches Begin '' . He would later claim that he intended the record as a gift for his mother , or that he was merely interested in what he `` sounded like '' , although there was a much cheaper , amateur record-making service at a nearby general store . Biographer Peter Guralnick argues that he chose Sun in the hope of being discovered . Asked by receptionist Marion Keisker what kind of singer he was , Presley responded , `` I sing all kinds . '' When she pressed him on who he sounded like , he repeatedly answered , `` I do n't sound like nobody . '' After he recorded , Sun boss Sam Phillips asked Keisker to note down the young man 's name , which she did along with her own commentary : `` Good ballad singer . Hold . '' In January 1954 , Presley cut a second acetate at Sun Records— '' I 'll Never Stand In Your Way '' and `` It Would n't Be the Same Without You '' —but again nothing came of it . Not long after , he failed an audition for a local vocal quartet , the Songfellows . He explained to his father , `` They told me I could n't sing . '' Songfellow Jim Hamill later claimed that he was turned down because he did not demonstrate an ear for harmony at the time . In April , Presley began working for the Crown Electric company as a truck driver . His friend Ronnie Smith , after playing a few local gigs with him , suggested he contact Eddie Bond , leader of Smith 's professional band , which had an opening for a vocalist . Bond rejected him after a tryout , advising Presley to stick to truck driving `` because you 're never going to make it as a singer '' . Phillips , meanwhile , was always on the lookout for someone who could bring to a broader audience the sound of the black musicians on whom Sun focused . As Keisker reported , `` Over and over I remember Sam saying , 'If I could find a white man who had the Negro sound and the Negro feel , I could make a billion dollars . ' '' In June , he acquired a demo recording of a ballad , `` Without You '' , that he thought might suit the teenage singer . Presley came by the studio , but was unable to do it justice . Despite this , Phillips asked Presley to sing as many numbers as he knew . He was sufficiently affected by what he heard to invite two local musicians , guitarist Winfield `` Scotty '' Moore and upright bass player Bill Black , to work something up with Presley for a recording session . The session , held the evening of July 5 , 1954 , proved entirely unfruitful until late in the night . As they were about to give up and go home , Presley took his guitar and launched into a 1946 blues number , Arthur Crudup 's `` That 's All Right '' . Moore recalled , `` All of a sudden , Elvis just started singing this song , jumping around and acting the fool , and then Bill picked up his bass , and he started acting the fool , too , and I started playing with them . Sam , I think , had the door to the control booth open ... he stuck his head out and said , 'What are you doing ? ' And we said , 'We do n't know . ' 'Well , back up , ' he said , 'try to find a place to start , and do it again . ' '' Phillips quickly began taping ; this was the sound he had been looking for . Three days later , popular Memphis DJ Dewey Phillips played `` That 's All Right '' on his Red , Hot , and Blue show . Listeners began phoning in , eager to find out who the singer was . The interest was such that Phillips played the record repeatedly during the last two hours of his show . Interviewing Presley on-air , Phillips asked him what high school he attended in order to clarify his color for the many callers who had assumed he was black . During the next few days , the trio recorded a bluegrass number , Bill Monroe 's `` Blue Moon of Kentucky '' , again in a distinctive style and employing a jury-rigged echo effect that Sam Phillips dubbed `` slapback '' . A single was pressed with `` That 's All Right '' on the A side and `` Blue Moon of Kentucky '' on the reverse . Early live performances and signing with RCA The trio played publicly for the first time on July 17 at the Bon Air club—Presley still sporting his child-size guitar . At the end of the month , they appeared at the Overton Park Shell , with Slim Whitman headlining . A combination of his strong response to rhythm and nervousness at playing before a large crowd led Presley to shake his legs as he performed : his wide-cut pants emphasized his movements , causing young women in the audience to start screaming . Moore recalled , `` During the instrumental parts , he would back off from the mike and be playing and shaking , and the crowd would just go wild '' . Black , a natural showman , whooped and rode his bass , hitting double licks that Presley would later remember as `` really a wild sound , like a jungle drum or something '' . Soon after , Moore and Black quit their old band to play with Presley regularly , and DJ and promoter Bob Neal became the trio 's manager . From August through October , they played frequently at the Eagle 's Nest club and returned to Sun Studio for more recording sessions , and Presley quickly grew more confident on stage . According to Moore , `` His movement was a natural thing , but he was also very conscious of what got a reaction . He 'd do something one time and then he would expand on it real quick . '' Presley made what would be his only appearance on Nashville 's Grand Ole Opry on October 2 ; after a polite audience response , Opry manager Jim Denny told Phillips that his singer was `` not bad '' but did not suit the program . Two weeks later , Presley was booked on Louisiana Hayride , the Oprys chief , and more adventurous , rival . The Shreveport-based show was broadcast to 198 radio stations in 28 states . Presley had another attack of nerves during the first set , which drew a muted reaction . A more composed and energetic second set inspired an enthusiastic response . House drummer D. J. Fontana brought a new element , complementing Presley 's movements with accented beats that he had mastered playing in strip clubs . Soon after the show , the Hayride engaged Presley for a year 's worth of Saturday-night appearances . Trading in his old guitar for $ 8 ( and seeing it promptly dispatched to the garbage ) , he purchased a Martin instrument for $ 175 , and his trio began playing in new locales including Houston , Texas , and Texarkana , Arkansas . By early 1955 , Presley 's regular Hayride appearances , constant touring , and well-received record releases had made him a regional star , from Tennessee to West Texas . In January , Neal signed a formal management contract with Presley and brought the singer to the attention of Colonel Tom Parker , whom he considered the best promoter in the music business . Having successfully managed top country star Eddy Arnold , Parker was now working with the new number-one country singer , Hank Snow . Parker booked Presley on Snow 's February tour . When the tour reached Odessa , Texas , a 19-year-old Roy Orbison saw Presley for the first time : `` His energy was incredible , his instinct was just amazing . ... I just did n't know what to make of it . There was just no reference point in the culture to compare it . '' Presley made his television debut on March 3 on the KSLA-TV broadcast of Louisiana Hayride . Soon after , he failed an audition for Arthur Godfrey 's Talent Scouts on the CBS television network . By August , Sun had released ten sides credited to `` Elvis Presley , Scotty and Bill '' ; on the latest recordings , the trio were joined by a drummer . Some of the songs , like `` That 's All Right '' , were in what one Memphis journalist described as the `` R & B idiom of negro field jazz '' ; others , like `` Blue Moon of Kentucky '' , were `` more in the country field '' , `` but there was a curious blending of the two different musics in both '' . This blend of styles made it difficult for Presley 's music to find radio airplay . According to Neal , many country-music disc jockeys would not play it because he sounded too much like a black artist and none of the rhythm-and-blues stations would touch him because `` he sounded too much like a hillbilly . '' The blend came to be known as rockabilly . At the time , Presley was variously billed as `` The King of Western Bop '' , `` The Hillbilly Cat '' , and `` The Memphis Flash '' . Presley renewed Neal 's management contract in August 1955 , simultaneously appointing Parker as his special adviser . The group maintained an extensive touring schedule throughout the second half of the year . Neal recalled , `` It was almost frightening , the reaction that came to Elvis from the teenaged boys . So many of them , through some sort of jealousy , would practically hate him . There were occasions in some towns in Texas when we 'd have to be sure to have a police guard because somebody 'd always try to take a crack at him . They 'd get a gang and try to waylay him or something . '' The trio became a quartet when Hayride drummer Fontana joined as a full member . In mid-October , they played a few shows in support of Bill Haley , whose `` Rock Around the Clock '' had been a number-one hit the previous year . Haley observed that Presley had a natural feel for rhythm , and advised him to sing fewer ballads . At the Country Disc Jockey Convention in early November , Presley was voted the year 's most promising male artist . Several record companies had by now shown interest in signing him . After three major labels made offers of up to $ 25,000 , Parker and Phillips struck a deal with RCA Victor on November 21 to acquire Presley 's Sun contract for an unprecedented $ 40,000 . Presley , at 20 , was still a minor , so his father signed the contract . Parker arranged with the owners of Hill and Range Publishing , Jean and Julian Aberbach , to create two entities , Elvis Presley Music and Gladys Music , to handle all the new material recorded by Presley . Songwriters were obliged to forgo one third of their customary royalties in exchange for having him perform their compositions . By December , RCA had begun to heavily promote its new singer , and before month 's end had reissued many of his Sun recordings . 1956–58 : Commercial breakout and controversy First national TV appearances and debut album On January 10 , 1956 , Presley made his first recordings for RCA in Nashville . Extending the singer 's by now customary backup of Moore , Black , and Fontana , RCA enlisted pianist Floyd Cramer , guitarist Chet Atkins , and three background singers , including first tenor Gordon Stoker of the popular Jordanaires quartet , to fill out the sound . The session produced the moody , unusual `` Heartbreak Hotel '' , released as a single on January 27 . Parker finally brought Presley to national television , booking him on CBS 's Stage Show for six appearances over two months . The program , produced in New York , was hosted on alternate weeks by big band leaders and brothers Tommy and Jimmy Dorsey . After his first appearance , on January 28 , introduced by disc jockey Bill Randle , Presley stayed in town to record at RCA 's New York studio . The sessions yielded eight songs , including a cover of Carl Perkins ' rockabilly anthem `` Blue Suede Shoes '' . In February , Presley 's `` I Forgot to Remember to Forget '' , a Sun recording initially released the previous August , reached the top of the Billboard country chart . Neal 's contract was terminated and , on March 2 , Parker became Presley 's manager . RCA Victor released Presley 's eponymous debut album on March 23 . Joined by five previously unreleased Sun recordings , its seven recently recorded tracks were of a broad variety . There were two country songs and a bouncy pop tune . The others would centrally define the evolving sound of rock and roll : `` Blue Suede Shoes '' — '' an improvement over Perkins ' in almost every way '' , according to critic Robert Hilburn—and three R & B numbers that had been part of Presley 's stage repertoire for some time , covers of Little Richard , Ray Charles , and The Drifters . As described by Hilburn , these `` were the most revealing of all . Unlike many white artists ... who watered down the gritty edges of the original R & B versions of songs in the '50s , Presley reshaped them . He not only injected the tunes with his own vocal character but also made guitar , not piano , the lead instrument in all three cases . '' It became the first rock-and-roll album to top the Billboard chart , a position it held for 10 weeks . While Presley was not an innovative guitarist like Moore or contemporary African American rockers Bo Diddley and Chuck Berry , cultural historian Gilbert B. Rodman argues that the album 's cover image , `` of Elvis having the time of his life on stage with a guitar in his hands played a crucial role in positioning the guitar ... as the instrument that best captured the style and spirit of this new music . '' Milton Berle Show and `` Hound Dog '' Presley made the first of two appearances on NBC 's Milton Berle Show on April 3 . His performance , on the deck of the USS Hancock in San Diego , prompted cheers and screams from an audience of sailors and their dates . A few days later , a flight taking Presley and his band to Nashville for a recording session left all three badly shaken when an engine died and the plane almost went down over Arkansas . Twelve weeks after its original release , `` Heartbreak Hotel '' became Presley 's first number-one pop hit . In late April , Presley began a two-week residency at the New Frontier Hotel and Casino on the Las Vegas Strip . The shows were poorly received by the conservative , middle-aged hotel guests— '' like a jug of corn liquor at a champagne party , '' wrote a critic for Newsweek . Amid his Vegas tenure , Presley , who had serious acting ambitions , signed a seven-year contract with Paramount Pictures . He began a tour of the Midwest in mid-May , taking in 15 cities in as many days . He had attended several shows by Freddie Bell and the Bellboys in Vegas and was struck by their cover of `` Hound Dog '' , a hit in 1953 for blues singer Big Mama Thornton by songwriters Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller . It became the new closing number of his act . After a show in La Crosse , Wisconsin , an urgent message on the letterhead of the local Catholic diocese 's newspaper was sent to FBI director J. Edgar Hoover . It warned that `` Presley is a definite danger to the security of the United States . ... [ His ] actions and motions were such as to rouse the sexual passions of teenaged youth . ... After the show , more than 1,000 teenagers tried to gang into Presley 's room at the auditorium . ... Indications of the harm Presley did just in La Crosse were the two high school girls ... whose abdomen and thigh had Presley 's autograph . '' The second Milton Berle Show appearance came on June 5 at NBC 's Hollywood studio , amid another hectic tour . Berle persuaded the singer to leave his guitar backstage , advising , `` Let 'em see you , son . '' During the performance , Presley abruptly halted an uptempo rendition of `` Hound Dog '' with a wave of his arm and launched into a slow , grinding version accentuated with energetic , exaggerated body movements . Presley 's gyrations created a storm of controversy . Newspaper critics were outraged : Jack Gould of The New York Times wrote , `` Mr. Presley has no discernible singing ability . ... His phrasing , if it can be called that , consists of the stereotyped variations that go with a beginner 's aria in a bathtub . ... His one specialty is an accented

wh_2615--Elvis_Presley.txt

In which year did both T-Rex's Marc Bolan and Elvis Presley die ?

The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas is a musical with a book by Texas author Larry L. King and Peter Masterson and music and lyrics by Carol Hall . It is based on a story by King that was inspired by the real-life Chicken Ranch in La Grange , Texas . Production history The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas opened on Broadway at the 46th Street Theatre on June 19 , 1978 and ran for 1,584 performances . The production was directed by Peter Masterson and Tommy Tune and choreographed by Tune and Thommie Walsh . The opening cast included Carlin Glynn , Henderson Forsythe , Jay Garner , Joan Ellis , Delores Hall , and Pamela Blair . Glynn was replaced by Fannie Flagg and Anita Morris later in the run . Alexis Smith starred as Miss Mona in the National Company , which toured major cities for more than a year , ending with a seven-month run in Los Angeles . In what was described as `` a return engagement '' , the show opened on Broadway at the Eugene O'Neill Theatre on May 31 , 1982 and closed on July 24 , 1982 after nine previews and 63 performances . The cast featured Glynn and Hall . The West End theatre production opened at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane on February 26 , 1981 , again starring Glynn and Forsythe . It ran for 204 performances . A short-lived sequel entitled The Best Little Whorehouse Goes Public was staged on Broadway in 1994 . `` The Aggie Song '' was performed on the Tony Awards broadcast , but was heavily censored because of the nature of the lyrics and choreography . A U.S. National Tour starring Ann-Margret opened on February 14 , 2001 . A Revival Production of the musical was staged on London 's Fringe at The Union Theatre From October 2011- November 2011 , starring Sarah Lark as Miss Mona , Nancy Sullivan as Shy and Leon Craig as Melvin P. Thorpe . Ensemble members included Jarred Page , Sasi Strallen , Katy Streader , Frankie Jenna , Patrick George , Dayle Hodge & Dan O'Brian . The production was directed by Paul Taylor-Mills . A Broadway revival , with direction and choreography from Rob Ashford , was reportedly in the works in 2015 . Synopsis It is the late 1970s , and a brothel has been operating outside of fictional Gilbert , Texas , ( subbing for real locale La Grange ) for more than a century . It is under the proprietorship of Miss Mona Stangley , having been left to her by the original owner . While taking care of her girls , she is also on good terms with the local sheriff , Ed Earl Dodd . When crusading television reporter Melvin P. Thorpe ( based on real-life Houston news personality Marvin Zindler ) decides to make the illegal activity an issue , political ramifications cause the place to be closed down . Song list ; Act I * `` Prologue '' – The Rio Grande Band Leader and the Rio Grande Band * `` 20 Fans '' – Company * `` A Lil ' Ole Bitty Pissant Country Place '' – Mona Stangley and the Girls * `` Girl , You 're a Woman '' – Mona Stangley , Shy , Jewel and the Girls * `` Watch Dog Theme '' – The Dogettes * `` Texas Has a Whorehouse in It '' – Melvin P. Thorpe , the Thorpe Singers and the Dogettes * `` Twenty Four Hours of Lovin ' '' – Jewel and the Girls * `` Watch Dog Theme '' ( Reprise ) – The Dogettes * `` Texas Has a Whorehouse in It '' ( Reprise ) – Melvin P. Thorpe and the Dogettes * `` Doatsy Mae '' – Doatsy Mae * `` Angelette March '' – Angelette Imogene Charlene and the Angelettes * `` The Aggie Song '' – The Aggies * `` The Bus from Amarillo '' – Mona Stangley ; Act II * `` The Sidestep '' – The Governor of Texas & Company * `` No Lies '' – Mona Stangley , Jewel and the Girls * `` Good Old Girl '' – Sheriff Ed Earl Dodd and the Aggies * `` Hard Candy Christmas '' – The Girls * `` Finale '' – Company Awards and nominations Original Broadway production Notes Bibliography * Hall , Carol . Vocal selections from The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas . Melville , N.Y. : MCA Music , 1979 . * King , Larry L. and Masterson , Peter . The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas . Music and lyrics by Carol Hall . French 's Musical Library . New York , N.Y. : S. French , 1978 . ISBN 0-573-68111-2 * King , Larry L. The Whorehouse Papers . New York : Viking Press , 1982 . ISBN 0-670-15919-0 Discography * The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas : original cast . Audio CD . MCA , 1997 . MCAD-11683 ; MCA-3049 . * Best Little Whorehouse in Texas : New cast recording . Audio CD . Fynsworth Alley/Varèse Sarabande , 2001 . 302 062 117 2 .

tc_1189--The_Best_Little_Whorehouse_in_Texas.txt

What was the name of the brothel in The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas?

Taxi Driver is a 1976 American vigilante film with neo-noir and psychological thriller elements , directed by Martin Scorsese and written by Paul Schrader . Set in New York City following the Vietnam War , the film stars Robert De Niro , and features Jodie Foster , Harvey Keitel , Cybill Shepherd , Peter Boyle , and Albert Brooks . The film is regularly cited by critics , film directors , and audiences alike as one of the greatest films of all time . Nominated for four Academy Awards , including Best Picture , it won the Palme d'Or at the 1976 Cannes Film Festival . The American Film Institute ranked Taxi Driver as the 52nd-greatest American film on its AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition ) list . The film also ranks # 17 on Empire magazine 's 2008 list of the 500 greatest movies of all time . In 2012 , Sight & Sound named it the 31st-best film ever in its decennial critics ' poll , ranked with The Godfather Part II , and the fifth-greatest film of all time on its directors ' poll . The film was considered `` culturally , historically or aesthetically '' significant by the US Library of Congress and was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry in 1994 . Plot Travis Bickle , an honorably discharged U.S. Marine , is a lonely , depressed young man living on his own in New York City . He becomes a taxi driver to cope with his chronic insomnia , driving passengers every night around the boroughs of New York City . He also spends time in seedy porn theaters and keeps a diary . Travis becomes infatuated with Betsy , a campaign volunteer for Senator and presidential candidate Charles Palantine . After watching her interact with fellow worker Tom through her window , Travis enters to volunteer as a pretext to talk to her , and takes her out for coffee . On a later date , he takes her to see a Swedish sex education film , which offends her , and she goes home alone . His attempts at reconciliation by sending flowers are rebuffed , so he berates her at the campaign office , before being kicked out by Tom . Travis confides in fellow taxi driver Wizard about his thoughts , which are beginning to turn violent , but Wizard assures him that he will be fine , leaving Travis to his own destructive path . Travis is disgusted by the sleaze , dysfunction , and prostitution that he witnesses throughout the city , and attempts to find an outlet for his frustrations by beginning a program of intense physical training . A fellow taxi driver refers Travis to illegal gun dealer Easy Andy , from whom he buys a number of handguns . At home , Travis practices drawing his weapons and constructs a sleeve gun to hide and then quickly deploy a gun from his sleeve . One night , Travis enters a convenience store moments before an attempted armed robbery and he shoots and kills the robber . The shop owner takes responsibility for the shooting , taking Travis ' handgun . On another night , teenage prostitute Iris enters Travis 's cab , attempting to escape her pimp Matthew `` Sport '' Higgins . Sport drags Iris from the cab and throws Travis a crumpled twenty-dollar bill , which continually reminds him of her and the corruption that surrounds him . Some time later , Travis hires Iris , but instead of having sex with her , attempts to dissuade her from continuing in prostitution . He fails to completely turn her from her course , but she does agree to meet with him for breakfast the next day . Travis leaves a letter to Iris at his apartment saying he will soon be dead , with money for her to return home . The letter is intercepted by Sport , who gives the money to a gangster who comes to have sex with Iris . After shaving his head into a mohawk , Travis attends a public rally , where he plans to assassinate Senator Palantine , but Secret Service agents notice him with his hand in his coat and chase him . He flees and later goes to the East Village to invade Sport 's brothel . A violent gunfight ensues and Travis kills Sport , a bouncer , and a mafioso . Travis is severely injured with multiple gunshot wounds . Iris witnesses the fight and is hysterical with fear , pleading with Travis to stop the killing . After the gunfight , Travis attempts suicide , but has run out of ammunition and resigns himself to lying on a sofa until police arrive . When they do , he places his index finger against his temple gesturing the act of shooting himself . Travis , after having recovered from his wounds and returning to work , receives a letter from Iris ' father thanking him for saving her life and revealing that she has returned home to Pittsburgh , where she is going to school . Later , he reconciles with Betsy after dropping her off at home in his cab . When she tries to pay her fare , Travis simply smiles at her and drives away . In the final shot , Travis looks in the rearview mirror and suddenly becomes agitated . Cast * Robert De Niro as Travis Bickle * Jodie Foster as Iris * Harvey Keitel as Sport * Cybill Shepherd as Betsy * Albert Brooks as Tom * Leonard Harris as Charles Palantine * Peter Boyle as Wizard * Harry Northup as Doughboy * Norman Matlock as Charlie T * Martin Scorsese as Passenger Watching Silhouette * Victor Argo as Melio * Steven Prince as Andy - Gun Salesman * Joe Spinell as Personnel Officer * Diahnne Abbott as Concession Girl * Bob Maroff as Mafioso Production According to Scorsese , it was Brian De Palma who introduced him to Schrader . In Scorsese on Scorsese , the director talks about how much of the film arose from his feeling that movies are like dreams or drug-induced reveries . He admits attempting to incubate within the viewer the feeling of being in a limbo state somewhere between sleeping and waking . He calls Travis an `` avenging angel '' floating through the streets of a New York City intended to represent all cities everywhere . Scorsese calls attention to improvisation in the film , such as in the scene between De Niro and Cybill Shepherd in the coffee shop . The director also cites Alfred Hitchcock 's The Wrong Man and Jack Hazan 's A Bigger Splash as inspirations for his camerawork in the movie . In Scorsese on Scorsese , the director mentions the religious symbolism in the story , comparing Bickle to a saint who wants to cleanse or purge both his mind and his body of weakness . Bickle attempts to kill himself near the end of the movie as a tribute to the samurai 's `` death with honour '' principle . When Travis meets Betsy to join him for coffee and pie , she is reminded of a line in Kris Kristofferson 's song `` The Pilgrim , Chapter 33 '' : `` He 's a prophet and a pusher , partly truth , partly fiction—a walking contradiction . '' On their date , Bickle takes her to see a Swedish sex education film , which is in fact the American sexplotation film Sexual Freedom in Denmark with added Swedish sound . Shot during a New York summer heat wave and garbage strike , Taxi Driver came into conflict with the MPAA for its violence ( Scorsese de-saturated the color in the final shoot-out , and the film got an R rating ) . To achieve the atmospheric scenes in Bickle 's cab , the sound men would get in the trunk and Scorsese and his cinematographer , Michael Chapman , would ensconce themselves on the back seat floor and use available light to shoot . In writing the script , Schrader was inspired by the diaries of Arthur Bremer ( who shot presidential candidate George Wallace in 1972 ) and Fyodor Dostoyevsky 's Notes from Underground . The writer also used himself as inspiration ; prior to writing the screenplay , Schrader was in a lonely and alienated position , much like Bickle is . Following a divorce and a breakup with a live-in girlfriend , he spent a few weeks living in his car . He wrote the script in under a month while staying in his former girlfriend 's apartment while she was away . Schrader decided to make Bickle a Vietnam vet because the national trauma of the war seemed to blend perfectly with Bickle 's paranoid psychosis , making his experiences after the war more intense and threatening . Thus , Bickle chooses to drive his taxi anywhere in the city as a way to feed his hate . While preparing for his role as Bickle , De Niro was filming Bernardo Bertolucci 's 1900 in Italy . According to Boyle , he would `` finish shooting on a Friday in Rome ... get on a plane ... [ and ] fly to New York . '' De Niro obtained a cab driver 's license , and when on break would pick up a cab and drive around New York for a couple of weeks , before returning to Rome to resume filming 1900 . De Niro apparently lost 35 pounds and listened repeatedly to a taped reading of the diaries of Arthur Bremer . When he had time off from shooting 1900 , De Niro visited an army base in Northern Italy and tape-recorded soldiers from the Midwestern United States , whose accents he thought might be appropriate for Travis 's character . When Bickle decides to assassinate Senator Palantine , he cuts his hair into a Mohawk . This detail was suggested by actor Victor Magnotta , a friend of Scorsese 's who had a small role as a Secret Service agent and who had served in Vietnam . Scorsese later noted , `` Magnotta had talked about certain types of soldiers going into the jungle . They cut their hair in a certain way ; looked like a Mohawk ... and you knew that was a special situation , a commando kind of situation , and people gave them wide berths ... we thought it was a good idea . '' Jodie Foster was not the first choice to play Iris . Scorsese considered Melanie Griffith , Linda Blair , Bo Derek , and Carrie Fisher for the role . A newcomer , Mariel Hemingway , auditioned for the role but turned it down due to pressure from her family . After the other actresses turned down the role as well , Foster , an experienced child actor , was chosen . In the original draft , Schrader had written the role of Sport as a black man . There were also additions of other negative black roles . Scorsese believed that this would give the film an overly racist subtext , so they were changed to white roles . The Terminal Bar was featured in a scene in the film . Schrader originally set the film in Los Angeles , but it was moved to New York City because taxicabs were much more prevalent there than in Los Angeles . Taking place in an actual apartment , the tracking shot over the murder scene at the end took three months of preparation just because the production team had to cut through the ceiling in order to get it right . Music The music by Bernard Herrmann was his final score before his death on December 24 , 1975 , and the film is dedicated to his memory . Robert Barnett of MusicWeb International has said that it contrasts deep , sleazy noises , representing the `` scum '' that Travis sees all over the city , with the saxophone , a musical counterpart to Travis , creating a mellifluously disenchanted troubadour . Barnett also observes that the opposing noises in the soundtrack—gritty little harp figures , hard as shards of steel , as well as a jazz drum kit placing the drama in the city—are indicative of loneliness in the midst of mobs of people . Deep brass and woodwinds are also evident . Barnett heard in the drumbeat a wild-eyed martial air charting the pressure on Bickle , who is increasingly oppressed by the corruption around him , and that the harp , drum , and saxophone play significant roles in the music . Also featured in the film is Jackson Browne 's `` Late for the Sky '' , appearing in a scene where couples are dancing on the program American Bandstand to the song as Travis watches on his small TV . The soundtrack for the film , re-released in 1998 on CD , includes an expanded version of the score as well as the tracks from the original 1976 LP . It also features album notes by director Martin Scorsese , as well as full documentation for the tracks , linking them in great detail to individual takes . Track 12 , `` Diary of a Taxi Driver '' , features Herrmann 's music with De Niro 's voice-over taken directly from the soundtrack . Some of the tracks feature relatively long titles , representative of the fact that similar reprises are heard in many scenes . Only the A-side of the 1976 soundtrack LP featured the Herrmann score . The B-side ( tracks 14 through 18 on the CD ) was dedicated to jazz `` interpretations '' of the score , arranged and conducted by Dave Blume . None of these recordings appeared in the film . Controversies The climactic shoot-out was considered intensely graphic by a few critics at the film 's premiere . To attain an `` R '' rating , Scorsese had the colors de-saturated , making the brightly colored blood less prominent . In later interviews , Scorsese commented that he was actually pleased by the color change and considered it an improvement over the originally filmed scene , which has been lost . In the special-edition DVD , Michael Chapman , the film 's cinematographer , regrets the decision and the fact that no print with the unmuted colors exists anymore , as the originals had long since deteriorated . Some critics showed concern over 13-year-old Foster 's presence during the climactic shoot-out . Foster said that she was present during the setup and staging of the special effects used during the scene ; the entire process was explained and demonstrated for her , step by step . Moreover , Foster said , she was fascinated and entertained by the behind-the-scenes preparation that went into the scene . In addition , before being given the part , Foster was subjected to psychological testing to ensure that she would not be emotionally scarred by her role , in accordance with California Labor Board requirements . Copies of the film distributed for TV broadcast had an unexplained disclaimer added during the closing credits : John Hinckley , Jr . Taxi Driver formed part of the delusional fantasy of John Hinckley Jr. that triggered his attempted assassination of President Ronald Reagan in 1981 , an act for which he was found not guilty by reason of insanity . Hinckley stated that his actions were an attempt to impress actress Jodie Foster , on whom Hinckley was fixated , by mimicking Travis 's mohawked appearance at the Palantine rally . His attorney concluded his defense by playing the movie for the jury . Interpretations Sabine Haenni , a professor at Cornell University , commented on the film in her article `` Geographies of Desire : Postsocial Urban Space and Historical Revision in the Films of Martin Scorsese '' pg . 67 : `` While Taxi Driver chronicles Travis 's excessive response to the perceived decline of the city , perhaps more fundamentally , the decline of the city seems to engender the decline of the male hero—Travis 's inability to function in individual , collective , and heteronormative terms . '' Roger Ebert has written of the film 's ending : There has been much discussion about the ending , in which we see newspaper clippings about Travis 's `` heroism '' of saving Iris , and then Betsy gets into his cab and seems to give him admiration instead of her earlier disgust . Is this a fantasy scene ? Did Travis survive the shoot-out ? Are we experiencing his dying thoughts ? Can the sequence be accepted as literally true ? ... I am not sure there can be an answer to these questions . The end sequence plays like music , not drama : It completes the story on an emotional , not a literal , level . We end not on carnage but on redemption , which is the goal of so many of Scorsese 's characters . James Berardinelli , in his review of the film , argues against the dream or fantasy interpretation , stating : Scorsese and writer Paul Schrader append the perfect conclusion to Taxi Driver . Steeped in irony , the five-minute epilogue underscores the vagaries of fate . The media builds Bickle into a hero , when , had he been a little quicker drawing his gun against Senator Palantine , he would have been reviled as an assassin . As the film closes , the misanthrope has been embraced as the model citizen—someone who takes on pimps , drug dealers , and mobsters to save one little girl . On the Laserdisc audio commentary , Scorsese acknowledged several critics ' interpretation of the film 's ending as being Bickle 's dying dream . He admits that the last scene of Bickle glancing at an unseen object implies that Bickle might fall into rage and recklessness in the future , and he is like `` a ticking time bomb '' . Writer Paul Schrader confirms this in his commentary on the 30th-anniversary DVD , stating that Travis `` is not cured by the movie 's end '' , and that `` he 's not going to be a hero next time . '' When asked on the website Reddit about the film 's ending , Schrader said that it was not to be taken as a dream sequence , but that he envisioned it as returning to the beginning of the film—as if the last frame `` could be spliced to the first frame , and the movie started all over again . '' Reception Box office Filmed on a budget of $ 1.3 million , Taxi Driver was a financial success , grossing $ 28,262,574 in the United States , making it the 17th-highest-grossing film of 1976 . Critical response Roger Ebert instantly praised it as one of the greatest films he had ever seen , claiming : Taxi Driver is a hell , from the opening shot of a cab emerging from stygian clouds of steam to the climactic killing scene in which the camera finally looks straight down . Scorsese wanted to look away from Travis 's rejection ; we almost want to look away from his life . But he 's there , all right , and he 's suffering . It was nominated for four Academy Awards , including Best Picture and Best Actor ( De Niro ) , and received the Palme d'Or at the 1976 Cannes Film Festival . It has been selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry . The film was chosen by Time as one of the 100 best films of all time . Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 99 % based on reviews from 68 critics ; the site 's consensus states : `` A must-see film for movie lovers , this Martin Scorsese masterpiece is as hard-hitting as it is compelling , with Robert De Niro at his best . '' Metacritic gives the film a score of 93 out of 100 , based on reviews from 8 critics , indicating `` universal acclaim . '' The July/August 2009 issue of Film Comment polled several critics on the best films to win the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival . Taxi Driver placed first , above films such as Il Gattopardo , Viridiana , Blowup , The Conversation , Apocalypse Now , La Dolce Vita , and Pulp Fiction . In the American Film Institute 's top 50 movie villains of all time , Bickle was named the 30th greatest film villain . Empire also ranked him 18th in its `` The 100 Greatest Movie Characters '' poll . Time Out magazine conducted a poll of the 100 greatest movies set in New York City . Taxi Driver topped the list placing at No . 1 . Accolades Legacy Taxi Driver , American Gigolo , Light Sleeper , and The Walker make up a series referred to variously as the `` Man in a Room '' or `` Night Worker '' films . Screenwriter Paul Schrader ( who directed the latter three films ) has said that he considers the central characters of the four films to be one character , who has changed as he has aged . The film also influenced the Charles Winkler film You Talkin ' to Me ? In the 2012 film Seven Psychopaths , psychotic Los Angeles actor Billy Bickle ( Sam Rockwell ) believes himself to be the illegitimate son of Travis Bickle . Travis also appears as a minor supporting character in the 2012 graphic novel Before Watchmen : Rorshach . In the Canadian television series Trailer Park Boys , a man dressed as Travis makes an appearance in the episode `` Jim Lahey is a Drunk Bastard '' , during the trailer park supervisor election . The vigilante ending inspired Jacques Audiard for his 2015 Palme d'Or-winning film Dheepan . The French director based the eponymous Tamil Tiger character on the one played by Robert De Niro in order to make him a `` real movie hero '' . `` You talkin ' to me ? '' The catchphrase `` You talkin ' to me ? '' has become a pop culture mainstay . In 2005 , it was ranked number 10 on the American Film Institute 's AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes . In the corresponding scene , Bickle is looking into a mirror at himself , imagining a confrontation that would give him a chance to draw his gun . He says : Roger Ebert called it `` the truest line in the film .... Travis Bickle 's desperate need to make some kind of contact somehow—to share or mimic the effortless social interaction he sees all around him , but does not participate in . '' Schrader does not take credit for the line , saying that his script only read `` Travis speaks to himself in the mirror '' , and that De Niro improvised the dialogue . However , Schrader went on to say that De Niro 's performance was inspired by a routine by `` an underground New York comedian '' whom he had once seen , possibly including his signature line . In his 2009 memoir , saxophonist Clarence Clemons said that De Niro explained the line 's origins when Clemons coached De Niro to play the saxophone for the 1977 film New York , New York . Clemons said that De Niro had seen Bruce Springsteen say the line onstage at a concert as fans were screaming his name , and decided to make the line his own . This line has been referenced many times , notably in the 1995 French film La Haine . The same line without profanity was also repeated by De Niro as the character `` Fearless Leader '' in the movie The Adventures of Rocky & Bullwinkle ( 2000 ) , supposedly because fans had often requested he repeat the line to them or say them again in a movie . The original line is from the movie Shane when Shane , Alan Ladd , spoke to Chris Calloway , Ben Johnson , during their first confrontation in the bar . Home media The first collector 's edition ( DVD ) , released in 1999 , was packaged as a single-disc edition release . It contained special features , such as behind-the-scenes and several trailers , including one for Taxi Driver . In 2006 , a 30th-anniversary 2-disc collector 's edition was released . The first disc contains the film itself , two audio commentaries ( one by writer Schrader and the other by Professor Robert Kolker ) , and trailers . This edition also retains some of the special features from the earlier release on the second disc , as well as some newly produced documentary material . A Blu-ray was released on April 5 , 2011 to commemorate the film 's 35th anniversary . It includes the special features from the previous 2-disc collector 's edition , plus an audio commentary by Scorsese released in 1991 for The Criterion Collection , previously released on Laserdisc . As part of the Blu-ray production , Sony gave the film a full 4K digital restoration , which included scanning and cleaning the original negative ( removing emulsion dirt and scratches ) . Colors were matched to director-approved prints under guidance from Scorsese and director of photography Michael Chapman . An all-new lossless DTS-HD Master Audio 5.1 soundtrack was also made from the original stereo recordings by Scorsese 's personal sound team . The restored print premiered in February 2011 at the Berlin Film Festival , and to promote the Blu-ray , Sony also had the print screened at AMC Theatres across the United States on March 19 and 22 . Sequel/remake In late January 2005 , a sequel was announced by De Niro and Scorsese . At a 25th-anniversary screening of Raging Bull , De Niro talked about the story of an older Travis Bickle being in development . Also in 2000 , De Niro mentioned interest in bringing back the character in conversation with Actors Studio host James Lipton . In November 2013 , he revealed that Schrader had done a first draft but both he and Scorsese thought that it was not good enough to go beyond . In 2010 Variety reported rumors that , Lars von Trier , Martin Scorsese , and Robert De Niro planned to work on a remake of the film with the same restrictions that were used in The Five Obstructions . In 2014 Paul Schrader said that it was not being made . He said , `` It was a terrible idea '' and `` in Marty 's mind , it never was something that should be done . '' In December 2011 , Scorsese was interviewed about combining his passion for 3D as a new medium with the legacy of older films , and said , `` If I could go back in time , I 'd shoot Taxi Driver in 3D . Robert De Niro in the mirror as Travis Bickle . Imagine how intimidating . 'You talking to me ? You talking to me ? ' Amazing possibilities . ''

sfq_23900--Taxi_Driver.txt

"Which character did Robert De Niro portray in the film ""Taxi Driver"""

A bomber is a combat aircraft designed to attack ground and sea targets by dropping air-to-ground weaponry , firing torpedoes or deploying air-launched cruise missiles . Classification Strategic Strategic bombing is done by heavy bombers primarily designed for long-range bombing missions against strategic targets such as supply bases , bridges , factories , shipyards , and cities themselves , in order to diminish the enemy 's ability to wage war by limiting access to resources through crippling infrastructure or reducing industrial output . Current examples include the strategic nuclear-armed strategic bombers : B-2 Spirit , B-52 Stratofortress , Tupolev Tu-95 'Bear ' , Tupolev Tu-22M 'Backfire ' ; historically notable examples are the : Gotha G.IV , Avro Lancaster , Heinkel He-111 , Junkers Ju 88 , Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress , Consolidated B-24 Liberator , Boeing B-29 Superfortress , and Tupolev Tu-16 'Badger ' . Tactical Tactical bombing , aimed at countering enemy military activity and in supporting offensive operations , is typically assigned to smaller aircraft operating at shorter ranges , typically near the troops on the ground or against enemy shipping . This role is filled by tactical bomber class , which crosses and blurs with various other aircraft categories : light bombers , medium bombers , dive bombers , interdictors , fighter-bombers , attack aircraft , multirole combat aircraft , and others . * Current examples : F-15E Strike Eagle , F/A-18 Hornet , Sukhoi Su-27 , Xian JH-7 , Dassault-Breguet Mirage 2000 , and the Panavia Tornado * Historical examples : Ilyushin Il-2 Shturmovik , Junkers Ju 87 Stuka , Republic P-47 Thunderbolt , Hawker Typhoon , McDonnell-Douglas F-4 Phantom II and Mikoyan MiG-27 . History The first use of an air-dropped bomb ( actually a hand grenade ) was carried out by Italian Lieutenant Giulio Gavotti during the 1911 Italo-Turkish war in Libya , although his plane was not designed for the task of bombing , and his improvised attack had little impact . The first bombers In 1912 , during the First Balkan War , Bulgarian Air Force pilot Christo Toprakchiev suggested the use of aircraft to drop `` bombs '' ( called grenades in the Bulgarian army at this time ) on Turkish positions . Captain Simeon Petrov developed the idea and created several prototypes by adapting different types of grenades and increasing their payload . On 16 October 1912 , observer Prodan Tarakchiev dropped two of those bombs on the Turkish railway station of Karağaç ( near the besieged Edirne ) from an Albatros F.2 aircraft piloted by Radul Milkov , for the first time in this campaign . This is deemed to be the first use of an aircraft as a bomber . The first heavier-than-air aircraft purposely designed for bombing were the Italian Caproni Ca 30 and British Bristol T.B.8 , both of 1913 . The Bristol T.B.8 was an early British single engined biplane built by the Bristol Aeroplane Company . They were fitted with a prismatic Bombsight in the front cockpit and a cylindrical bomb carrier in the lower forward fuselage capable of carrying twelve 10 lb ( 4.5 kg ) bombs , which could be dropped singly or as a salvo as required . The aircraft was purchased for use both by the Royal Naval Air Service and the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) , and three T.B.8s , that were being displayed in Paris during December 1913 fitted with bombing equipment , were sent to France following the outbreak of war . Under the command of Charles Rumney Samson , a bombing attack on German gun batteries at Middelkerke , Belgium was executed on 25 November 1914 . The dirigible , or airship , was developed in the early 20th century . Early airships were prone to disaster , but slowly the airship became more dependable , with a more rigid structure and stronger skin . Prior to the outbreak of war , Zeppelins , a larger and more streamlined form of airship designed by German Count Ferdinand Von Zeppelin , were outfitted to carry bombs to attack targets at long range . These were the first long range , strategic bombers . Although the German air arm was strong , with a total of 123 airships by the end of the war , they were vulnerable to attack and engine failure , as well as navigational issues . German airships inflicted little damage on all 51 raids , with 557 Britons killed and 1,358 injured . The German Navy lost 53 of its 73 airships , and the Germany Army lost 26 of its 50 ships . The Caproni Ca 30 was built by Gianni Caproni in Italy . It was a twin-boom biplane with three 67 kW ( 80 hp ) Gnome rotary engines and first flew in October 1914 . Test flights revealed power to be insufficient and the engine layout unworkable , and Caproni soon adopted a more conventional approach installing three 81 kW ( 110 hp ) Fiat A.10s . The improved design was bought by the Italian Army and it was delivered in quantity from August 1915 . While mainly used as a trainer , Avro 504s were also briefly used as bombers at the start of the First World War by the Royal Naval Air Service ( RNAS ) when they were used for raids on the German airship sheds . Strategic bombing Bombing raids and interdiction operations were mainly carried out by French and British forces during the War as the German air arm was forced to concentrate its resources on a defensive strategy . Notably , bombing campaigns formed a part of the British offensive at the Battle of Neuve Chapelle in 1915 , with Royal Flying Corps squadrons attacking German railway stations in an attempt to hinder the logistical supply of the German army . The early , improvised attempts at bombing that characterized the early part of the war slowly gave way to a more organized and systematic approach to strategic and tactical bombing , pioneered by various air power strategists of the Entente , especially Major Hugh Trenchard ; he was the first to advocate that there should be `` ... sustained [ strategic bombing ] attacks with a view to interrupting the enemy 's railway communications ... in conjunction with the main operations of the Allied Armies . '' When the war started , bombing was very crude ( hand-held bombs were thrown over the side ) yet by the end of the war long-range bombers equipped with complex mechanical bombing computers were being built , designed to carry large loads to destroy enemy industrial targets . The most important bombers used in WWI were the French Breguet 14 , British de Havilland DH-4 , German Albatros C.III and Russian Sikorsky Ilya Muromets . The Russian Sikorsky Ilya Muromets , was the first four-engine bomber to equip a dedicated strategic bombing unit during World War I . This heavy bomber was unrivaled in the early stages of the war , as the Central Powers had no comparable aircraft until much later . Long range bombing raids were carried out at night by multi-engine biplanes such as the Gotha G.IV ( whose name was synonymous with all multi-engine German bombers ) and later the Handley Page Type O ; the majority of bombing was done by single-engined biplanes with one or two crew members flying short distances to attack enemy lines and immediate hinterland . As the effectiveness of a bomber was dependent on the weight and accuracy of its bomb load , ever larger bombers were developed starting in WWI , while considerable money was spent developing suitable bombsights . World War II With engine power as a major limitation , combined with the desire for accuracy and other operational factors , bomber designs tended to be tailored to specific roles . By the start of the war this included : * dive bomber — specially strengthened for vertical diving attacks for greater accuracy . * light bomber , medium bomber and heavy bomber — subjective definitions based on size . * torpedo bomber — specialized aircraft armed with torpedoes . * ground attack aircraft — aircraft used against targets on a battlefield such as troop or tank concentrations . * night bomber — specially equipped to operate at night when opposing defences are limited . * maritime patrol — long range bombers that were used against enemy shipping , particularly submarines . Bombers are not intended to attack other aircraft although most were fitted with defensive weapons . World War II saw the beginning of the widespread use of high speed bombers which dispensed with defensive weapons to be able to attain higher speed , such as with the de Havilland Mosquito , a philosophy that continued with many Cold War bombers . Some smaller designs have been used as the basis for night fighters , and a number of fighters , such as the Hawker Hurricane were used as ground attack aircraft , replacing earlier conventional light bombers that proved unable to defend themselves while carrying a useful bomb load . Cold War At the start of the Cold War , bombers were the only means of carrying nuclear weapons to enemy targets , and had the role of deterrence . With the advent of guided air-to-air missiles , bombers needed to avoid interception . High-speed and high-altitude flying became a means of evading detection and attack . Designs such as the English Electric Canberra could fly faster or higher than contemporary fighters . When surface-to-air missiles became capable of hitting high-flying bombers , bombers were flown at low altitudes to evade radar detection and interception . Once `` stand off '' nuclear weapon designs were developed , bombers did not need to pass over the target to make an attack ; they could fire and turn away to escape the blast . Nuclear strike aircraft were generally finished in bare metal or anti-flash white to minimize absorption of thermal radiation from the flash of a nuclear explosion . The need to drop conventional bombs remained in conflicts with non-nuclear powers , such as the Vietnam War or Malayan Emergency . The development of large strategic bombers stagnated in the later part of the Cold War because of spiraling costs and the development of the Intercontinental ballistic missile ( ICBM ) – which was felt to have similar deterrent value while being impossible to intercept . Because of this , the United States Air Force XB-70 Valkyrie program was cancelled in the early 1960s ; the later B-1B Lancer and B-2 Spirit aircraft entered service only after protracted political and development problems . Their high cost meant that few were built and the 1950s-designed B-52s are projected to remain in use until the 2040s . Similarly , the Soviet Union used the intermediate-range Tu-22M 'Backfire'in the 1970s , but their Mach 3 bomber project stalled . The Mach 2 Tu-160 'Blackjack ' was built only in tiny numbers , leaving the 1950s Tupolev Tu-16 and Tu-95 'Bear ' heavy bombers to continue being used into the 21st century . The British strategic bombing force largely came to an end when the V bomber force was phased out ; the last of which left service in 1983 . The French Mirage IV bomber version was retired in 1996 , although the Mirage 2000N and the Rafale have taken on this role . The only other nation that fields strategic bombing forces is China , which has a number of Xian H-6s . Modern era In modern air forces , the distinction between bombers , fighter-bombers , and attack aircraft has become blurred . Many attack aircraft , even ones that look like fighters , are optimized to drop bombs , with very little ability to engage in aerial combat . Indeed , the design qualities that make an effective low-level attack aircraft make for a distinctly inferior air superiority fighter , and vice versa . Conversely , many fighter aircraft , such as the F-16 , are often used as 'bomb trucks , ' despite being designed for aerial combat . Perhaps the one meaningful distinction at present is the question of range : a bomber is generally a long-range aircraft capable of striking targets deep within enemy territory , whereas fighter bombers and attack aircraft are limited to 'theater ' missions in and around the immediate area of battlefield combat . Even that distinction is muddied by the availability of aerial refueling , which greatly increases the potential radius of combat operations . At present , the U.S. and Russia are involved in developing replacements for their legacy bomber fleets , the USAF with the Northrop Grumman B-21 and the Russian Air Force with the PAK DA . A 1999 USAF report calls for the US bomber fleet to remain in service until the late 2030s-early 2040s , and the B-21 is scheduled to reach deployment in the 2020s . The U.S. is also considering another bomber in 2037 . The B-21 , however , required to provide an answer to the fifth generation defense systems ( such as SA-21 Growlers , bistatic radar and active electronically scanned array radar ) . Also , it has been chosen to be able to stand against rising superpowers and other countries with semi-advanced military capability . Finally , a third reason is the role of long-term air support for areas with a low threat level ( Iraq , Afghanistan ) , the latter referred to as close air support for the global war on terror ( CAS for GWOT ) . The B-21 would thus be able to stay for extended periods on a same location ( called persistence ) .

bt_750--Bomber.txt

What was the name of the American World War 11 bomber designated the B24

Wine ( from Latin vinum ) is an alcoholic beverage made from fermented grapes , generally Vitis vinifera or its hybrids with Vitis labrusca or Vitis rupestris . Grapes ferment without the addition of sugars , acids , enzymes , water , or other nutrients , as yeast consumes the sugar in the grapes and converts it to ethanol and carbon dioxide . Different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts produce different styles of wine . These variations result from the complex interactions between the biochemical development of the grape , the reactions involved in fermentation , the terroir ( the special characteristics imparted by geography , geology , climate and plant genetics ) , and the production process . Many countries define legal appellations intended to define styles and qualities of wine ; these typically restrict the geographical origin and permitted varieties of grapes , as well as other aspects of wine production . There are also wines made from fermenting other fruits or cereals , whose names generally specify their base : fruit wine , rice wine , with some having specific names , e.g . cider for apple wine . Wine has been produced for thousands of years . The earliest known evidence of wine comes from Georgia ( Caucasus ) , where 8000-year-old wine jars were found . Traces of wine have also been found in Iran with 7000-year-old wine jars and in Armenia , in the 6100-year old Areni-1 winery , the earliest known winery . Wine had reached the Balkans by BC and was consumed and celebrated in ancient Greece , Thrace and Rome . Throughout history , wine has been consumed for its intoxicating effects , which are evident at normal serving sizes . Wines made from plants other than grapes include rice wine and various fruit wines ; some well known ones are ( hard ) cider from apples , perry from pears , pomegranate wine , and elderberry wine . Wine has long played an important role in religion . Red wine was associated with blood by the ancient Egyptians and was used by both the Greek cult of Dionysus and the Romans in their Bacchanalia ; Judaism also incorporates it in the Kiddush and Christianity in the Eucharist . History Archaeological evidence has established the earliest known production of wine from fermented grapes during the late Neolithic site of Hajji Firuz in the northern Zagros Mountains or early Chalcolithic in the northern edge of the Middle East . The earliest chemically attested grape wine was discovered at Hajji Firuz in the northwestern Zagros Mountains , ca . 5400 BC . Both archaeological and genetic evidence suggest that the earliest production of wine may slightly predate this , with the earliest wine-making likely having taken place in Trans-Caucasia ( including Armenia , Azerbaijan , Georgia ) , through the region between Eastern Turkey , and Northwest Iran . The earliest evidence of a grape-based fermented drink was found in Georgia , where wine residue inside ceramic jars dates from BC , and in Iran , from BC . The earliest evidence of a wine production facility is the Areni-1 winery in Armenia and is at least 6100 years old ; presumably , wine had started being produced much earlier . A 2003 report by archaeologists indicates a possibility that grapes were mixed with rice to produce mixed fermented beverages in China in the early years of the seventh millennium BC . Pottery jars from the Neolithic site of Jiahu , Henan , contained traces of tartaric acid and other organic compounds commonly found in wine . However , other fruits indigenous to the region , such as hawthorn , can not be ruled out . If these beverages , which seem to be the precursors of rice wine , included grapes rather than other fruits , they would have been any of the several dozen indigenous wild species in China , rather than Vitis vinifera , which was introduced there 6000 years later . The spread of wine culture westwards was most probably due to the Phoenicians who spread outward from a base of city-states along the Lebanese , Syrian , and Israeli coasts . The wines of Byblos were exported to Egypt during the Old Kingdom and then throughout the Mediterranean . Evidence includes two Phoenician shipwrecks from 750 BC discovered by Robert Ballard , whose cargo of wine was still intact . As the first great traders in wine ( cherem ) , the Phoenicians seem to have protected it from oxidation with a layer of olive oil , followed by a seal of pinewood and resin , similar to retsina . The earliest remains of Apadana Palace in Persepolis dating back to 515 BC include carvings demonstrating soldiers from Achaemenid Empire subject nations bringing gifts to the Achaemenid king , among them Armenians bringing their famous wine . Literary references to wine are abundant in Homer ( 8th century BC , but possibly relating earlier compositions ) , Alkman ( 7th century BC ) , and others . In ancient Egypt , six of 36 wine amphoras were found in the tomb of King Tutankhamun bearing the name `` Kha ' y '' , a royal chief vintner . Five of these amphoras were designated as originating from the king 's personal estate , with the sixth from the estate of the royal house of Aten . Traces of wine have also been found in central Asian Xinjiang in modern-day China , dating from the second and first millennia BC . The first known mention of grape-based wines in India is from the late 4th-century BC writings of Chanakya , the chief minister of Emperor Chandragupta Maurya . In his writings , Chanakya condemns the use of alcohol while chronicling the emperor and his court 's frequent indulgence of a style of wine known as madhu . The ancient Romans planted vineyards near garrison towns so wine could be produced locally rather than shipped over long distances . Some of these areas are now world-renowned for wine production . The Romans discovered that burning sulfur candles inside empty wine vessels kept them fresh and free from a vinegar smell . In medieval Europe , the Roman Catholic Church supported wine because the clergy required it for the Mass . Monks in France made wine for years , aging it in caves . An old English recipe that survived in various forms until the 19th century calls for refining white wine from bastard—bad or tainted bastardo wine . Etymology The English word `` wine '' comes from the Proto-Germanic * winam , an early borrowing from the Latin vinum , `` wine '' or `` ( grape ) vine '' , itself derived from the Proto-Indo-European stem * win-o- ( cf . , gini ; Ancient Greek : oinos ; Aeolic Greek : woinos ; Hittite : wiyana ; Lycian : oino ) . The earliest attested terms referring to wine are the Mycenaean Greek me-tu-wo ne-wo ( * ) , meaning `` in ( the month ) '' or `` ( festival ) of the new wine '' , and wo-no-wa-ti-si , meaning `` wine garden '' , written in Linear B inscriptions . Linear B also includes , inter alia , an ideogram for wine , i.e . . Whether the ultimate origin of the word is Indo-European or not is the subject for an ongoing debate . Some scholars have noted the similarities between the words for wine in Indo-European languages ( e.g . Armenian gini , Latin vinum , Ancient Greek οἶνος , Russian вино ) , Kartvelian ( e.g . Georgian ღვინო ) , and Semitic ( * wayn ; Hebrew יין ) , pointing to the possibility of a common origin of the word denoting `` wine '' in these language families . The Georgian word goes back to Proto-Kartvelian * ɣwino- , which is generally believed to be a borrowing from Proto-Indo-European . Another hypothesis is that the lexeme was borrowed from Proto-Armenian * ɣʷeinyo- , whence Armenian gini , but this is disputed . On the other hand , Fähnrich considers * ɣwino- a native Kartvelian word derived from the verbal root * ɣun- ( 'to bend ' ) . See * ɣwino- for more . All these theories place the origin of the word in the same geographical location , Trans-Caucasia , that has been established based on archeological and biomolecular studies as the origin of viticulture . Fruit wines Wines from other fruits , such as apples and berries , are usually named after the fruit from which they are produced combined with the word `` wine '' ( for example , apple wine and elderberry wine ) and are generically called fruit wine or country wine ( not to be confused with the French term vin de pays ) . Other than the grape varieties traditionally used for winemaking , most fruits naturally lack either sufficient fermentable sugars , relatively low acidity , yeast nutrients needed to promote or maintain fermentation , or a combination of these three characteristics . This is probably one of the main reasons why wine derived from grapes has historically been more prevalent by far than other types , and why specific types of fruit wine have generally been confined to regions in which the fruits were native or introduced for other reasons . Starch-based `` wine '' Other beverages called `` wine '' , such as barley wine and rice wine ( e.g . sake ) , are made from starch-based materials and resemble beer more than traditional wine , while ginger wine is fortified with brandy . In these latter cases , the term `` wine '' refers to the similarity in alcohol content rather than to the production process . The commercial use of the English word `` wine '' ( and its equivalent in other languages ) is protected by law in many jurisdictions . Grape varieties Wine is usually made from one or more varieties of the European species Vitis vinifera , such as Pinot noir , Chardonnay , Cabernet Sauvignon , Gamay and Merlot . When one of these varieties is used as the predominant grape ( usually defined by law as minimums of 75 % to 85 % ) , the result is a `` varietal '' as opposed to a `` blended '' wine . Blended wines are not considered inferior to varietal wines , rather they are a different style of winemaking ; some of the world 's most highly regarded wines , from regions like Bordeaux and the Rhone Valley , are blended from different grape varieties . Wine can also be made from other species of grape or from hybrids , created by the genetic crossing of two species . V. labrusca ( of which the Concord grape is a cultivar ) , V. aestivalis , V. ruprestris , V. rotundifolia and V. riparia are native North American grapes usually grown to eat fresh or for grape juice , jam , or jelly , and only occasionally made into wine . Hybridization is different from grafting . Most of the world 's vineyards are planted with European V. vinifera vines that have been grafted onto North American species ' rootstock , a common practice due to their resistance to phylloxera , a root louse that eventually kills the vine . In the late 19th century , most of Europe 's vineyards ( excluding some of the driest in the south ) were devastated by the infestation , leading to widespread vine deaths and eventual replanting . Grafting is done in every wine-producing region in the world except in Argentina , the Canary Islands and Chile—the only places not yet exposed to the insect . In the context of wine production , terroir is a concept that encompasses the varieties of grapes used , elevation and shape of the vineyard , type and chemistry of soil , climate and seasonal conditions , and the local yeast cultures . The range of possible combinations of these factors can result in great differences among wines , influencing the fermentation , finishing , and aging processes as well . Many wineries use growing and production methods that preserve or accentuate the aroma and taste influences of their unique terroir . However , flavor differences are less desirable for producers of mass-market table wine or other cheaper wines , where consistency takes precedence . Such producers try to minimize differences in sources of grapes through production techniques such as micro-oxygenation , tannin filtration , cross-flow filtration , thin-film evaporation , and spinning cones . Classification Regulations govern the classification and sale of wine in many regions of the world . European wines tend to be classified by region ( e.g . Bordeaux , Rioja and Chianti ) , while non-European wines are most often classified by grape ( e.g . Pinot noir and Merlot ) . Market recognition of particular regions has recently been leading to their increased prominence on non-European wine labels . Examples of recognized non-European locales include Napa Valley , Santa Clara Valley and Sonoma Valley , Anderson Valley and Mendocino County in California , Willamette Valley and Rogue Valley in Oregon ; Columbia Valley in Washington ; Barossa Valley in South Australia and Hunter Valley in New South Wales ; Luján de Cuyo in Argentina ; Central Valley in Chile ; Vale dos Vinhedos in Brazil ; Hawke 's Bay and Marlborough in New Zealand ; and Okanagan Valley and Niagara Peninsula in Canada . Some blended wine names are marketing terms whose use is governed by trademark law rather than by specific wine laws . For example , Meritage ( sounds like `` heritage '' ) is generally a Bordeaux-style blend of Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot , but may also include Cabernet Franc , Petit Verdot , and Malbec . Commercial use of the term Meritage is allowed only via licensing agreements with the Meritage Association . European classifications France has various appellation systems based on the concept of terroir , with classifications ranging from Vin de Table ( `` table wine '' ) at the bottom , through Vin de Pays and Appellation d'Origine Vin Délimité de Qualité Supérieure ( AOVDQS ) , up to Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée ( AOC ) or similar , depending on the region . Portugal has developed a system resembling that of France and , in fact , pioneered this concept in 1756 with a royal charter creating the Demarcated Douro Region and regulating the production and trade of wine . Germany created a similar scheme in 2002 , although it has not yet achieved the authority of the other countries ' classification systems . Spain , Greece and Italy have classifications based on a dual system of region of origin and product quality . Beyond Europe New World wines—those made outside the traditional wine regions of Europe—are usually classified by grape rather than by terroir or region of origin , although there have been unofficial attempts to classify them by quality . Vintages In the United States , for a wine to be vintage-dated and labeled with a country of origin or American Viticultural Area ( AVA ) ( e.g . Sonoma Valley ) , 95 % of its volume must be from grapes harvested in that year . If a wine is not labeled with a country of origin or AVA the percentage requirement is lowered to 85 % . Vintage wines are generally bottled in a single batch so that each bottle will have a similar taste . Climate 's impact on the character of a wine can be significant enough to cause different vintages from the same vineyard to vary dramatically in flavor and quality . Thus , vintage wines are produced to be individually characteristic of the particular vintage and to serve as the flagship wines of the producer . Superior vintages from reputable producers and regions will often command much higher prices than their average ones . Some vintage wines ( e.g . Brunello ) , are only made in better-than-average years . For consistency , non-vintage wines can be blended from more than one vintage , which helps winemakers sustain a reliable market image and maintain sales even in bad years . One recent study suggests that for the average wine drinker , the vintage year may not be as significant for perceived quality as had been thought , although wine connoisseurs continue to place great importance on it . Tasting Wine tasting is the sensory examination and evaluation of wine . Wines contain many chemical compounds similar or identical to those in fruits , vegetables , and spices . The sweetness of wine is determined by the amount of residual sugar in the wine after fermentation , relative to the acidity present in the wine . Dry wine , for example , has only a small amount of residual sugar . Some wine labels suggest opening the bottle and letting the wine `` breathe '' for a couple of hours before serving , while others recommend drinking it immediately . Decanting ( the act of pouring a wine into a special container just for breathing ) is a controversial subject among wine enthusiasts . In addition to aeration , decanting with a filter allows the removal of bitter sediments that may have formed in the wine . Sediment is more common in older bottles , but aeration may benefit younger wines . During aeration , a younger wine 's exposure to air often `` relaxes '' the drink , making it smoother and better integrated in aroma , texture , and flavor . Older wines generally `` fade '' ( lose their character and flavor intensity ) with extended aeration . Despite these general rules , breathing does not necessarily benefit all wines . Wine may be tasted as soon as the bottle is opened to determine how long it should be aerated , if at all . When tasting wine , individual flavors may also be detected , due to the complex mix of organic molecules ( e.g . esters and terpenes ) that grape juice and wine can contain . Experienced tasters can distinguish between flavors characteristic of a specific grape and flavors that result from other factors in winemaking . Typical intentional flavor elements in wine—chocolate , vanilla , or coffee—are those imparted by aging in oak casks rather than the grape itself . Vertical and horizontal tasting involves a range of vintages within the same grape and vineyard , or the latter in which there is one vintage from multiple vineyards . `` Banana '' flavors ( isoamyl acetate ) are the product of yeast metabolism , as are spoilage aromas such as `` sweaty '' , `` barnyard '' , `` Band-Aid '' ( 4-ethylphenol and 4-ethylguaiacol ) , and rotten egg ( hydrogen sulfide ) . Some varieties can also exhibit a mineral flavor due to the presence of water-soluble salts as a result of limestone 's presence in the vineyard 's soil . Wine aroma comes from volatile compounds released into the air . Vaporization of these compounds can be accelerated by twirling the wine glass or serving at room temperature . Many drinkers prefer to chill red wines that are already highly aromatic , like Chinon and Beaujolais . The ideal temperature for serving a particular wine is a matter of debate , but some broad guidelines have emerged that will generally enhance the experience of tasting certain common wines . A white wine should foster a sense of coolness , achieved by serving at `` cellar temperature '' ( 13 C ) . Light red wines drunk young should also be brought to the table at this temperature , where they will quickly rise a few degrees . Red wines are generally perceived best when served chambré ( `` at room temperature '' ) . However , this does not mean the temperature of the dining room—often around ( 21 C ) —but rather the coolest room in the house and , therefore , always slightly cooler than the dining room itself . Pinot noir should be brought to the table for serving at ( 16 C ) and will reach its full bouquet at ( 18 C ) . Cabernet Sauvignon , zinfandel , and Rhone varieties should be served at ( 18 C ) and allowed to warm on the table to 21 C for best aroma . Collecting Outstanding vintages from the best vineyards may sell for thousands of dollars per bottle , though the broader term `` fine wine '' covers those typically retailing in excess of US $ 30–50 . `` Investment wines '' are considered by some to be Veblen goods : those for which demand increases rather than decreases as their prices rise . Particular selections have higher value , such as `` Verticals '' , in which a range of vintages of a specific grape and vineyard , are offered . The most notable was a Château d'Yquem 135 year vertical containing every vintage from 1860 to 2003 sold for $ 1.5 million . The most common wines purchased for investment include those from Bordeaux and Burgundy ; cult wines from Europe and elsewhere ; and vintage port . Characteristics of highly collectible wines include : # A proven track record of holding well over time # A drinking-window plateau ( i.e. , the period for maturity and approachability ) that is many years long # A consensus among experts as to the quality of the wines # Rigorous production methods at every stage , including grape selection and appropriate barrel aging Investment in fine wine has attracted those who take advantage of their victims ' relative ignorance of this wine market sector . Such wine fraudsters often profit by charging excessively high prices for off-vintage or lower-status wines from well-known wine regions , while claiming that they are offering a sound investment unaffected by economic cycles . As with any investment , thorough research is essential to making an informed decision . Production * FAO estimate . * * May include official , semi-official or estimated data . * FAO estimate . * * May include official , semi-official or estimated data . * * * FAO data based on imputation methodology . Wine grapes grow almost exclusively between 30 and 50 degrees latitude north and south of the equator . The world 's southernmost vineyards are in the Central Otago region of New Zealand 's South Island near the 45th parallel south , and the northernmost are in Flen , Sweden , just north of the 59th parallel north . Exporting countries * Unofficial figure . * * May include official , semi-official or estimated data . The UK was the world 's largest importer of wine in 2007 . ] Wine production in the European Union in 2005 and 2006 2005 Estimate ( thousands of hectoliters ) # Italy : 60,562 # France : 52,107 # Spain : 34,789 # Germany : 9,256 # Portugal : 7,266 # Greece : 3,997 2006 Estimate ( thousands of hectoliters ) # Italy : 52,036 # France : 51,700 # Spain : 39,301 # Germany : 8,995 # Portugal : 7,390 # Greece : 3,908 World production in 2003 In 2003 , world wine production had reached 269 millions of hectoliters . The world 's main 15 wine producers were : The world 's 10 main wine exporting countries in 2005 Consumption Wine-consumption data from a list of countries by alcohol consumption measured in liters of pure ethyl alcohol consumed per capita in a given year , according to the most recent data from the World Health Organization . The methodology includes persons 15 years of age or older . Culinary uses Wine is a popular and important beverage that accompanies and enhances a wide range of cuisines , from the simple and traditional stews to the most sophisticated and complex haute cuisines . Wine is often served with dinner . Sweet dessert wines may be served with the dessert course . In fine restaurants in Western countries , wine typically accompanies dinner . At a restaurant , patrons are helped to make good food-wine pairings by the restaurant 's sommelier or wine waiter . Individuals dining at home may use wine guides to help make food-wine pairings . Wine is also drunk without the accompaniment of a meal in wine bars or with a selection of cheeses ( at a wine and cheese party ) . Wine is important in cuisine not just for its value as a beverage , but as a flavor agent , primarily in stocks and braising , since its acidity lends balance to rich savory or sweet dishes . Wine sauce is an example of a culinary sauce that uses wine as a primary ingredient . Natural wines may exhibit a broad range of alcohol content , from below 9 % to above 16 % ABV , with most wines being in the 12.5 % –14.5 % range . Fortified wines ( usually with brandy ) may contain 20 % alcohol or more . Religious significance Ancient religions The use of wine in ancient Near Eastern and Ancient Egyptian religious ceremonies was common . Libations often included wine , and the religious mysteries of Dionysus used wine as a sacramental entheogen to induce a mind-altering state . Judaism Wine is an integral part of Jewish laws and traditions . The Kiddush is a blessing recited over wine or grape juice to sanctify the Shabbat . On Pesach ( Passover ) during the Seder , it is a Rabbinic obligation of adults to drink four cups of wine . In the Tabernacle and in the Temple in Jerusalem , the libation of wine was part of the sacrificial service . Note that this does not mean that wine is a symbol of blood , a common misconception that contributes to the Christian myth of the blood libel . `` It has been one of history 's cruel ironies that the blood libel—accusations against Jews using the blood of murdered gentile children for the making of wine and matzot—became the false pretext for numerous pogroms . And due to the danger , those who live in a place where blood libels occur are halachically exempted from using red wine , lest it be seized as `` evidence '' against them . '' Christianity In Christianity , wine is used in a sacred rite called the Eucharist , which originates in the Gospel account of the Last Supper ( Gospel of Luke 22:19 ) describing Jesus sharing bread and wine with his disciples and commanding them to `` do this in remembrance of me . '' Beliefs about the nature of the Eucharist vary among denominations ( see Eucharistic theologies contrasted ) . While some Christians consider the use of wine from the grape as essential for the validity of the sacrament , many Protestants also allow ( or require ) pasteurized grape juice as a substitute . Wine was used in Eucharistic rites by all Protestant groups until an alternative arose in the late 19th century . Methodist dentist and prohibitionist Thomas Bramwell Welch applied new pasteurization techniques to stop the natural fermentation process of grape juice . Some Christians who were part of the growing temperance movement pressed for a switch from wine to grape juice , and the substitution spread quickly over much of the United States , as well as to other countries to a lesser degree . There remains an ongoing debate between some American Protestant denominations as to whether wine can and should be used for the Eucharist or allowed as an ordinary beverage , with Catholics and some mainline Protestants allowing wine drinking in moderation , and some conservative Protestant groups opposing consumption of alcohol altogether . Islam Alcoholic beverages , including wine , are forbidden under most interpretations of Islamic law . In many Muslim countries , possession or consumption of alcoholic beverages carry legal penalties . Iran had previously had a thriving wine industry that disappeared after the Islamic Revolution in 1979 . In Greater Persia , mey ( Persian wine ) was a central theme of poetry for more than a thousand years , long before the advent of Islam . Some Alevi sects–one of the two main branches of Islam in Turkey ( the other being Sunni Islam ) –use wine in their religious services . Certain exceptions to the ban on alcohol apply . Alcohol derived from a source other than the grape ( or its byproducts

sfq_23936--Wine.txt

In which country are the wine producing regions Huasco Valley and Choapa Valley?

Mammals ( class Mammalia from Latin mamma `` breast '' ) are a clade of endothermic amniotes distinguished from reptiles and birds by the possession of a neocortex ( a region of the brain ) , hair , three middle ear bones and mammary glands . Mammals include the largest animals on the planet , the great whales , as well as some of the most intelligent , such as elephants , primates and cetaceans . The basic body type is a terrestrial quadruped , but some mammals are adapted for life at sea , in the air , in trees , underground or on two legs . The largest group of mammals , the placentals , have a placenta , which enables the feeding of the fetus during gestation . Mammals range in size from the 30 – bumblebee bat to the 33 m blue whale . With the exception of the five species of monotreme ( egg-laying mammals ) , all modern mammals give birth to live young . Most mammals , including the six most species-rich orders , belong to the placental group . The three largest orders in number of species are Rodentia : mice , rats , porcupines , beavers , capybaras and other gnawing mammals ; Chiroptera : bats ; and Soricomorpha : shrews , moles and solenodons . The next three biggest orders , depending on the biological classification scheme used , are the Primates including the great apes and monkeys ; the Cetartiodactyla including whales and even-toed ungulates ; and the Carnivora which includes cats , dogs , weasels , bears and seals . The word `` mammal '' is modern , from the scientific name Mammalia , coined by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 , derived from the Latin mamma ( `` teat , pap '' ) . All female mammals nurse their young with milk , which is secreted from special glands , the mammary glands . According to Mammal Species of the World , 5,416 species were known in 2006 . These were grouped in 1,229 genera , 153 families and 29 orders . In 2008 the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) completed a five-year , 1,700-scientist Global Mammal Assessment for its IUCN Red List , which counted 5,488 species . In some classifications , extant mammals are divided into two subclasses : the Prototheria , that is , the order Monotremata ; and the Theria , or the infraclasses Metatheria and Eutheria . The marsupials constitute the crown group of the Metatheria , and include all living metatherians as well as many extinct ones ; the placentals are the crown group of the Eutheria . While mammal classification at the family level has been relatively stable , several contending classifications regarding the higher levels—subclass , infraclass and order , especially of the marsupials—appear in contemporaneous literature . Much of the changes reflect the advances of cladistic analysis and molecular genetics . Findings from molecular genetics , for example , have prompted adopting new groups , such as the Afrotheria , and abandoning traditional groups , such as the Insectivora . The early synapsid mammalian ancestors were sphenacodont pelycosaurs , a group that produced the non-mammalian Dimetrodon . At the end of the Carboniferous period , this group diverged from the sauropsid line that led to today 's reptiles and birds . The line following the stem group Sphenacodontia split-off several diverse groups of non-mammalian synapsids—sometimes referred to as mammal-like reptiles—before giving rise to the proto-mammals ( Therapsida ) in the early Mesozoic era . The modern mammalian orders arose in the Paleogene and Neogene periods of the Cenozoic era , after the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs , and have been among the dominant terrestrial animal groups from 66 million years ago to the present . Classification Mammal classification has been through several iterations since Carl Linnaeus initially defined the class . No classification system is universally accepted ; McKenna & Bell ( 1997 ) and Wilson & Reader ( 2005 ) provide useful recent compendiums . George Gaylord Simpson 's `` Principles of Classification and a Classification of Mammals '' ( AMNH Bulletin v. 85 , 1945 ) provides systematics of mammal origins and relationships that were universally taught until the end of the 20th century . Since Simpson 's classification , the paleontological record has been recalibrated , and the intervening years have seen much debate and progress concerning the theoretical underpinnings of systematization itself , partly through the new concept of cladistics . Though field work gradually made Simpson 's classification outdated , it remained the closest thing to an official classification of mammals . Definitions The word `` mammal '' is modern , from the scientific name Mammalia coined by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 , derived from the Latin mamma ( `` teat , pap '' ) . In an influential 1988 paper , Timothy Rowe defined Mammalia phylogenetically as the crown group of mammals , the clade consisting of the most recent common ancestor of living monotremes ( echidnas and platypuses ) and therian mammals ( marsupials and placentals ) and all descendants of that ancestor . Since this ancestor lived in the Jurassic period , Rowe 's definition excludes all animals from the earlier Triassic , despite the fact that Triassic fossils in the Haramiyida have been referred to the Mammalia since the mid-19th century . If Mammalia is considered as the crown group , its origin can be roughly dated as the first known appearance of animals more closely related to some extant mammals than to others . Ambondro is more closely related to monotremes than to therian mammals while Amphilestes and Amphitherium are more closely related to the therians ; as fossils of all three genera are dated about in the Middle Jurassic , this is a reasonable estimate for the appearance of the crown group . T. S. Kemp has provided a more traditional definition : `` synapsids that possess a dentary–squamosal jaw articulation and occlusion between upper and lower molars with a transverse component to the movement '' or , equivalently in Kemp 's view , the clade originating with the last common ancestor of Sinoconodon and living mammals . The earliest known synapsid satisfying Kemp 's definitions is Tikitherium , dated , so the appearance of mammals in this broader sense can be given this Late Triassic date . McKenna/Bell classification In 1997 , the mammals were comprehensively revised by Malcolm C. McKenna and Susan K. Bell , which has resulted in the McKenna/Bell classification . Their 1997 book , Classification of Mammals above the Species Level , is a comprehensive work on the systematics , relationships and occurrences of all mammal taxa , living and extinct , down through the rank of genus , though molecular genetic data challenge several of the higher level groupings . The authors worked together as paleontologists at the American Museum of Natural History , New York . McKenna inherited the project from Simpson and , with Bell , constructed a completely updated hierarchical system , covering living and extinct taxa that reflects the historical genealogy of Mammalia . Extinct groups are represented by a dagger ( † ) . Class Mammalia * Subclass Prototheria : monotremes : echidnas and the platypus * Subclass Theriiformes : live-bearing mammals and their prehistoric relatives * * Infraclass †Allotheria : multituberculates * * Infraclass †Eutriconodonta : eutriconodonts * * Infraclass Holotheria : modern live-bearing mammals and their prehistoric relatives * * * Superlegion †Kuehneotheria * * * Supercohort Theria : live-bearing mammals * * * * Cohort Marsupialia : marsupials * * * * * Magnorder Australidelphia : Australian marsupials and the monito del monte * * * * * Magnorder Ameridelphia : New World marsupials . Now considered paraphyletic , with shrew opossums being closer to australidelphians . * * * * Cohort Placentalia : placentals * * * * * Magnorder Xenarthra : xenarthrans * * * * * Magnorder Epitheria : epitheres * * * * * * Superorder Anagalida : lagomorphs , rodents and elephant shrews * * * * * * Superorder Ferae : carnivorans , pangolins , †creodonts and relatives * * * * * * Superorder Lipotyphla : insectivorans * * * * * * Superorder Archonta : bats , primates , colugos and treeshrews * * * * * * Superorder Ungulata : ungulates * * * * * * * Order Tubulidentata incertae sedis : aardvark * * * * * * * Mirorder Eparctocyona : †condylarths , whales and artiodactyls ( even-toed ungulates ) * * * * * * * Mirorder †Meridiungulata : South American ungulates * * * * * * * Mirorder Altungulata : perissodactyls ( odd-toed ungulates ) , elephants , manatees and hyraxes Molecular classification of placentals Molecular studies based on DNA analysis have suggested new relationships among mammal families over the last few years . Most of these findings have been independently validated by retrotransposon presence/absence data . Classification systems based on molecular studies reveal three major groups or lineages of placental mammals- Afrotheria , Xenarthra and Boreoeutheria- which diverged in the Cretaceous . The relationships between these three lineages is contentious , and all three possible different hypotheses have been proposed with respect to which group is basal . These hypotheses are Atlantogenata ( basal Boreoeutheria ) , Epitheria ( basal Xenarthra ) and Exafroplacentalia ( basal Afrotheria ) . Boreoeutheria in turn contains two major lineages- Euarchontoglires and Laurasiatheria . Estimates for the divergence times between these three placental groups range from 105 to 120 million years ago , depending on type of DNA ( such as nuclear or mitochondrial ) and varying interpretations of paleogeographic data . Cladogram based on Tarver et al . ( 2016 ) Group I : Afrotheria * Clade Afroinsectiphilia * * Order Macroscelidea : elephant shrews ( Africa ) * * Order Afrosoricida : tenrecs and golden moles ( Africa ) * * Order Tubulidentata : aardvark ( Africa south of the Sahara ) * Clade Paenungulata * * Order Hyracoidea : hyraxes or dassies ( Africa , Arabia ) * * Order Proboscidea : elephants ( Africa , Southeast Asia ) * * Order Sirenia : dugong and manatees ( cosmopolitan tropical ) Group II : Xenarthra * Order Pilosa : sloths and anteaters ( neotropical ) * Order Cingulata : armadillos and extinct relatives ( Americas ) Group III : Boreoeutheria * Clade : Euarchontoglires ( Supraprimates ) * * Superorder Euarchonta * * * Order Scandentia : treeshrews ( Southeast Asia ) . * * * Order Dermoptera : flying lemurs or colugos ( Southeast Asia ) * * * Order Primates : lemurs , bushbabies , monkeys , apes , humans ( cosmopolitan ) * * Superorder Glires * * * Order Lagomorpha : pikas , rabbits , hares ( Eurasia , Africa , Americas ) * * * Order Rodentia : rodents ( cosmopolitan ) * Clade Laurasiatheria * * Order Eulipotyphla : shrews , hedgehogs , moles , solenodons * * Clade Ferungulata * * * Clade Cetartiodactyla * * * * Order Cetacea : whales , dolphins and porpoises * * * * Order Artiodactyla : even-toed ungulates , including pigs , hippopotamus , camels , giraffe , deer , antelope , cattle , sheep , goats ( Note that Artiodactyla is paraphyletic to Cetacea ) * * * Clade Pegasoferae * * * * Order Chiroptera : bats ( cosmopolitan ) * * * * Clade Zooamata * * * * * Order Perissodactyla : odd-toed ungulates , including horses , donkeys , zebras , tapirs and rhinoceroses * * * * * Clade Ferae * * * * * * Order Pholidota : pangolins or scaly anteaters ( Africa , South Asia ) * * * * * * Order Carnivora : carnivores ( cosmopolitan ) , including cats and dogs Statistics Most mammals , including the six most species-rich orders , belong to the placental group . The three largest orders in numbers of species are Rodentia : mice , rats , porcupines , beavers , capybaras and other gnawing mammals ; Chiroptera : bats ; and Soricomorpha : shrews , moles and solenodons . The next three biggest orders , depending on the biological classification scheme used , are the Primates including the great apes and monkeys ; the Cetartiodactyla including whales and even-toed ungulates ; and the Carnivora which includes cats , dogs , weasels , bears and seals . According to Mammal Species of the World , 5,416 species were known in 2006 . These were grouped in 1,229 genera , 153 families and 29 orders . In 2008 the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) completed a five-year , 1,700-scientist Global Mammal Assessment for its IUCN Red List , which counted 5,488 species . Evolutionary history Synapsida , a clade that contains mammals and their extinct relatives , originated during the Pennsylvanian subperiod , when they split from reptilian and avian lineages . Crown group mammals evolved from earlier mammaliaforms during the Early Jurassic . The cladogram following takes Mammalia to be the crown group . Evolution from amniotes The first fully terrestrial vertebrates were amniotes . Like their amphibious tetrapod predecessors , they had lungs and limbs . Amniotic eggs , however , have internal membranes that allow the developing embryo to breathe but keep water in . Hence , amniotes can lay eggs on dry land , while amphibians generally need to lay their eggs in water . The first amniotes apparently arose in the Late Carboniferous . They descended from earlier reptiliomorph amphibious tetrapods , which lived on land that was already inhabited by insects and other invertebrates as well as ferns , mosses and other plants . Within a few million years , two important amniote lineages became distinct : the synapsids , which would later include the common ancestor of the mammals ; and the sauropsids , which now include turtles , lizards , snakes , crocodilians , dinosaurs and birds . Synapsids have a single hole ( temporal fenestra ) low on each side of the skull . One synapsid group , the pelycosaurs , included the largest and fiercest animals of the early Permian . Nonmammalian synapsids are sometimes called `` mammal-like reptiles '' . Therapsids descended from pelycosaurs in the Middle Permian , about 265 million years ago , and became the dominant land vertebrates . They differ from basal eupelycosaurs in several features of the skull and jaws , including : larger skulls and incisors which are equal in size in therapsids , but not for eupelycosaurs . The therapsid lineage leading to mammals went through a series of stages , beginning with animals that were very similar to their pelycosaur ancestors and ending with probainognathian cynodonts , some of which could easily be mistaken for mammals . Those stages were characterized by : * The gradual development of a bony secondary palate . * Progression towards an erect limb posture , which would increase the animals ' stamina by avoiding Carrier 's constraint . But this process was slow and erratic : for example , all herbivorous nonmammaliaform therapsids retained sprawling limbs ( some late forms may have had semierect hind limbs ) ; Permian carnivorous therapsids had sprawling forelimbs , and some late Permian ones also had semisprawling hindlimbs . In fact , modern monotremes still have semisprawling limbs . * The dentary gradually became the main bone of the lower jaw which , by the Triassic , progressed towards the fully mammalian jaw ( the lower consisting only of the dentary ) and middle ear ( which is constructed by the bones that were previously used to construct the jaws of reptiles ) . First mammals The Permian–Triassic extinction event , which was a prolonged event due to the accumulation of several extinction pulses , ended the dominance of carnivores therapsids . In the early Triassic , most medium to large land carnivore niches were taken over by archosaurs which , over an extended period of time ( 35 million years ) , came to include the crocodylomorphs , the pterosaurs and the dinosaurs ; however , large cynodonts like Trucidocynodon and traversodontids still occupied large sized carnivorous and herbivorous niches respectively . By the Jurassic , the dinosaurs had come to dominate the large terrestrial herbivore niches as well . The first mammals ( in Kemp 's sense ) appeared in the Late Triassic epoch ( about 225 million years ago ) , 40 million years after the first therapsids . They expanded out of their nocturnal insectivore niche from the mid-Jurassic onwards ; The Jurassic Castorocauda , for example , had adaptations for swimming , digging and catching fish . Most , if not all , are thought to have remained nocturnal ( the Nocturnal bottleneck ) , accounting for much of the typical mammalian traits . The majority of the mammal species that existed in the Mesozoic Era were multituberculates , eutriconodonts and spalacotheriids . The earliest known metatherian is Sinodelphys , found in 125 million-year-old Early Cretaceous shale in China 's northeastern Liaoning Province . The fossil is nearly complete and includes tufts of fur and imprints of soft tissues . The oldest known fossil among the Eutheria ( `` true beasts '' ) is the small shrewlike Juramaia sinensis , or `` Jurassic mother from China '' , dated to 160 million years ago in the late Jurassic . A later eutherian , Eomaia , dated to 125 million years ago in the early Cretaceous , possessed some features in common with the marsupials but not with the placentals , evidence that these features were present in the last common ancestor of the two groups but were later lost in the placental lineage . In particular , the epipubic bones extend forwards from the pelvis . These are not found in any modern placental , but they are found in marsupials , monotremes , nontherian mammals and Ukhaatherium , an early Cretaceous animal in the eutherian order Asioryctitheria . This also applies to the multituberculates . They are apparently an ancestral feature , which subsequently disappeared in the placental lineage . These epipubic bones seem to function by stiffening the muscles during locomotion , reducing the amount of space being presented , which placentals require to contain their fetus during gestation periods . A narrow pelvic outlet indicates that the young were very small at birth and therefore pregnancy was short , as in modern marsupials . This suggests that the placenta was a later development . The earliest known monotreme was Teinolophos , which lived about 120 million years ago in Australia . Monotremes have some features which may be inherited from the original amniotes such as the same orifice to urinate , defecate and reproduce ( cloaca ) – as lizards and birds also do – and they lay eggs which are leathery and uncalcified . Earliest appearances of features Hadrocodium , whose fossils date from approximately 195 million years ago , in the early Jurassic , provides the first clear evidence of a jaw joint formed solely by the squamosal and dentary bones ; there is no space in the jaw for the articular , a bone involved in the jaws of all early synapsids . The earliest clear evidence of hair or fur is in fossils of Castorocauda , from 164 million years ago in the mid-Jurassic . In the 1950s , it was suggested that the foramina ( passages ) in the maxillae and premaxillae ( bones in the front of the upper jaw ) of cynodonts were channels which supplied blood vessels and nerves to vibrissae ( whiskers ) and so were evidence of hair or fur ; it was soon pointed out , however , that foramina do not necessarily show that an animal had vibrissae , as the modern lizard Tupinambis has foramina that are almost identical to those found in the nonmammalian cynodont Thrinaxodon.Bennett , A. F. and Ruben , J . A . ( 1986 ) `` The metabolic and thermoregulatory status of therapsids '' ; pp . 207–218 in N. Hotton III , P. D. MacLean , J. J. Roth and E. C. Roth ( eds ) , `` The ecology and biology of mammal-like reptiles '' , Smithsonian Institution Press , Washington . Popular sources , nevertheless , continue to attribute whiskers to Thrinaxodon . Studies on Permian coprolites suggest that non-mammalian synapsids of the epoch already had fur , setting the evolution of hairs possibly as far back as dicynodonts . When endothermy first appeared in the evolution of mammals is uncertain , though it is generally agreed to have first evolved in non-mammalian therapsids . Modern monotremes have lower body temperatures and more variable metabolic rates than marsupials and placentals , but there is evidence that some of their ancestors , perhaps including ancestors of the therians , may have had body temperatures like those of modern therians . Likewise , some modern therians like afrotheres and xenarthrans have secondarily developed lower body temperatures . The evolution of erect limbs in mammals is incomplete — living and fossil monotremes have sprawling limbs . The parasagittal ( nonsprawling ) limb posture appeared sometime in the late Jurassic or early Cretaceous ; it is found in the eutherian Eomaia and the metatherian Sinodelphys , both dated to 125 million years ago . Epipubic bones , a feature that strongly influenced the reproduction of most mammal clades , are first found in Tritylodontidae , suggesting that it is a synapomorphy between them and mammaliformes . They are omnipresent in non-placental mammaliformes , though Megazostrodon and Erythrotherium appear to have lacked them . It has been suggested that the original function of lactation ( milk production ) was to keep eggs moist . Much of the argument is based on monotremes , the egg-laying mammals . Rise of the mammals Mammals took over the medium- to large-sized ecological niches in the Cenozoic , after the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event emptied ecological space once filled by non-avian dinosaurs and other groups of reptiles . Then mammals diversified very quickly ; both birds and mammals show an exponential rise in diversity . For example , the earliest known bat dates from about 50 million years ago , only 16 million years after the extinction of the dinosaurs . Molecular phylogenetic studies suggest that most placental orders diverged about 100 to 85 million years ago and that modern families appeared in the period from the late Eocene through the Miocene . However , no placental fossils have been found from before the end of the Cretaceous . The earliest undisputed fossils of placentals comes from the early Paleocene , after the extinction of the dinosaurs . In particular , scientists have identified an early Paleocene animal named Protungulatum donnae as one of the first placental mammals . The earliest known ancestor of primates is Archicebus achilles from around 55 million years ago . This tiny primate weighed 20–30 grams ( 0.7–1.1 ounce ) and could fit within a human palm . Anatomy and morphology Distinguishing features Living mammal species can be identified by the presence of sweat glands , including those that are specialized to produce milk to nourish their young . In classifying fossils , however , other features must be used , since soft tissue glands and many other features are not visible in fossils . Many traits shared by all living mammals appeared among the earliest members of the group : * Jaw joint - The dentary ( the lower jaw bone , which carries the teeth ) and the squamosal ( a small cranial bone ) meet to form the joint . In most gnathostomes , including early therapsids , the joint consists of the articular ( a small bone at the back of the lower jaw ) and quadrate ( a small bone at the back of the upper jaw ) . * Middle ear - In crown-group mammals , sound is carried from the eardrum by a chain of three bones , the malleus , the incus and the stapes . Ancestrally , the malleus and the incus are derived from the articular and the quadrate bones that constituted the jaw joint of early therapsids . * Tooth replacement - Teeth are replaced once or ( as in toothed whales and murid rodents ) not at all , rather than being replaced continually throughout life . * Prismatic enamel - The enamel coating on the surface of a tooth consists of prisms , solid , rod-like structures extending from the dentin to the tooth 's surface . * Occipital condyles - Two knobs at the base of the skull fit into the topmost neck vertebra ; most other tetrapods , in contrast , have only one such knob . For the most part , these characteristics were not present in the Triassic ancestors of the mammals . Nearly all mammal groups possess an epipubic bone , the exception being modern placentals . Biological systems The majority of mammals have seven cervical vertebrae ( bones in the neck ) , including bats , giraffes , whales and humans . The exceptions are the manatee and the two-toed sloth , which have just six , and the three-toed sloth which has nine cervical vertebrae . All mammalian brains possess a neocortex , a brain region unique to mammals . Placental mammals have a corpus callosum , unlike monotremes and marsupials . The lungs of mammals are spongy and honeycombed . Breathing is mainly achieved with the diaphragm , which divides the thorax from the abdominal cavity , forming a dome convex to the thorax . Contraction of the diaphragm flattens the dome , increasing the volume of the lung cavity . Air enters through the oral and nasal cavities , and travels through the larynx , trachea and bronchi , and expands the alveoli . Relaxing the diaphragm has the opposite effect , decreasing the volume of the lung cavity , causing air to be pushed out of the lungs . During exercise , the abdominal wall contracts , increasing pressure on the diaphragm , which forces air out quicker and more forcefully . The rib cage is able to expand and contract the chest cavity through the action of other respiratory muscles . Consequently , air is sucked into or expelled out of the lungs , always moving down its pressure gradient . This type of lung is known as a bellows lung due to its resemblance to blacksmith bellows . The integumentary system is made up of three layers : the outermost epidermis , the dermis and the hypodermis . The epidermis is typically 10 to 30 cells thick ; its main function is to provide a waterproof layer . Its outermost cells are constantly lost ; its bottommost cells are constantly dividing and pushing upward . The middle layer , the dermis , is 15 to 40 times thicker than the epidermis . The dermis is made up of many components , such as bony structures and blood vessels . The hypodermis is made up of adipose tissue . Its job is to store lipids , and to provide cushioning and insulation . The thickness of this layer varies widely from species to species . Although other animals have features such as whiskers , feathers , setae , or cilia that superficially resemble it , no animals other than mammals have hair . It is a definitive characteristic of the class . Though some mammals have very little , careful examination reveals the characteristic , often in obscure parts of their bodies . Herbivores have developed a diverse range of physical structures to facilitate the consumption of plant material . To break up intact plant tissues , mammals have developed teeth structures that reflect their feeding preferences . For instance , frugivores ( animals that feed primarily on fruit ) and herbivores that feed on soft foliage have low-crowned teeth specialized for grinding foliage and seeds . Grazing animals that tend to eat hard , silica-rich grasses , have high-crowned teeth , which are capable of grinding tough plant tissues and do not wear down as quickly as low-crowned teeth . Most carnivorous mammals have carnassialiforme teeth ( of varying length depending on diet ) , long canines and similar tooth replacement patterns . The stomach of Artiodactyls is divided into four sections : the rumen , the reticulum , the omasum and the abomasum ( only ruminants have a rumen ) . After the plant material is consumed , it is mixed with saliva in the rumen and reticulum and separates into

qb_7213--Mammal.txt

Which land mammal has the longest tail?

The Ragamuffin ( often spelled RagaMuffin ) is a breed of domestic cat . It is a variant of the Ragdoll cat and was established as a separate breed in 1994 . Ragamuffins are notable for their friendly personalities and thick , rabbitlike fur . General description Ragamuffins are a muscular , heavy breed of cat needing approximately four to five years to fully mature . The physical traits of the breed include a rectangular , broad-chested body with shoulders supporting a short neck . Ragamuffins come in all coat colors and patterns , with a medium-length coat that increases in length toward the stomach . Although the coat is thick and plush , it does not readily mat or clump and is easy to care for . The head is a broad , modified wedge with a moderately rounded forehead and a nose dip . The body should appear rectangular with a broad chest and broad shoulders and moderately heavy muscling in the hindquarters , with the hindquarters being equally broad as the shoulders . There should be a fatty pad in the lower abdomen . Fur length is to be slightly longer around the neck and outer edges of the face , resulting in the appearance of a ruff . The fur should increase in length from the top of the head down through the shoulder blades and back , with the coat on the sides and stomach being medium to medium long . Every color and pattern is allowable , with or without white . Some color patterns , such as pure white , are rarer than others and are generally in greater demand . History In the 1960s , a regular non-pedigreed white domestic long haired cat named Josephine , who had produced several litters of typical kittens , was injured in a car accident and taken to a laboratory at the University of California . After she recovered , her next litter produced exceptionally friendly kittens . When the subsequent litter produced more of the same , Mrs. Ann Baker ( an established cat breeder ) purchased several kittens from the owner and set out to create what is now known as the ( original ) Ragdoll . In the mid 1970s , after many of the original Ragdoll breeders left , Ann Baker decided to spurn traditional cat breeding associations . She trademarked the name `` Ragdoll '' for a new line of cats unrelated to the original Ragdoll and set up her own registry—International Ragdoll Cat Association ( IRCA ) —and imposed stringent standards on anyone who wanted to breed or sell cats under that name . The IRCA Ragdolls were also not allowed to be registered in other breed associations . In 1994 , a group of IRCA breeders decided to leave and form their own group because of increasingly strict breeding restrictions . Owing to Ann Baker 's trademark on the name `` Ragdoll '' , the group renamed its stock of IRCA Ragdoll cats , Ragamuffins . While the preferred name was Leibling cats , the name Ragamuffin was put forth as an alternative by one of the group founders and it was chosen . In the spirit of bettering the breed 's genetic health , personality and temperament , the group out-crossed to Persians , Himalayans , and domestic long haired cats . The group also allowed some out-crossing to original Ragdolls ( which ended in 2010 for ACFA-recognized Ragamuffins ) . Only cats with at least one Ragamuffin parent and an ACFA-accepted out-cross currently qualify to be called Ragamuffins . Cat Fanciers ' Association Ragamuffins may only have Ragamuffin parents . The first cat association to accept the breed at full show champion status was the United Feline Organization ( UFO ) , and while some major cat associations still refuse to accept the Ragamuffin as a recognized breed ( primarily because of its close association with the Ragdoll ) , it was accepted into the American Cat Fanciers Association ( ACFA ) . Finally , the Cat Fanciers ' Association ( CFA ) accepted them into the Miscellaneous class in February , 2003 and advanced them to Championship Class in February , 2011 . Color forms Ragamuffins come in all patterns and colors , although colorpoints are not allowed under CFA standards . Their eyes can be any solid color , with some exhibiting heterochromia . Personality The only extreme allowed in this breed is their docile nature . The Ragamuffins are friendly , attentive and affectionate , with a tendency to go limp when held . While not overly athletic , they enjoy playing and climbing scratching posts , and some will even run after and retrieve toys . They greet family members at the door and will follow familiar people around the house . Because of their gentle nature , it is considered advisable to keep Ragamuffins mostly indoors , to protect them from threats present in outdoor environments . These cats can be vocal at times . Fanciers who raise both Ragdolls and Ragamuffins claim that their temperaments are very similar . These cats adapt easily to a variety of territories .

qw_8348--Ragamuffin_cat.txt

Maine Coon, Munchkin, Oriental Shorthair, Persian, Ragamuffin, Russian Blue, Siamese, Siberian, Snowshoe, Sphynx, Tonkinese and Manx are all breeds of what?

Peewits redirects here . Distinguish from PWITS = `` possession with intent to supply '' ( an illegal drug trade-related criminal charge . ) The northern lapwing ( Vanellus vanellus ) , also known as the peewit , pewit , tuit or tew-it ( imitative of its cry ) , green plover ( emphasising the colour of the plumage ) or ( in the British Isles ) just lapwing ( which refers to its peculiar , erratic way of flying ) , is a bird in the lapwing family . It is common through temperate Eurasia . It is highly migratory over most of its extensive range , wintering further south as far as north Africa , northern India , Pakistan , and parts of China . It migrates mainly by day , often in large flocks . Lowland breeders in westernmost areas of Europe are resident . It occasionally is a vagrant to North America , especially after storms , as in the Canadian sightings after storms in December 1927 and in January 1966 . It is a wader which breeds on cultivated land and other short vegetation habitats . 3–4 eggs are laid in a ground scrape . The nest and young are defended noisily and aggressively against all intruders , up to and including horses and cattle . In winter , it forms huge flocks on open land , particularly arable land and mud-flats . Etymology The name lapwing has been variously attributed to the `` lapping '' sound its wings make in flight , from the irregular progress in flight due to its large wings ( OED derives this from an Old English word meaning `` to totter '' ) , or from its habit of drawing potential predators away from its nest by trailing a wing as if broken . The scientific name Vanellus is Medieval Latin for the northern lapwing and derives from vannus a winnowing fan . Description The northern lapwing is a 28 – long bird with a 67 – wingspan and a body mass of 128 - . It has rounded wings and a crest . It is also the shortest-legged of the lapwings . It is mainly black and white , but the back is tinted green . The male has a long crest and a black crown , throat and breast contrasting with an otherwise white face . Females and young birds have shorter crests , and have less strongly marked heads , but plumages are otherwise quite similar . This is a vocal bird in the breeding season , with constant calling as the crazed tumbling display flight is performed by the male . The typical contact call is a loud , shrill `` pee-wit '' from which they get their other name of peewit . Displaying males usually make a wheezy `` pee-wit , wit wit , eeze wit '' during their display flight , these birds also make squeaking or mewing sounds . It feeds primarily on insects and other small invertebrates . This species often feeds in mixed flocks with golden plovers and black-headed gulls , the latter often robbing the two plovers , but providing a degree of protection against predators . Like the golden plovers , this species prefers to feed at night when there is moonlight . The northern lapwing is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds ( AEWA ) applies . Population decline National surveys of England and Wales have shown a population decline between 1987 and 1998 . The numbers of this species have been adversely affected by intensive agricultural techniques . In the lowlands this includes the loss of rough grassland , conversion to arable or improved grassland , loss of mixed farms , and switch from spring to autumn sown crops . In the uplands , the losses may have been due to increases in grazing density . Natural England gives grant aid to help restore lapwing habitat within its Environmental Stewardship Scheme . The organisation suggests an option within this scheme called 'Fallow plots for ground-nesting birds ' . Uncropped plots at least 2 ha in size provide nesting habitat and are located in suitable arable fields , which provide additional foraging habitat . Locating the plots within 2 km of extensively grazed grassland will provide additional foraging habitat . The plots are cultivated in the spring to produce a rough fallow , which is retained without the input of fertiliser or pesticides . Cultural significance Harvesting eggs `` Plover 's eggs '' were an expensive delicacy in Victorian Europe , mentioned in Evelyn Waugh 's Brideshead Revisited , about aristocratic British society in 1920–40 . In the Netherlands , there is a cultural-historical competition to find the first peewit egg of the year ( het eerste kievietsei ) . It is especially popular in the province Friesland , but there are also regional competitions . Gathering peewit eggs is prohibited by the European Union , but Friesland was granted an exception for cultural-historical reasons . The Frisian exception was removed in 2005 by a court , which determined that the Frisian executive councillors had not properly followed procedure . As of 2006 it is again allowed to look for peewit eggs between 1 March and 9 April , though harvesting those eggs is now forbidden . The first egg of 2008 was found on 3 March , in Eemnes , Utrecht , as was the first egg of 2009 found on 8 March . Over the last century , the first peewit egg is found earlier and earlier . This is ascribed to both increased use of fertiliser and climate change , causing earlier grass growth needed for egg laying . Mythology The bird referred to in English translations of Ovid 's Metamorphoses , book 6 , as lapwing is probably the northern lapwing . Tereus is turned into an epops ( 6.674 ) ; Ovid presumably had the hoopoe in mind , whose crest indicates his royal status and whose long , sharp beak is a symbol of his violent nature .

sfq_19847--Northern_lapwing.txt

Green plover and peewit are alternative names for which British bird?

Ancient Greece was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to c.5th centuries BC to the end of antiquity ( Circa| 600 AD ) . Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era . Included in ancient Greece is the period of Classical Greece , which flourished during the 5th to 4th centuries BC . Classical Greece began with the era of the Persian Wars . Because of conquests by Alexander the Great of Macedonia , Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the western end of the Mediterranean Sea . Classical Greek culture , especially philosophy , had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire , which carried a version of it to many parts of the Mediterranean Basin and Europe . For this reason Classical Greece is generally considered to be the seminal culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture and is considered as the cradle of Western civilization . Chronology Classical Antiquity in the Mediterranean region is commonly considered to have begun in the 8th century BC ( around the time of the earliest recorded poetry of Homer ) and ended in the 6th century AD . Classical Antiquity in Greece is preceded by the Greek Dark Ages ( Circa| 1200 – c. 800 BC ) , archaeologically characterised by the protogeometric and geometric styles of designs on pottery . This period is succeeded , around the 8th century BC , by the Orientalizing Period during which a strong influence of Syro-Hittite , Jewish , Assyrian , Phoenician and Egyptian cultures becomes apparent . Traditionally , the Archaic period of ancient Greece is considered to begin with Orientalizing influence , which among other things brought the alphabetic script to Greece , marking the beginning of Greek literature ( Homer , Hesiod ) . The end of the Dark Ages is also frequently dated to 776 BC , the year of the first Olympic Games . The Archaic period gives way to the Classical period around 500 BC , in turn succeeded by the Hellenistic period at the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC . ; Ancient Periods : Astronomical year numbering ImageSize = width:800 height:100 PlotArea = width:720 height:75 left:65 bottom:20 AlignBars = justify Colors = id : time value : rgb ( 0.7,0.7,1 ) # id : period value : rgb ( 1,0.7,0.5 ) # id : age value : rgb ( 0.95,0.85,0.5 ) # id : era value : rgb ( 1,0.85,0.5 ) # id : eon value : rgb ( 1,0.85,0.7 ) # id : filler value : gray ( 0.8 ) # background bar id : black value : black Period = from : -1200 till:529 TimeAxis = orientation : horizontal ScaleMajor = unit : year increment:100 start : -1200 ScaleMinor = unit : year increment:50 start : -1200 PlotData = align : center textcolor : black fontsize:10 mark : ( line , black ) width:10 shift : ( 0 , -5 ) bar : Period color : filler from : -1200 till : -800 text : Greek Dark Ages bar : Period color : age from : -800 till : -500 text : Archaic from : -500 till : -323 text : Classical from : -323 till : -146 text : Hellenistic from : -146 till : 330 text : Roman Greece from : 330 till : 529 text : Late Antiquity bar : Phase color : period from : -1200 till : -1100 shift : ( 0 , 5 ) text : Mycenaean from : -1200 till : -700 text : Colonization from : -800 till : -700 shift : ( 0 , -15 ) text : Orientalization from : -700 till : -600 text : Tyrants from : -600 till : -500 shift : ( 0 , 5 ) text : Reorganization from : -500 till : -302 text : Hellenic from : -302 till : -279 shift : ( 0 , 5 ) text : Diadochi from : -302 till : -279 shift : ( -10 , -15 ) text : Antipatrid from : -279 till : -168 text : Antigonid from : -168 till : -146 shift : ( 5 , 5 ) text : Invasion from : -146 till : 330 text : Provincia from : 330 till : 529 text : Byzantine bar : color : filler from : -1200 till : -200 text : Early from : -200 till : 300 text : Middle from : 300 till : 529 text : Late : :Dates are approximate , consult particular article for details The history of Greece during Classical Antiquity may be subdivided into five major periods . The earliest of these is the Archaic period ( c. 800 – c. 500 BC ) , in which artists made larger free-standing sculptures in stiff , hieratic poses with the dreamlike `` archaic smile '' . The Archaic period is often taken to end with the overthrow of the last tyrant of Athens and the start of Athenian Democracy in 508 BC . It was followed by the Classical period ( c. 500 – 323 BC ) , characterized by a style which was considered by later observers to be exemplary i.e . `` classical '' , as shown in for instance the Parthenon . Politically , the Classical Period was dominated by Athens and the Delian League during the 5th century , but displaced by Spartan hegemony during the early 4th century BC , before power shifted to Thebes and the Boeotian League and finally to the League of Corinth led by Macedon . This period saw the Greco-Persian Wars and the Rise of Macedon . Following the Classical period was the Hellenistic period ( 323–146 BC ) , during which Greek culture and power expanded into the Near and Middle East . This period begins with the death of Alexander and ends with the Roman conquest . Roman Greece is usually considered to be the period between Roman victory over the Corinthians at the Battle of Corinth in 146 BC and the establishment of Byzantium by Constantine as the capital of the Roman Empire in AD 330 . Finally , Late Antiquity refers to the period of Christianization during the later 4th to early 6th centuries AD , sometimes taken to be complete with the closure of the Academy of Athens by Justinian I in 529 . Historiography The historical period of ancient Greece is unique in world history as the first period attested directly in proper historiography , while earlier ancient history or proto-history is known by much more circumstantial evidence , such as annals or king lists , and pragmatic epigraphy . Herodotus is widely known as the `` father of history '' : his Histories are eponymous of the entire field . Written between the 450s and 420s BC , Herodotus ' work reaches about a century into the past , discussing 6th century historical figures such as Darius I of Persia , Cambyses II and Psamtik III , and alluding to some 8th century ones such as Candaules . Herodotus was succeeded by authors such as Thucydides , Xenophon , Demosthenes , Plato and Aristotle . Most of these authors were either Athenians or pro-Athenians , which is why far more is known about the history and politics of Athens than those of many other cities . Their scope is further limited by a focus on political , military and diplomatic history , ignoring economic and social history . History Archaic period In the 8th century BC , Greece began to emerge from the Dark Ages which followed the fall of the Mycenaean civilization . Literacy had been lost and Mycenaean script forgotten , but the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet , modifying it to create the Greek alphabet . From about the 9th century BC written records begin to appear . Greece was divided into many small self-governing communities , a pattern largely dictated by Greek geography : every island , valley and plain is cut off from its neighbors by the sea or mountain ranges . , The Lelantine War ( c. 710 – c. 650 BC ) is the earliest documented war of the ancient Greek period . It was fought between the important poleis ( city-states ) of Chalcis and Eretria over the fertile Lelantine plain of Euboea . Both cities seem to have suffered a decline as result of the long war , though Chalcis was the nominal victor . A mercantile class arose in the first half of the 7th century , shown by the introduction of coinage in about 680 BC . This seems to have introduced tension to many city-states . The aristocratic regimes which generally governed the poleis were threatened by the new-found wealth of merchants , who in turn desired political power . From 650 BC onwards , the aristocracies had to fight not to be overthrown and replaced by populist tyrants . This word derives from the non-pejorative Greek τύραννος tyrannos , meaning 'illegitimate ruler ' , and was applicable to both good and bad leaders alike . A growing population and a shortage of land also seem to have created internal strife between the poor and the rich in many city-states . In Sparta , the Messenian Wars resulted in the conquest of Messenia and enserfment of the Messenians , beginning in the latter half of the 8th century BC , an act without precedent or antecedent in ancient Greece . This practice allowed a social revolution to occur . The subjugated population , thenceforth known as helots , farmed and labored for Sparta , whilst every Spartan male citizen became a soldier of the Spartan Army in a permanently militarized state . Even the elite were obliged to live and train as soldiers ; this commonality between rich and poor citizens served to defuse the social conflict . These reforms , attributed to the shadowy Lycurgus of Sparta , were probably complete by 650 BC . Athens suffered a land and agrarian crisis in the late 7th century , again resulting in civil strife . The Archon ( chief magistrate ) Draco made severe reforms to the law code in 621 BC ( hence `` draconian '' ) , but these failed to quell the conflict . Eventually the moderate reforms of Solon ( 594 BC ) , improving the lot of the poor but firmly entrenching the aristocracy in power , gave Athens some stability . By the 6th century BC several cities had emerged as dominant in Greek affairs : Athens , Sparta , Corinth , and Thebes . Each of them had brought the surrounding rural areas and smaller towns under their control , and Athens and Corinth had become major maritime and mercantile powers as well . Rapidly increasing population in the 8th and 7th centuries had resulted in emigration of many Greeks to form colonies in Magna Graecia ( Southern Italy and Sicily ) , Asia Minor and further afield . The emigration effectively ceased in the 6th century by which time the Greek world had , culturally and linguistically , become much larger than the area of present-day Greece . Greek colonies were not politically controlled by their founding cities , although they often retained religious and commercial links with them . The emigration process also determined a long series of conflicts between the Greek cities of Sicily , especially Syracuse , and the Carthaginians . These conflicts lasted from 600 BC to 265 BC when Rome entered into an alliance with the Mamertines to fend off the hostilities by the new tyrant of Syracuse , Hiero II and then the Carthaginians . This way Rome became the new dominant power against the fading strength of the Sicilian Greek cities and the Carthaginian supremacy in the region . One year later the First Punic War erupted . In this period , there was huge economic development in Greece , and also in its overseas colonies which experienced a growth in commerce and manufacturing . There was a great improvement in the living standards of the population . Some studies estimate that the average size of the Greek household , in the period from 800 BC to 300 BC , increased five times , which indicates a large increase in the average income of the population . In the second half of the 6th century , Athens fell under the tyranny of Peisistratos and then of his sons Hippias and Hipparchos . However , in 510 BC , at the instigation of the Athenian aristocrat Cleisthenes , the Spartan king Cleomenes I helped the Athenians overthrow the tyranny . Afterwards , Sparta and Athens promptly turned on each other , at which point Cleomenes I installed Isagoras as a pro-Spartan archon . Eager to prevent Athens from becoming a Spartan puppet , Cleisthenes responded by proposing to his fellow citizens that Athens undergo a revolution : that all citizens share in political power , regardless of status : that Athens become a `` democracy '' . So enthusiastically did the Athenians take to this idea that , having overthrown Isagoras and implemented Cleisthenes 's reforms , they were easily able to repel a Spartan-led three-pronged invasion aimed at restoring Isagoras . The advent of the democracy cured many of the ills of Athens and led to a 'golden age ' for the Athenians . Classical Greece 5th century BC Athens and Sparta would soon have to become allies in the face of the largest external threat ancient Greece would see until the Roman conquest . After suppressing the Ionian Revolt , a rebellion of the Greek cities of Ionia , Darius I of Persia , King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire , decided to subjugate Greece . The Persian general Megabyzus re-subjugated Thrace and conquered Macedon in the early stages of the war , but the war eventually ended up with a Greek victory in 490 BC by the Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon under Miltiades the Younger . Xerxes I of Persia , son and successor of Darius I , attempted his own invasion 10 years later . Even though at a crucial point in the war , the Persians briefly overran northern and central Greece , the Greek city-states managed to turn this war into a victory too . The notable battles of the Greco-Persian Wars include Marathon , Thermopylae , Salamis , and Plataea . The Greco-Persian Wars continued until 449 BC , led by the Athenians and their Delian League , during which time the Macedon , Thrace , the Aegean Islands and Ionia were all liberated from Persian influence . The dominant position of the maritime Athenian 'Empire ' threatened Sparta and the Peloponnesian League of mainland Greek cities . Inevitably , this led to conflict , resulting in the Peloponnesian War ( 431–404 BC ) . Though effectively a stalemate for much of the war , Athens suffered a number of setbacks . The Plague of Athens in 430 BC followed by a disastrous military campaign known as the Sicilian Expedition severely weakened Athens . Around thirty per cent of the population died in a typhoid epidemic in 430–426 BC . Sparta was able to foment rebellion among Athens 's allies , further reducing the Athenian ability to wage war . The decisive moment came in 405 BC when Sparta cut off the grain supply to Athens from the Hellespont . Forced to attack , the crippled Athenian fleet was decisively defeated by the Spartans under the command of Lysander at Aegospotami . In 404 BC Athens sued for peace , and Sparta dictated a predictably stern settlement : Athens lost her city walls ( including the Long Walls ) , her fleet , and all of her overseas possessions . 4th century BC Greece thus entered the 4th century BC under a Spartan hegemony , but it was clear from the start that this was weak . A demographic crisis meant Sparta was overstretched , and by 395 BC Athens , Argos , Thebes , and Corinth felt able to challenge Spartan dominance , resulting in the Corinthian War ( 395–387 BC ) . Another war of stalemates , it ended with the status quo restored , after the threat of Persian intervention on behalf of the Spartans . The Spartan hegemony lasted another 16 years , until , when attempting to impose their will on the Thebans , the Spartans suffered a decisive defeat at Leuctra in 371 BC . The Theban general Epaminondas then led Theban troops into the Peloponnese , whereupon other city-states defected from the Spartan cause . The Thebans were thus able to march into Messenia and free the population . Deprived of land and its serfs , Sparta declined to a second-rank power . The Theban hegemony thus established was short-lived ; at the Battle of Mantinea in 362 BC , Thebes lost its key leader , Epaminondas , and much of its manpower , even though they were victorious in battle . In fact such were the losses to all the great city-states at Mantinea that none could establish dominance in the aftermath . The weakened state of the heartland of Greece coincided with the Rise of Macedon , led by Philip II . In twenty years , Philip had unified his kingdom , expanded it north and west at the expense of Illyrian tribes , and then conquered Thessaly and Thrace . His success stemmed from his innovative reforms to the Macedon army . Phillip intervened repeatedly in the affairs of the southern city-states , culminating in his invasion of 338 BC . Decisively defeating an allied army of Thebes and Athens at the Battle of Chaeronea ( 338 BC ) , he became de facto hegemon of all of Greece , except Sparta . He compelled the majority of the city-states to join the League of Corinth , allying them to him , and preventing them from warring with each other . Philip then entered into war against the Achaemenid Empire but was assassinated by Pausanias of Orestis early on in the conflict . Alexander , son and successor of Philip , continued the war . Alexander defeated Darius III of Persia and completely destroyed the Achaemenid Empire , annexing it to Macedon and earning himself the epithet 'the Great ' . When Alexander died in 323 BC , Greek power and influence was at its zenith . However , there had been a fundamental shift away from the fierce independence and classical culture of the poleis—and instead towards the developing Hellenistic culture . Hellenistic Greece The Hellenistic period lasted from 323 BC , which marked the end of the Wars of Alexander the Great , to the annexation of Greece by the Roman Republic in 146 BC . Although the establishment of Roman rule did not break the continuity of Hellenistic society and culture , which remained essentially unchanged until the advent of Christianity , it did mark the end of Greek political independence . During the Hellenistic period , the importance of `` Greece proper '' ( that is , the territory of modern Greece ) within the Greek-speaking world declined sharply . The great centers of Hellenistic culture were Alexandria and Antioch , capitals of Ptolemaic Egypt and Seleucid Syria respectively . The conquests of Alexander had numerous consequences for the Greek city-states . It greatly widened the horizons of the Greeks and led to a steady emigration , particularly of the young and ambitious , to the new Greek empires in the east . Many Greeks migrated to Alexandria , Antioch and the many other new Hellenistic cities founded in Alexander 's wake , as far away as what are now Afghanistan and Pakistan , where the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and the Indo-Greek Kingdom survived until the end of the 1st century BC . After the death of Alexander his empire was , after quite some conflict , divided among his generals , resulting in the Ptolemaic Kingdom ( based upon Egypt ) , the Seleucid Empire ( based on the Levant , Mesopotamia and Persia ) and the Antigonid dynasty based in Macedon . In the intervening period , the poleis of Greece were able to wrest back some of their freedom , although still nominally subject to the Macedonian Kingdom . The city-states within Greece formed themselves into two leagues ; the Achaean League ( including Thebes , Corinth and Argos ) and the Aetolian League ( including Sparta and Athens ) . For much of the period until the Roman conquest , these leagues were usually at war with each other , and/or allied to different sides in the conflicts between the Diadochi ( the successor states to Alexander 's empire ) . The Antigonid Kingdom became involved in a war with the Roman Republic in the late 3rd century . Although the First Macedonian War was inconclusive , the Romans , in typical fashion , continued to make war on Macedon until it was completely absorbed into the Roman Republic ( by 149 BC ) . In the east the unwieldy Seleucid Empire gradually disintegrated , although a rump survived until 64 BC , whilst the Ptolemaic Kingdom continued in Egypt until 30 BC , when it too was conquered by the Romans . The Aetolian league grew wary of Roman involvement in Greece , and sided with the Seleucids in the Roman-Syrian War ; when the Romans were victorious , the league was effectively absorbed into the Republic . Although the Achaean league outlasted both the Aetolian league and Macedon , it was also soon defeated and absorbed by the Romans in 146 BC , bringing an end to the independence of all of Greece . Roman Greece The Greek peninsula came under Roman rule during the 146 BC conquest of Greece after the Battle of Corinth . Macedonia became a Roman province while southern Greece came under the surveillance of Macedonia 's prefect ; however , some Greek poleis managed to maintain a partial independence and avoid taxation . The Aegean islands were added to this territory in 133 BC . Athens and other Greek cities revolted in 88 BC , and the peninsula was crushed by the Roman general Sulla . The Roman civil wars devastated the land even further , until Augustus organized the peninsula as the province of Achaea in 27 BC . Greece was a key eastern province of the Roman Empire , as the Roman culture had long been in fact Greco-Roman . The Greek language served as a lingua franca in the East and in Italy , and many Greek intellectuals such as Galen would perform most of their work in Rome . Geography Regions The territory of Greece is mountainous , and as a result , ancient Greece consisted of many smaller regions each with its own dialect , cultural peculiarities , and identity . Regionalism and regional conflicts were a prominent feature of ancient Greece . Cities tended to be located in valleys between mountains , or on coastal plains , and dominated a certain area around them . In the south lay the Peloponnese , itself consisting of the regions of Laconia ( southeast ) , Messenia ( southwest ) , Elis ( west ) , Achaia ( north ) , Korinthia ( northeast ) , Argolis ( east ) , and Arcadia ( center ) . These names survive to the present day as regional units of modern Greece , though with somewhat different boundaries . Mainland Greece to the north , nowadays known as Central Greece , consisted of Aetolia and Acarnania in the west , Locris , Doris , and Phocis in the center , while in the east lay Boeotia , Attica , and Megaris . Northeast lay Thessaly , while Epirus lay to the northwest . Epirus stretched from the Ambracian Gulf in the south to the Ceraunian mountains and the Aoos river in the north , and consisted of Chaonia ( north ) , Molossia ( center ) , and Thesprotia ( south ) . In the northeast corner was Macedonia , originally consisting Lower Macedonia and its regions , such as Elimeia , Pieria , and Orestis . Around the time of Alexander I of Macedon , the Argead kings of Macedon started to expand into Upper Macedonia , lands inhabited by independent Macedonian tribes like the Lyncestae and the Elmiotae and to the West , beyond the Axius river , into Eordaia , Bottiaea , Mygdonia , and Almopia , regions settled by Thracian tribes . To the north of Macedonia lay various non-Greek peoples such as the Paeonians due north , the Thracians to the northeast , and the Illyrians , with whom the Macedonians were frequently in conflict , to the northwest . Chalcidice was settled early on by southern Greek colonists and was considered part of the Greek world , while from the late 2nd millennium BC substantial Greek settlement also occurred on the eastern shores of the Aegean , in Anatolia . Colonies During the Archaic period , the population of Greece grew beyond the capacity of its limited arable land ( according to one estimate , the population of ancient Greece increased by a factor larger than ten during the period from 800 BC to 400 BC , increasing from a population of 800,000 to a total estimated population of 10 to 13 million ) . From about 750 BC the Greeks began 250 years of expansion , settling colonies in all directions . To the east , the Aegean coast of Asia Minor was colonized first , followed by Cyprus and the coasts of Thrace , the Sea of Marmara and south coast of the Black Sea . Eventually Greek colonization reached as far northeast as present day Ukraine and Russia ( Taganrog ) . To the west the coasts of Illyria , Sicily and Southern Italy were settled , followed by Southern France , Corsica , and even northeastern Spain . Greek colonies were also founded in Egypt and Libya . Modern Syracuse , Naples , Marseille and Istanbul had their beginnings as the Greek colonies Syracusae ( Συρακούσαι ) , Neapolis ( Νεάπολις ) , Massalia ( Μασσαλία ) and Byzantion ( Βυζάντιον ) . These colonies played an important role in the spread of Greek influence throughout Europe and also aided in the establishment of long-distance trading networks between the Greek city-states , boosting the economy of ancient Greece . Politics and society Political structure Ancient Greece consisted of several hundred relatively independent city-states ( poleis ) . This was a situation unlike that in most other contemporary societies , which were either tribal or kingdoms ruling over relatively large territories . Undoubtedly the geography of Greece—divided and sub-divided by hills , mountains , and rivers—contributed to the fragmentary nature of ancient Greece . On the one hand , the ancient Greeks had no doubt that they were `` one people '' ; they had the same religion , same basic culture , and same language . Furthermore , the Greeks were very aware of their tribal origins ; Herodotus was able to extensively categorise the city-states by tribe . Yet , although these higher-level relationships existed , they seem to have rarely had a major role in Greek politics . The independence of the poleis was fiercely defended ; unification was something rarely contemplated by the ancient Greeks . Even when , during the second Persian invasion of Greece , a group of city-states allied themselves to defend Greece , the vast majority of poleis remained neutral , and after the Persian defeat , the allies quickly returned to infighting . Thus , the major peculiarities of the ancient Greek political system were firstly , its fragmentary nature , and that this does not particularly seem to have tribal origin , and secondly , the particular focus on urban centers within otherwise tiny states . The peculiarities of the Greek system are further evidenced by the colonies that they set up throughout the Mediterranean Sea , which , though they might count a certain Greek polis as their 'mother ' ( and remain sympathetic to her ) , were completely independent of the founding city . Inevitably smaller poleis might be dominated by larger neighbors , but conquest or direct rule by another city-state appears to have been quite rare . Instead the poleis grouped themselves into leagues , membership of which was in a constant state of flux . Later in the Classical period , the leagues would become fewer and

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Messina, founded by ancient Greeks, site of a 1908 seismic disaster, is the main port of which island?

Aérospatiale/BAC Concorde is a turbojet-powered supersonic passenger jet airliner that was operated until 2003 . It had a maximum speed over twice the speed of sound at Mach 2.04 ( 1354 mph at cruise altitude ) , with seating for 92 to 128 passengers . First flown in 1969 , Concorde entered service in 1976 and continued flying for the next 27 years . It is one of only two supersonic transports to have been operated commercially ; the other is the Soviet-built Tupolev Tu-144 , which was operated for a much shorter period of time . Concorde was jointly developed and manufactured by Aérospatiale and the British Aircraft Corporation ( BAC ) under an Anglo-French treaty . Concorde 's name , meaning harmony or union , reflects the co-operation on the project between the United Kingdom and France . In the UK , any or all of the type are known simply as `` Concorde '' , with no definite article the . Twenty aircraft were built including six prototypes and development aircraft . Air France ( AF ) and British Airways ( BA ) each received seven aircraft . The research and development failed to make a profit and the two then state-owned airlines bought the aircraft at a huge discount . Among other destinations , Concorde flew regular transatlantic flights from London 's Heathrow Airport and Paris 's Charles de Gaulle Airport to John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York , Washington Dulles International Airport and Grantley Adams International Airport in Barbados ; it flew these routes in less than half the time of other airliners . Over time , the aircraft became profitable when it found a customer base willing to pay for flights on what was , for most of its career , the fastest commercial airliner in the world . The aircraft has been regarded as an aviation icon and an engineering marvel , while it was also criticised for being uneconomical , and lacking a credible market . Concorde was retired in 2003 after the type 's only crash in 2000 , as well as after a general downturn in the commercial aviation industry , the September 11 attacks in 2001 , and a decision by Airbus , the successor to Aérospatiale and BAC , to discontinue maintenance support . Development Early studies The origins of the Concorde project date to the early 1950s , when Arnold Hall , director of the Royal Aircraft Establishment ( RAE ) asked Morien Morgan to form a committee to study the supersonic transport ( SST ) concept . The group met for the first time in February 1954 and delivered their first report in April 1955 . At the time it was known that the drag at supersonic speeds was strongly related to the span of the wing.In particular , R. T. Jones ' work at NACA demonstrated this in depth . This led to the use of very short-span , very thin rectangular wings such as those seen on the control surfaces of many missiles , or in aircraft like the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter or the Avro 730 that the team studied . The team outlined a baseline configuration that looked like an enlarged Avro 730 . This same short span produced very little lift at low speed , which resulted in extremely long take-off runs and frighteningly high landing speeds . In an SST design , this would have required enormous engine power to lift off from existing runways , and to provide the fuel needed , `` some horribly large aeroplanes '' resulted . Based on this , the group considered the concept of an SST unfeasible , and instead suggested continued low-level studies into supersonic aerodynamics . Slender deltas Soon after , Johanna Weber and Dietrich Küchemann at the RAE published a series of reports on a new wing planform , known in the UK as the `` slender delta '' concept . The team , including Eric Maskell , worked with the fact that delta wings can produce strong vortexes on their upper surfaces at high angles of attack . The vortex will lower the air pressure and cause lift to be greatly increased . This effect had been noticed earlier , notably by Chuck Yeager in the Convair XF-92 , but its qualities had not been fully appreciated . Weber suggested that this was no mere curiosity , and the effect could be deliberately used to improve low speed performance . Küchemann 's and Weber 's papers changed the entire nature of supersonic design almost overnight . Although the delta had already been used on aircraft prior to this point , these designs used planforms that were not much different from a swept wing of the same span.Consider especially the English Electric Lightning , whose wing can be considered either a highly swept rectangle , or a delta with a notch cut out of the root . Weber noted that the lift from the vortex was increased by the length of the wing it had to operate over , which suggested that the effect would be maximised by extending the wing along the fuselage as far as possible . Such a layout would still have good supersonic performance inherent to the short span , while also offering reasonable take-off and landing speeds using vortex generation . The only downside to such a design is that the aircraft would have to take off and land very `` nose high '' to generate the required vortex lift , which led to questions about the low speed handling qualities of such a design . It would also need to have long landing gear to produce the required angles while still on the runway . Küchemann presented the idea at a meeting where Morgan was also present . Test pilot Eric Brown recalls Morgan 's reaction to the presentation , saying that he immediately seized on it as the solution to the SST problem . Brown considers this moment as being the true birth of the Concorde project.Eric Brown , [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id MMEK1jwD03AC & pg=PT121 `` Wings On My Sleeve '' ] , Hachette UK , 2008 , end of Chapter 12 Supersonic Transport Advisory Committee On 1 October 1956 the Ministry of Supply asked Morgan to form a new study group , the Supersonic Transport Advisory Committee ( STAC ) , with the explicit goal of developing a practical SST design and finding industry partners to build it . At the very first meeting , on 5 November 1956 , the decision was made to fund the development of a test bed aircraft to examine the low speed performance of the slender delta , a contract that eventually produced the Handley Page HP.115 . This aircraft would ultimately demonstrate safe control at speeds as low as 69 mph , about ⅓ that of the F-104 Starfighter . STAC stated that an SST would have economic performance similar to existing subsonic types . Although they would burn more fuel in cruise , they would be able to fly more sorties in a given period of time , so fewer aircraft would be needed to service a particular route . This would remain economically advantageous as long as fuel represented a small percentage of operational costs , as it did at the time . STAC suggested that two designs naturally fell out of their work , a transatlantic model flying at about Mach 2 , and a shorter-range version flying at perhaps Mach 1.2 . Morgan suggested that a 150 passenger transatlantic SST would cost about £75 to £90 million to develop to production , and be in service in 1970 . The smaller 100 passenger short-range version would cost perhaps £50 to £80 million , and be ready for service in 1968 . To meet this schedule , development would need to begin in 1960 , with production contracts let in 1962 . Morgan strongly suggested that the US was already involved in a similar project , and that if the UK failed to respond it would be locked out of an airliner market that he believed would be dominated by SST aircraft . In 1959 , a study contract was awarded to Hawker Siddeley and Bristol for preliminary designs based on the slender delta concept , which developed as the HSA.1000 and Bristol 198 . Armstrong Whitworth also responded with an internal design , the M-Wing , for the lower-speed shorter-range category . Even at this early time , both the STAC group and the government were looking for partners to develop the designs . In September 1959 , Hawker approached Lockheed , and after the creation of British Aircraft Corporation in 1960 , the former Bristol team immediately started talks with Boeing , General Dynamics , Douglas Aircraft and Sud Aviation . Ogee planform selected Küchemann and others at the RAE continued their work on the slender delta throughout , considering three basic shapes ; the classic straight-edge delta , the `` gothic delta '' that was rounded outwards to appear like a gothic arch , and the `` ogival wing '' that was compound-rounded into the shape of an ogee . Each of these planforms had their own advantages and disadvantages in terms of aerodynamics . As they worked with these shapes , a practical concern grew to become so important that it forced selection of one of these designs . Generally one wants to have the wing 's centre of pressure ( CP , or `` lift point '' ) close to the aircraft 's centre of gravity ( CG , or `` balance point '' ) to reduce the amount of control force required to pitch the aircraft . As the aircraft layout changes during the design phase , it is common for the CG to move fore or aft . With a normal wing design this can be addressed by moving the wing slightly fore or aft to account for this.Or , more rarely , `` bent '' back into position . Examples include the Douglas DC-3 and Messerschmitt Me 262 . With a delta wing running most of the length of the fuselage , this was no longer easy ; moving the wing would leave it in front of the nose or behind the tail . Studying the various layouts in terms of CG changes , both during design and changes due to fuel use during flight , the ogee planform immediately came to the fore . While the wing planform was evolving , so was the basic SST concept . Bristol 's original Type 198 was a small design with an almost pure slender delta wing , but evolved into the larger Type 223 with an ogival wing and canards as well . Partnership with Sud By this time similar political and economic concerns in France had led to their own SST plans . In the late 1950s the government requested designs from both the government-owned Sud and Nord , as well as Dassault.This apparently took place some time in 1957 , according to Conway 's unclear statement about `` the following year '' which apparently references the first STAC meeting in late 1956 . All three returned designs based on Küchemann and Weber 's slender delta ; Nord suggested a ramjet powered design flying at Mach 3 , the other two were jet powered Mach 2 designs that were similar to each other . Of the three , the Sud Aviation Super-Caravelle won the design contest with a medium-range design deliberately sized to avoid competition with transatlantic US designs they assumed were already on the drawing board . As soon as the design was complete , in April 1960 , Pierre Satre , the company 's technical director , was sent to Bristol to discuss a partnership . Bristol was surprised to find that the Sud team had designed a very similar aircraft after considering the SST problem and coming to the very same conclusions as the Bristol and STAC teams in terms of economics . It was later revealed that the original STAC report , marked `` For UK Eyes Only '' , had secretly been passed to the French to win political favour . Sud made minor changes to the paper , and presented it as their own work . Unsurprisingly , the two teams found much to agree on . The French had no modern large jet engines , and had already concluded they would buy a British design anyway ( as they had on the earlier subsonic Caravelle ) . As neither company had experience in the use of high-heat metals for airframes , a maximum speed of around Mach 2 was selected so aluminium could be used – above this speed the friction with the air warms the metal so much that aluminium begins to soften . This lower speed would also speed development and allow their design to fly before the Americans . Finally , everyone involved agreed that Küchemann 's ogee shaped wing was the right one . The only disagreements were over the size and range . The UK team was still focused on a 150 passenger design serving transatlantic routes , while the French were deliberately avoiding these . However , this proved not to be the barrier it might seem ; common components could be used in both designs , with the shorter range version using a clipped fuselage and four engines , the longer one with a stretched fuselage and six engines , leaving only the wing to be extensively re-designed . The teams continued to meet through 1961 , and by this time it was clear that the two aircraft would be considerably more similar in spite of different range and seating arrangements . A single design emerged that differed primarily in fuel load . More powerful Bristol Siddeley Olympus engines , being developed for the TSR-2 , allowed either design to be powered by only four engines . Cabinet response , treaty While the development teams met , French Minister of Public Works and Transport Robert Buron was meeting with the UK Minister of Aviation Peter Thorneycroft , and Thorneycroft soon revealed to the cabinet that the French were much more serious about a partnership than any of the US companies . The various US companies had proved uninterested in such a venture , likely due to the belief that the government would be funding development and would frown on any partnership with a European company , and the risk of `` giving away '' US technological leadership to a European partner . When the STAC plans were presented to the UK cabinet , a very negative reaction resulted . The economic considerations were considered highly questionable , especially as these were based on development costs , now estimated to be £150 million , which were repeatedly overrun in the industry . The Treasury Ministry in particular presented a very negative view , suggesting that there was no way the project would have any positive financial returns for the government , especially in light that `` the industry 's past record of over-optimistic estimating ( including the recent history of the TSR.2 ) suggests that it would be prudent to consider the £150 million [ cost ] to turn out much too low . '' This concern led to an independent review of the project by the Committee on Civil Scientific Research and Development , which met on topic between July and September 1962 . The Committee ultimately rejected the economic arguments , including considerations of supporting the industry made by Thorneycroft . Their report in October stated that it was unlikely there would be any direct positive economic outcome , but that the project should still be considered for the simple reason that everyone else was going supersonic , and they were concerned they would be locked out of future markets . Conversely , it appeared the project would not be likely to significantly impact other , more important , research efforts . After considerable argument , the decision to proceed ultimately fell to an unlikely political expediency . At the time , the UK was pressing for admission to the European Common Market , which was being controlled by Charles de Gaulle who felt the UK 's Special Relationship with the US made them unacceptable in a pan-European group . Cabinet felt that signing a deal with Sud would pave the way for Common Market entry , and this became the main deciding reason for moving ahead with the deal . It was this belief that had led the original STAC documents being leaked to the French . However , De Gaulle spoke of the European origin of the design , and continued to block the UK 's entry into the Common Market . The development project was negotiated as an international treaty between the two countries rather than a commercial agreement between companies and included a clause , originally asked for by the UK , imposing heavy penalties for cancellation . A draft treaty was signed on 29 November 1962 . Naming Reflecting the treaty between the British and French governments that led to Concorde 's construction , the name Concorde is from the French word concorde , which has an English equivalent , concord . Both words mean agreement , harmony or union . The name was officially changed to Concord by Harold Macmillan in response to a perceived slight by Charles de Gaulle . At the French roll-out in Toulouse in late 1967 , the British Government Minister for Technology , Tony Benn , announced that he would change the spelling back to Concorde . This created a nationalist uproar that died down when Benn stated that the suffixed ' e ' represented `` Excellence , England , Europe and Entente ( Cordiale ) . '' In his memoirs , he recounts a tale of a letter from an irate Scotsman claiming : `` [ Y ] ou talk about ' E ' for England , but part of it is made in Scotland . '' Given Scotland 's contribution of providing the nose cone for the aircraft , Benn replied , `` [ I ] t was also ' E ' for 'Écosse ' ( the French name for Scotland ) – and I might have added ' e ' for extravagance and ' e ' for escalation as well ! '' Concorde also acquired an unusual nomenclature for an aircraft . In common usage in the United Kingdom , the type is known as Concorde without an article , rather than the Concorde or a Concorde . Sales efforts At first , the new consortium intended to produce one long-range and one short-range version . However , prospective customers showed no interest in the short-range version and it was dropped . An advertisement covering two full pages , promoting Concorde , ran in 29 May 1967 issue of Aviation Week & Space Technology . The advertisement predicted a market for 350 aircraft by 1980 and boasted of Concorde 's head start over the United States ' SST project . The consortium secured orders ( i.e. , non-binding options ) for over 100 of the long-range version from the major airlines of the day : Pan Am , BOAC , and Air France were the launch customers , with six Concordes each . Other airlines in the order book included Panair do Brasil , Continental Airlines , Japan Airlines , Lufthansa , American Airlines , United Airlines , Air India , Air Canada , Braniff , Singapore Airlines , Iran Air , Olympic Airways , Qantas , CAAC , Middle East Airlines , and TWA . At the time of the first flight the options list contained 74 options from 16 airlines : Testing The design work was supported by a preceding research programme studying the flight characteristics of low ratio delta wings . A supersonic Fairey Delta 2 was modified and – as the BAC 221 – was used for flight tests of the high speed flight envelope , the Handley Page HP.115 also provided valuable information on low speed performance . Construction of two prototypes began in February 1965 : 001 , built by Aérospatiale at Toulouse , and 002 , by BAC at Filton , Bristol . Concorde 001 made its first test flight from Toulouse on 2 March 1969 , piloted by André Turcat , and first went supersonic on 1 October . The first UK-built Concorde flew from Filton to RAF Fairford on 9 April 1969 , piloted by Brian Trubshaw . Both prototypes were presented to the public for the first time on 7–8 June 1969 at the Paris Air Show . As the flight programme progressed , 001 embarked on a sales and demonstration tour on 4 September 1971 , which was also the first transatlantic crossing of Concorde . Concorde 002 followed suit on 2 June 1972 with a tour of the Middle and Far East . Concorde 002 made the first visit to the United States in 1973 , landing at the new Dallas/Fort Worth Regional Airport to mark that airport 's opening . While Concorde had initially held a great deal of customer interest , the project was hit by a large number of order cancellations . The Paris Le Bourget air show crash of the competing Soviet Tupolev Tu-144 had shocked potential buyers , and public concern over the environmental issues presented by a supersonic aircraft – the sonic boom , take-off noise and pollution – had produced a shift in public opinion of SSTs . By 1976 four nations remained as prospective buyers : Britain , France , China , and Iran . Only Air France and British Airways ( the successor to BOAC ) took up their orders , with the two governments taking a cut of any profits made . The United States cancelled the Boeing 2707 , its rival supersonic transport programme , in 1971 . Observers have suggested that opposition to Concorde on grounds of noise pollution had been encouraged by the United States Government , as it lacked its own competitor . The US , India , and Malaysia all ruled out Concorde supersonic flights over the noise concern , although some of these restrictions were later relaxed . Professor Douglas Ross characterised restrictions placed upon Concorde operations by President Jimmy Carter 's administration as having been an act of protectionism of American aircraft manufacturers . Concorde flew to an altitude of 68,000 ft ( 20,700 m ) during a test flight in June 1973 . Concorde had other considerable difficulties that led to its dismal sales performance . Costs had spiralled during development to more than six times the original projections , arriving at a unit cost of £23 million in 1977 . World events had also dampened Concorde sales prospects , the 1973 oil crisis made many airlines think twice about aircraft with high fuel consumption rates ; and new wide-body aircraft , such as the Boeing 747 , had recently made subsonic aircraft significantly more efficient and presented a low-risk option for airlines . While carrying a full load , Concorde achieved 15.8 passenger miles per gallon of fuel , while the Boeing 707 reached 33.3 pm/g , the Boeing 747 46.4 pm/g , and the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 53.6 pm/g . An emerging trend in the industry in favour of cheaper airline tickets had also caused airlines such as Qantas to question Concorde 's market suitability . Design General features Concorde is an ogival delta winged aircraft with four Olympus engines based on those employed in the RAF 's Avro Vulcan strategic bomber . It is one of the few commercial aircraft to employ a tailless design ( the Tupolev Tu-144 being another ) . Concorde was the first airliner to have a ( in this case , analogue ) fly-by-wire flight-control system ; the avionics system the Concorde used was unique because it was the first commercial aircraft to employ hybrid circuits . The principal designer for the project was Pierre Satre , with Sir Archibald Russell as his deputy . Concorde pioneered the following technologies : For high speed and optimisation of flight : * Double delta ( ogee/ogival ) shaped wings * Variable engine air intake ramp system controlled by digital computers * Supercruise capability * Thrust-by-wire engines , predecessor of today 's FADEC-controlled engines * Droop-nose section for better landing visibility For weight-saving and enhanced performance : * Mach 2.04 ( ~2179 km/h ) cruising speed for optimum fuel consumption ( supersonic drag minimum although turbojet engines are more efficient at higher speed ) Fuel consumption at Mach 2.0 and at altitude of 60,000 feet ( 18,000 m ) was 4,800 gallons per hour ( 22,000 L/h ) . * Mainly aluminium construction for low weight and conventional manufacture ( higher speeds would have ruled out aluminium ) * Full-regime autopilot and autothrottle allowing `` hands off '' control of the aircraft from climb out to landing * Fully electrically controlled analogue fly-by-wire flight controls systems * High-pressure hydraulic system of 28 MPa ( 4,000 lbf/in² ) for lighter hydraulic components , tripled independent systems ( `` Blue '' , `` Green '' , and `` Yellow '' ) for redundancy , with an emergency ram air turbine ( RAT ) stored in the port-inner elevon jack fairing supplying `` Green '' and `` Yellow '' as backup . * Complex Air data computer ( ADC ) for the automated monitoring and transmission of aerodynamic measurements ( total pressure , static pressure , angle of attack , side-slip ) . * Fully electrically controlled analogue brake-by-wire system * Pitch trim by shifting fuel around the fuselage for centre-of-gravity ( CofG ) control at the approach to Mach 1 and above with no drag penalty . * Parts made using `` sculpture milling '' , reducing the part count while saving weight and adding strength . * No auxiliary power unit , as Concorde would only visit large airports where ground air start carts are available . Powerplant Concorde needed to fly long distances to be economically viable ; this required high efficiency . Turbofan engines were rejected due to their larger cross-section producing excessive drag . Turbojets were found to be the best choice of engines . The engine used was the twin spool Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593 , a development of the Bristol engine first used for the Avro Vulcan bomber , and developed into an afterburning supersonic variant for the BAC TSR-2 strike bomber . Rolls-Royce 's own engine proposed for the aircraft at the time of Concorde 's initial design was the RB.169 . The aircraft used reheat ( afterburners ) at take-off and to pass through the upper transonic regime and to supersonic speeds , between Mach 0.95 and Mach 1.7 . The afterburners were switched off at all other times . Due to jet engines being highly inefficient at low speeds , Concorde burned two tonnes of fuel ( almost 2 % of the maximum fuel load ) taxiing to the runway . Fuel used is Jet A-1 . Due to the high thrust produced even with the engines at idle , only the two outer engines were run after landing for easier taxiing and less brake pad wear - at low weights after landing the aircraft would not remain stationary with all four engines idling requiring the brakes to be continuously applied to prevent the aircraft moving . The intake design for Concorde 's engines was especially critical . The intakes had to provide low distortion levels ( to prevent engine surge ) and high efficiency for all likely ambient temperatures to be met in cruise . They had to provide adequate subsonic performance for diversion cruise and low engine-face distortion at take-off . They also had to provide an alternate path for excess intake air during engine throttling or shutdowns . The variable intake features required to meet all these requirements consisted of front and rear ramps , a dump door , an auxiliary inlet and a ramp bleed to the exhaust nozzle . As well as supplying air to the engine , the intake also supplied air through the ramp bleed to the propelling nozzle . The nozzle ejector ( or aerodynamic ) design , with variable exit area and secondary flow from the intake , contributed to good expansion efficiency from take-off to cruise . Engine failure causes problems on conventional subsonic aircraft ; not only does the aircraft lose thrust on that side but the engine creates drag , causing the aircraft to yaw and bank in the direction of the failed engine . If this had happened to Concorde at supersonic speeds , it theoretically could have caused a catastrophic failure of the airframe . Although computer simulations predicted considerable problems , in practice Concorde could shut down both engines on the same side of the aircraft at

wh_2456--Concorde.txt

Russia's TU-144 plane was the broad equivalent of which western airliner?

Blackburn Rovers Football Club is a professional association football club in Blackburn , Lancashire , England , which has competed in the Championship since being relegated from the Premier League , the top tier of English football , at the end of the 2011–12 season . The club was established in 1875 , becoming a founding member of The Football League in 1888 . It is one of only three clubs to have been both a founder member of the Football League and the Premier League ( the others being Aston Villa and Everton ) . In 1890 , Rovers moved to Ewood Park . Blackburn Rovers are currently the 9th most successful club in England football and the most successful town team in England , having won 3 league titles , 6 FA Cups and 1 League Cup . [ http : //talksport.com/football/top-10-most-successful-english-football-clubs-revealed-liverpool-man-united-and-more ? p=2 ] . Blackburn Rovers are the only team in existence to win 3 FA Cups in a row , Blackburn hold the FA record for the longest undefeated FA Cup run , going 24 games unbeaten between 1884 -86 ( which included the three FA Cup wins ) . Blackburn has spent the majority of its existence in the top flight of English football with 72 years . [ http : //www.skysports.com/football/news/12038/9865833/martin-tylers-stats ] . Also worth a mention is the fact Blackburn Rovers are the 7th highest producers of England internationals [ http : //www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/teams/england/11508860/How-many-players-has-your-club-provided-for-England.html ] . Atletico Madrid and Athletic Bilbao both imported Rovers kits during their formative years . There are further East Lancashire influences across European football , too . “ People from Lancashire were at the forefront of the development of the game around the world , ” said Baker . “ These people are still revered. ” ‘ Fathers of Football ’ chronicles the Britons who spread football across the world . It includes a chapter on Blackburn ’ s role in the foundation of Russian club Dynamo Moscow [ http : //www.lancashiretelegraph.co.uk/sport/11884772.The_incredible_story_of_how_two_Blackburn_Rovers_fans_helped_form_Dynamo_Moscow/ ] . In 1992 , Rovers gained promotion to the new Premier League a year after being taken over by local ultrapreneur Jack Walker , who installed Kenny Dalglish as manager . In 1995 , Rovers became Premier League champions , Jack Walker 's wealth helped Kenny Dalglish , but Rovers spent less money than Manchester United and their other challengers [ https : //www.theguardian.com/football/when-saturday-comes-blog/2013/oct/23/blackburn-premier-league-title-earned-1995 ] . However In the 1998–99 season , the club was relegated . It was promoted back to the Premier League two years later , in the 2000–01 season , just after Walker 's death . It has qualified for the UEFA Cup four times : once as League Cup winners , twice as the Premier League 's sixth-placed team and once via the Intertoto Cup . The 2011–12 season marked the club 's 72nd , non-consecutive , year in the top flight . Rovers are currently one of only six clubs to have won the Premier League , along with Arsenal , Chelsea , Manchester United , Manchester City and Leicester City . The club 's motto is `` '' , `` By Skill and Hard Work '' in Latin . History Early years The club was founded following a meeting , at the Leger Hotel , Blackburn , on 5 November 1875 . The meeting was organised by two young men , namely John Lewis and Arthur Constantine . The purpose of the meeting was `` to discuss the possibility of forming a football club to play under Association rules '' . The first match played by Blackburn Rovers took place in Church , Lancashire on 18 December 1875 and was a 1–1 draw . On 28 September 1878 , Blackburn Rovers became one of 23 clubs to form the Lancashire Football Association . On 1 November 1879 the club played in the F.A . Cup for the first time , beating the Tyne Association Football Club 5–1 . Rovers were eventually put out of the competition in the third round after suffering a heavy 6–0 defeat by Nottingham Forest . On 25 March 1882 the club won through to the final of the F.A . Cup against the Old Etonians . Blackburn Rovers was the first provincial team to reach the final , but the result was a 1–0 defeat by the Old Etonians . Rovers finally won the F.A . Cup on 29 March 1884 with a 2–1 victory over the Scottish team Queen 's Park . The same teams played the F.A . Cup final again the next season , with Blackburn Rovers again emerging victorious , with a 2–0 score . Rovers repeated this success yet again the next season , winning the final replay 2–0 against West Bromwich Albion . For this three-in-a-row of F.A . Cup victories , the club was awarded a specially commissioned silver shield . The 1885–86 season was the birth of the legal professional footballer , and Blackburn Rovers spent £615 on player wages for the season . Football League commences Blackburn Rovers were founder members of the Football League in 1888 . Blackburn Rovers again reached the F.A . Cup final on 29 March 1890 at the Kennington Oval . The club claimed the trophy for the fourth time , by beating Sheffield Wednesday a hefty 6–1 with left forward William Townley scoring three goals and becoming the first player to achieve a hat-trick in the F.A . Cup final . The 1890–91 season saw Blackburn Rovers win the F.A . Cup for the fifth time against Notts County with a 3–1 victory . During the 1897–98 season the club stayed in the first division only as the result of a decision to increase the number of teams from 16 to 18 . The season did , however , mark the beginning of Bob Crompton 's 45-year association with the club , both as a player and eventually as an F.A . Cup winning manager . Early 20th century Blackburn Rovers continued to struggle during the early years of the 20th century , but the results began a gradual improvement . Major renovations were made to Ewood Park : in 1905 the Darwen End was covered at a cost of £1680 and the new Nuttall Stand was opened on New Year 's Day 1907 . During the first three decades of the 20th century , Blackburn Rovers were still considered a top side in the English league . They were First Division champions in 1911–12 and 1913–14 , and F.A Cup winners in 1927–28 with a 3–1 victory against Huddersfield Town , but the F.A Cup win was their last major trophy for nearly 70 years . Mid 20th century Blackburn Rovers maintained a respectable mid-table position in the First Division until they were finally relegated ( along with Aston Villa ) from the top flight ( for the first time since the foundation of the league ) in the 1935–36 season . When the league resumed after the war , Blackburn Rovers were relegated in their second season ( 1947–48 ) . At this time the tradition of burying a coffin began . The club remained in the second division for the following ten years . After promotion in 1958 , they again returned to the mid-table position they had occupied in the earlier part of the century . During this time , they seldom made a serious challenge for a major trophy – although they did reach the 1960 FA Cup final when managed by Scot Dally Duncan . Rovers lost this game 3–0 to Wolverhampton Wanderers after playing most of the game with only 10 men on the field following an injury to Dave Whelan , who broke a leg . There were brief hopes of a return to glory in the 1963–64 season , when a remarkable 8–2 away win over West Ham United in east London on Boxing Day took them to the top of the league . However , their lead of the league was short lived and they finished the season some way down the table as the title was seized by a Liverpool side who would record a further 12 league titles over the next 26 years , while Blackburn 's fortunes took a very different route . They were again relegated from the First Division in 1966 and began a 26-year exile from the top division . 1970s and 1980s During the 1970s , Blackburn Rovers bounced between the Second and Third Divisions , winning the Third Division title in 1975 , but never mounted a challenge for promotion to the First Division despite the efforts of successive managers to put the club back on track , and fell back into the Third Division in 1979 . They went up as runners up in the Third Division in 1980 and have remained in the upper two tiers of the English league ever since . A second successive promotion was nearly achieved the following year , but the club missed out on goal difference , and promotion-winning manager Howard Kendall moved to Everton that summer . Kendall 's successor , Bobby Saxton only managed mid-table finishes for the next three seasons , then nearly achieved promotion in the 1984–85 season , but a poor finish the following year ( just one place above relegation ) followed by an abysmal start to the 1986–87 season cost Saxton his job . Saxton was replaced by Don Mackay , who steered them to a decent finish that season and also victory in the Full Members Cup . In the following three seasons Mackay re-established Rovers as promotion contenders , but they fell just short of promotion each time ; the closest they came was in 1988–89 reached the Second Division play-off final in its last-ever season of the home-away two-legged format – but lost to Crystal Palace . A defeat in the 1989–90 Second Division playoff semi-finals brought more frustration to Ewood Park , but the following season saw the club taken over by local steelworks owner and lifelong supporter Jack Walker ( 1929–2000 ) . 1990s Following the Walker takeover Rovers finished 19th in the Second Division at the end of the 1990–91 season , but the new owner had made millions of pounds available to spend on new players and appointed Kenny Dalglish as manager in October 1991 . Rovers secured promotion to the new FA Premier League at the end of 1991–92 season as play-off winners , ending 26 years outside the top flight . [ http : //www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/17640251 BBC Sport – How Kenny Dalglish turned a six-game losing run into glory ] Rovers made headlines in the summer of 1992 by paying an English record fee of £3.5million for the 22-year-old Southampton and England centre forward Alan Shearer . After finishing fourth in 1992–93 and runners-up in 1993–94 , they went on to win the Premier League title in 1994–95 . The title chase went down to the last game of the season , but despite Rovers losing to Liverpool they edged out rivals Manchester United to win the championship . Kenny Dalglish moved upstairs to the position of Director of Football at the end of the Premier League winning season , and handed over the reins to his assistant Ray Harford . Blackburn Rovers made a poor start to the 1995–96 season , and found themselves in the bottom half for most of the first half of the season . Rovers also struggled in the Champions League and finished bottom of their group with just four points . A terrible start to the 1996–97 Premier League campaign saw Harford resign in late October with the club bottom of the division , having failed to win any of their first ten games . Relegation looked a real possibility , just two seasons after winning the league . After an abortive attempt to bring in Sven-Göran Eriksson as manager , long-serving coach Tony Parkes took over as manager for the rest of the campaign , narrowly steering the side to survival . That summer , the manager 's job was taken by Roy Hodgson , who joined the club from Internazionale . UEFA Cup football was secured with a 6th-place finish . However , Rovers made a poor start to the 1998–99 campaign and Hodgson was sacked in December less than an hour after a 2–0 home defeat to bottom side Southampton , a result that locked Rovers in the relegation zone . He was replaced as manager by Brian Kidd . However , he could not save them as the club slipped away , relegation was confirmed with a scoreless draw at home to Manchester United in the penultimate game of the season . 2000s In 1999–2000 Rovers began the season as promotion favourites , but with the club hovering just above the Division One relegation zone Brian Kidd was sacked in October and replaced in March by Graeme Souness . Jack Walker died just after the start of the 2000–01 season , and the club dedicated its promotion challenge in memory of their benefactor . Fittingly , they returned to the Premier League after a much improved season , finishing second behind Fulham . In 2001–02 , record signing Andy Cole was bought in for £8million , and Rovers won their first-ever League Cup by beating Tottenham Hotspur 2–1 at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff , Cole scoring the winner in the 69th minute . The following season Rovers finished sixth to qualify for the UEFA Cup for the second season running . Souness left just after the start of 2004–05 to take charge at Newcastle , and he was replaced by Welsh national coach Mark Hughes . Hughes secured Rovers ' Premier League survival for the 2004–05 season as well as an FA Cup semi-final against Arsenal , with Rovers finishing 15th once again . He led the team to sixth the following season and Rovers 's third European qualification in five years . Rovers reached the semi-final of the 2006–07 FA Cup , but lost to Chelsea in extra time , and finished that season 's league in tenth , qualifying for the Intertoto Cup , which led to a short run in the 2007–08 UEFA Cup . In May 2008 , Mark Hughes left Blackburn Rovers for the vacancy at Manchester City . He was replaced by Paul Ince , Ince 's first job was to persuade some of the wantaway players to stay . with Archie Knox coming in as his assistant . Ince 's time in charge started well , but following a run of eleven games without a win he was sacked in December 2008 . Sam Allardyce was appointed as Ince 's replacement and in 2009–10 he led the team to a tenth-place finish and a League Cup semi-final . 2010 onwards In November 2010 , the Indian company V H Group bought Blackburn Rovers under the name of Venky 's London Limited for £23 million . The new owners sacked Allardyce and replaced him with first-team coach Steve Kean , initially on a temporary basis . In December 2011 , Blackburn Rovers posted an annual pre-tax loss of £18.6m for the year ending 30 June 2011 . Despite this , the owners of Blackburn Rovers provided assurances over the continued funding of the club , even if they were relegated . On 7 May 2012 , the club was relegated to the Championship after being defeated at home by Wigan Athletic at home in the penultimate game of the season , ending eleven years in the Premier League . At the start of the 2012-2013 season , Steve Kean , the manager in charge for the previous relegation season , was given a chance by owners to win promotion and kept his job as the manager . Ultimately though , pressure from the supporters who had been calling for the managers removal for months resulted in his resignation as manager on 29 September 2012 . Players Current squad For recent transfers , see 2016–17 Blackburn Rovers F.C . season . Out on loan Reserve/Academy squad Notable former and existing players For a list of notable Blackburn Rovers players in sortable-table format see List of Blackburn Rovers F.C . players . Awards Goal of the season The Peter White Memorial Trophy is awarded to the player winning the goal of the season competition , which started in season 2000–01 . Winners are as follows : Player of the season

sfq_14052--Blackburn_Rovers_F.C..txt

Name the year; Baring's Bank collapsed, Blackburn Rovers won the Premier League and Cliff Richard was knighted?

County Mayo ( , meaning `` Plain of the yew trees '' ) is a county in Ireland . In the West of Ireland , it is part of the province of Connacht and is named after the village of Mayo , now generally known as Mayo Abbey . Mayo County Council is the local authority for the county . The population of the county was 130,638 at the 2011 census . The boundaries of the county , which was formed in 1585 , reflect the Mac William Íochtar lordship at that time . Geography It is bounded on the north and west by the Atlantic Ocean ; to the south by County Galway ; the east by County Roscommon ; and the northeast by County Sligo . Mayo is the third-largest of Ireland 's 32 counties in area and 15th largest in terms of population . It is the second-largest of Connacht ’ s five counties in both size and population . There is a distinct geological difference between the west and the east of the county . The west consists largely of poor subsoils and is covered with large areas of extensive Atlantic blanket bog , whereas the east is largely a limestone landscape . Agricultural land is therefore more productive in the east than in the west . * The highest point in Mayo ( and Connacht ) is Mweelrea , at 814 m * The River Moy in the northeast of the county is renowned for its salmon fishing * Ireland 's largest island , Achill Island , lies off Mayo 's west coast * Mayo has Ireland 's highest cliffs at Croaghaun , Achill Island , while the Benwee Head cliffs in Kilcommon Erris drop almost perpendicularly 900 ft into the Atlantic Ocean . ) * The northwest areas of County Mayo have some of the best renewable energy resources in Europe , if not the world , in terms of wind resources , ocean wave , tidal and hydroelectric resources Local government and political subdivisions Mayo County Council ( ) is the authority responsible for local government . As a county council , it is governed by the Local Government Act 2001 . The County is divided into four municipal areas Castlebar , Ballina , Claremorris and West ( an area which stretches from Westport to Belmullet ) . The council is responsible for housing and community , roads and transportation , urban planning and development , amenity and culture , and environment . For the purpose of local elections the county is divided into its four municipal districts , replacing the former six local electoral areas : Ballina ( 6 ) , Belmullet ( 4 ) , Castlebar ( 7 ) , Claremorris ( 6 ) , Swinford ( 4 ) and Westport ( 4 ) . The county town is at Áras an Contae in Castlebar the main population centre located in the centre of the county . For national elections half of the Claremorris Municipal District is in Galway West and stretches from Ashford Castle to [ http : //www.irelandwestairport.com/ Ireland West Airport ] . The Municipal Area populations are as follows : * Ballina 32,979 * Castlebar 34,000 * Claremorris 32,469 * West Mayo 31,190 There are nine historic baronies , four in the northern area and five in the south of the county : North Mayo * Erris ( north west containing Belmullet , Gweesalia , Bangor Erris , kilcommon , ballycroy etc . ) * Burrishoole ( west Mayo containing Achill , Mulranny and Newport , County Mayo ) * Gallen ( east Mayo containing Bonniconlon , Foxford ) * Tyrawley ( north east containing Ballina , Ballycastle , Killala ) South Mayo * Clanmorris , ( south east - Claremorris and Balla ) * Costello ( east south east containing Kilkelly Ballyhaunis ) etc .. * Murrisk south west containing Westport , Louisburgh , Croagh Patrick etc . ) * Kilmaine ( south containing Ballinrobe , Cong etc . ) * Carra ( south containing Castlebar , Partry etc . ) Largest towns in County Mayo ( 2011 Census ) # Castlebar , 12,318 # Ballina , 11,086 # Westport , 6,063 # Claremorris , 3,979 # Ballinrobe 3,682 Towns and villages Castlebar and Ballina are the two most populous towns in the county , 12,318 in Castlebar located at the centre of the county and 10,361 ( 11,086 including environs ) in Ballina located at the north-east of corner of the county . These are followed by Westport , which has 5,543 residents and Claremorris , with a population of 3,412 in the 2011 census returns . Flora and fauna A survey of the terrestrial and freshwater algae of Clare Island was made between 1990 and 2005 and published in 2007 . A record of Gunnera tinctoria is also noted . Consultants working for the Corrib gas project have carried out extensive surveys of wildlife flora and fauna in Kilcommon Parish , Erris between 2002 and 2009 . This information is published in the Corrib Gas Proposal Environmental impact statements 2009 and 2010 . History Prehistory County Mayo has a long history and prehistory . Throughout the county there is a wealth of archaeological remains from the Neolithic period ( approx 4,000BC to 2,500BC ) , particularly in terms of megalithic tombs and ritual stone circles . The first people who came to Ireland – mainly to coastal areas as the interior was heavily forested – arrived during the Middle Stone Age , as long as eleven thousand years ago . Artefacts of hunter/gatherers are sometimes found in middens , rubbish pits around hearths where people would have rested and cooked over large open fires . Once cliffs erode , midden-remains become exposed as blackened areas containing charred stones , bones , and shells . They are usually found a metre below the surface . Mesolithic people did not have major rituals associated with burial , unlike those of the Neolithic ( New Stone Age ) period . The Neolithic period followed the Mesolithic around 6,000 years ago . People began to farm the land , domesticate animals for food and milk , and settle in one place for longer periods . The people had skills such as making pottery , building houses from wood , weaving , and knapping ( stone tool working ) . The first farmers cleared forestry to graze livestock and grow crops . In North Mayo , where the ground cover was fragile , thin soils washed away and blanket bog covered the land farmed by the Neolithic people . Extensive pre-bog field systems have been discovered under the blanket bog , particularly along the North Mayo coastline in Erris and north Tyrawley at sites such as the Céide Fields , centred on the north east coast . The Neolithic people developed rituals associated with burying their dead ; this is why they built huge , elaborate , galleried stone tombs for their dead leaders , known nowadays as megalithic tombs . There are over 160 recorded megaliths in County Mayo , such as Faulagh . Megalithic tombs There are four distinct types of Irish megalithic tombs type -- court tombs , portal tombs , passage tombs and wedge tombs—examples of all four types can be found in County Mayo . Areas particularly rich in megalithic tombs include Achill , Kilcommon , Ballyhaunis , Killala and the Behy/Glenurla area around the Céide Fields . Bronze Age ( 2,500 BC to approx 500 BC ) Megalithic tomb building continued into the Bronze Age when metal began to be worked for tools alongside the stone tools . The Bronze Age lasted from approx 4,500 years ago to 2,500 years ago ( 2,500BC to 500BC ) . Archaeological remains from this period include stone alignments , stone circles and fulachta fiadh ( early cooking sites ) . They continued to bury their chieftains in megalithic tombs which changed design during this period , more being of the wedge tomb type and cist burials . Iron Age ( 500 BC to 500 AD approx ) Around 2,500 years ago the Iron Age took over from the Bronze Age as more and more metalworking took place . This is thought to have coincided with the arrival of Celtic speaking peoples and the introduction of the ancestor of Irish . Towards the end of this period , the Roman Empire was at its height in Britain but it is not thought that the Roman Empire extended into Ireland to any large degree . Remains from this period , which lasted until the Early Christian period began about 325AD ( with the arrival of St. Patrick into Ireland , as a slave ) include crannógs ( Lake dwellings ) , promontory forts , ringforts and souterrains of which there are numerous examples across the county . The Iron Age was a time of tribal warfare with kingships , each fighting neighbouring kings , vying for control of territories and taking slaves . Territories were marked by tall stone markers , Ogham stones , using the first written down words using the Ogham alphabet . The Iron Age is the time period in which the tales of the Ulster Cycle and sagas took place . The Táin Bó Flidhais which took place mainly in Erris sets the scene well . Early Christian period ( 325 AD - 800 AD approx ) Christianity came to Ireland around the start of the 5th century AD . It brought many changes including the introduction of writing and recording events . The tribal 'tuatha ' and the new religious settlements existed side by side . Sometimes it suited the chieftains to become part of the early Churches , other times they remained as separate entities . St. Patrick ( 4th century AD ) may have spent time in County Mayo and it is believed that he spent forty days and forty nights on Croagh Patrick praying for the people of Ireland . From the middle of the 6th century hundreds of small monastic settlements were established around the county . Some examples of well-known early monastic sites in Mayo include Mayo Abbey , Aughagower , Ballintubber , Errew , Cong , Killala , Turlough on the outskirts of Castlebar , and island settlements off the Mullet Peninsula like the Inishkea Islands , Inishglora and Duvillaun . In 795AD the first of the Viking raids took place . The Vikings came from Scandinavia to raid the monasteries as they were places of wealth with precious metal working taking place in them . Some of the larger ecclesiastical settlements erected round towers to prevent their precious items being plundered and also to show their status and strength against these pagan raiders from the north . There are round towers at Aughagower , Balla , Killala , Turlough and Meelick . The Vikings established settlements which later developed into towns ( Dublin , Cork , Wexford , Waterford etc .. ) but none were in County Mayo . Between the reigns of Kings of Connacht Cathal mac Conchobar mac Taidg ( 973-1010 ) and Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair ( 1106–1156 ) , various tribal territories were incorporated into the kingdom of Connacht and ruled by the Siol Muirdaig dynasty , based initially at Rathcroghan in County Roscommon , and from c. 1050 at Tuam . The families of O'Malley and O'Dowd of Mayo served as admirals of the fleet of Connacht , while families such as O'Lachtnan , Mac Fhirbhisigh , O'Cleary were ecclesiastical and bardic clans . Anglo-Normans ( 12th to 16th centuries ) From 1169 AD when one of the warring kings ( Dermot MacMurrough ) in the east of Ireland appealed to the King of England for help in his fight with a neighbouring king , the response of which was the arrival of the Anglo-Norman colonisation of Ireland . County Mayo came under Norman control in 1235AD . Norman control meant the eclipse of many Gaelic lords and chieftains , chiefly the O'Connors of Connacht . During the 1230s , the Anglo-Normans and Welsh under Richard Mór de Burgh ( c. 1194-1242 invaded and settled in the county , introducing new families such as Burke , Gibbons , Staunton , Prendergast , Morris , Joyce , Walsh , Barrett , Lynott , Costello , Padden and Price , Norman names are still common in County Mayo . Following the collapse of the lordship in the 1330s , all these families became estranged from the Anglo-Irish administration based in Dublin and assimilated with the Gaelic-Irish , adopting their language , religion , dress , laws , customs and culture and marrying into Irish families . They `` became more Irish than the Irish themselves '' . The most powerful clan to emerge during this era were the Mac William Burkes , also known as the Mac William Iochtar ( see Burke Civil War 1333-1338 ) , descended from Sir William Liath de Burgh , who defeated the Gaelic-Irish at the Second Battle of Athenry in August 1316 . They were frequently at war with their cousins , Clanricarde of Galway , and in alliance with or against various factions of the O'Conor 's of Siol Muiredaig and O'Kelly 's of Uí Maine . The O'Donnell 's of Tyrconnell regularly invaded in an attempt to secure their right to rule . The Anglo Normans encouraged and established many religious orders from continental Europe to settle in Ireland . Mendicant orders—Augustinians , Carmelites , Dominicans and Franciscans began new settlements across Ireland and built large churches , many under the patronage of prominent Gaelic families . Some of these sites include Cong , Strade , Ballintubber , Errew , Burrishoole Abbey and Mayo Abbey . During the 15th and 16th centuries , despite regular conflicts between them as England chopped and changed between religious beliefs , the Irish usually regarded the King of England as their King . When Elizabeth I came to the throne in the mid 16th century , the English people , as was customary at that time , followed the religious practices of the reigning monarch and became Protestant . Many Irish people such as Gráínne O'Malley , the famous pirate queen had close relationships with the English monarchy and the English kings and queens were welcome visitors to Irish shores . The Irish however , generally held onto their Catholic religious practices and beliefs . The early plantations of settlers in Ireland began during the reign of Queen Mary in the mid-16th century and continued throughout the long reign of Queen Elizabeth I until 1603 . By then the term County Mayo had come into use . In the summer of 1588 the galleons of the Spanish Armada were wrecked by storms along the west coast of Ireland . Some of the hapless Spaniards came ashore in Mayo , only to be robbed and imprisoned , and in many cases slaughtered . Almost all the religious foundations set up by the Anglo Normans were suppressed in the wake of the Reformation in the 16th century . Protestant settlers from Scotland , England , and elsewhere in Ireland , settled in the County in the early 17th century . Many would be killed or forced to flee because of the 1641 Rebellion , during which a number of massacres were committed by the Catholic Gaelic Irish , most notably at Shrule in 1642 . A third of the overall population was reported to have perished due to warfare , famine and plague between 1641 and 1653 , with several areas remaining disturbed and frequented by Reparees into the 1670s . 17th and 18th centuries Pirate Queen Gráinne O'Malley is probably the best known person from County Mayo from the mid-16th to the turn of the 17th century . In the 1640s when Oliver Cromwell overthrew the English monarchy and set up a parliamentarian government , Ireland suffered severely . With a stern regime in absolute control needing to pay its armies and friends , the need to pay them with grants of land in Ireland led to the 'to hell or to Connaught ' policies . Displaced native Irish families from other ( eastern and southern mostly ) parts of the country were either forced to leave the country , often as slaves , or ( if they had been well behaved and compliant with the orders of the parliamentarians ) awarded grants of land 'west of the Shannon ' and put off their own lands in the east . The land in the west was divided and sub-divided between more and more people as huge estates were granted on the best land in the east to those who best pleased the English . Mayo does not seem to have been affected much during the Williamite War in Ireland , though many natives were outlawed and exiled . For the vast majority of people in County Mayo the 18th century was a period of unrelieved misery . Because of the penal laws , Catholics had no hope of social advancement while they remained in their native land . Some , like William Brown ( 1777–1857 ) , left Foxford with his family at the age of nine and thirty years later was an admiral in the fledgling Argentine Navy . Today he is a national hero in that country . The general unrest in Ireland was felt just as keenly across Mayo and as the 18th century approached and news reached Ireland about the American War of Independence and the French Revolution , the downtrodden Irish , constantly suppressed by Government policies and decisions from Dublin and London , began to rally themselves for their own stand against English rule in their country . By 1798 the Irish were ready for rebellion . The French came to help the Irish cause . General Humbert , from France landed in Killala with over 1,000 officers where they started to march across the county towards Castlebar where there was an English garrison . Taking them by surprise Humbert 's army was victorious . He established a 'Republic of Connacht ' with one of the Moore family from Moore Hall near Partry . Humbert 's army marched on towards Sligo , Leitrim and Longford where they were suddenly faced with a massive English army and were forced to surrender in less than half an hour . The French soldiers were treated honourably , but for the Irish the surrender meant slaughter . Many died on the scaffold in towns like Castlebar and Claremorris , where the high sheriff for County Mayo , the Honourable Denis Browne , M.P. , brother of Lord Altamont , wreaked a terrible vengeance - thus earning for himself the nickname which has survived in folk-memory to the present day , 'Donnchadh an Rópa ' ( Denis of the Rope ) . In the 18th century and early 19th century , sectarian tensions arose as evangelical Protestant missionaries sought to 'redeem the Irish poor from the errors of Popery ' . One of the best known was the Rev . Edward Nangle 's mission at Dugort in Achill . These too were the years of the campaign for Catholic Emancipation and , later , for the abolition of the tithes , which a predominately Catholic population was forced to pay for the upkeep of the clergy of the Established ( Protestant ) Church . 19th and 20th centuries During the early years of the 19th century , famine was a common occurrence , particularly where population pressure was a problem . The population of Ireland grew to over eight million people prior to the Irish Famine of 1845–47 The Irish people depended on the potato crop for their sustenance . Disaster struck in August 1845 , when a killer fungus ( later diagnosed as Phytophthora infestans ) started to destroy the potato crop . When widespread famine struck , about a million people died and a further million left the country . People died in the fields from starvation and disease . The catastrophe was particularly bad in County Mayo , where nearly ninety per cent of the population depended on the potato as their staple food . By 1848 , Mayo was a county of total misery and despair , with any attempts at alleviating measures in complete disarray . There are numerous reminders of the Great Famine to be seen on the Mayo landscape : workhouse sites , famine graves , sites of soup-kitchens , deserted homes and villages and even traces of undug 'lazy-beds ' in fields on the sides of hills . Many roads and lanes were built as famine relief measures . There were nine workhouses in the county : Ballina , Ballinrobe , Belmullet , Castlebar , Claremorris , Killala , Newport , Swinford and Westport . A small poverty-stricken place called Knock , County Mayo , made headlines when it was announced that an apparition of the Blessed Virgin Mary , St. Joseph and St. John had taken place there on 21 August 1879 , witnessed by fifteen local people . A national movement was initiated in County Mayo during 1879 by Michael Davitt , James Daly , and others , which brought about the greatest social change ever witnessed in Ireland . Michael Davitt , a labourer whose family had moved to England joined forces with Charles Stewart Parnell to win back the land for the people from the landlords and stop evictions for non payment of rents . A new word came into the English language through an incident that occurred in Mayo . An English landlord called Captain Charles Cunningham Boycott could get no workers to do anything for him , so unpleasant as he was to them , so he brought in Protestant workers from elsewhere . He spent so much on security and protection for them that his harvest cost him a fortune and also nobody in the area would serve him in shops , or deal with him . This ostracisation became known as `` boycotting '' and Captain Boycott was left with no option but to leave Mayo and take his family with him to England . The `` Land Question '' was gradually resolved by a scheme of state-aided land purchase schemes . The tenants became the owners of their lands under the newly set-up Land Commission . A Mayo nun , Mother Agnes Morrogh-Bernard ( 1842–1932 ) , set up the Foxford Woollen Mill in 1892 . She made Foxford synonymous throughout the world with high quality tweeds , rugs and blankets . Mayo has remained an essentially rural community to the present day . Mayo in the Annals of Lough Cé * 1458 . Mac William Burk , i.e . Edmond , died . * 1469 . A hosting by O'Domhnaill , i.e . Aedh Ruadh , into Lower Connacht , and their hostages were received by him ; and he took the army of Lower Connacht with him towards Mac William Burk ; and they all went from thence to Clann-Rickard , and the Machaire riabhach , and Baile-an chláir , i.e . Mac William 's town , were burned by them . Mac William and O'Briain came with them , and the son of O'Conchobhair of Corcumruaidh was slain by them ; and O'Domhnaill went home with triumph . * 1476 . O'hUiginn , i.e . Brian , son of Ferghal Ruadh , head of the schools of Erinn and Alba , died this year . * 1478 . Great wind in this year , soon after Christmas . * 1485 . The defeat of the Muaidh was given by O'Domhnaill , i.e . Aedh Ruadh , to the Foreigners and Gaeidhel of the province of Connacht . * 1487 . Mac Goisdelbh , i.e . John , died . ( in Annals of the Four Masters John Duv Mac Costello , Lord of Sliabh-Lugha , died ; and two lords were set up in his place , namely , William , the son of Edmond of the Plain , his own brother , and Jordan , the son of Philip Mac Costello . ) * 1488 . Maelmuire , son of Tadhg Og O'hUiginn , an eminent poet , died this year . * 1494 . The son of Mac William Burk was slain this year near the castle of Sligech , i.e . William , son of Rickard , son of Edmond , son of Thomas Burk . * 1496 . O'Dubhda , Dubh , i.e . William , the son of Domhnall Ballach , died . * 1497 . Great famine throughout Erinn in hoc anno . * 1499 . Cormac , son of Domhnall , son of Brian O'hUiginn , was violently killed with one shot of an arrow by the Clann-Feorais this year . Richard Og , son of Richard O'Cuairsceith , was killed on the same day , i.e . the Wednesday after Whitsuntide . * 1502 . Domhnall , son of Brian O'hUiginn , tutor of the schools of Erinn in poetry , died in hoc anno . * 1503 . The defeat of Bel-atha-na-ngarbhán was given by Rickard Burk and his kinsmen to Mac William Iochtair and the Mainechs , in which Ruaidhri Mor Mac Suibhne was slain . * 1512 . A great war between O'Domhnaill , i.e . Aedh , and O'Neill , i.e . Art , son of Aedh ; and a war between O ' Domhnaill and Mac William Burk , i.e . Edmond , son of Rickard . O'Domhnaill retains fifteen hundred axes in Tir-Conaill , and in the province of Connacht , and in Feara-Manach . O'Domhnaill proceeds from Doire with a small band , and takes the castle of Bel-in-chláir on the borders of Luighne and Gaileng ; and he leaves warders in it , and goes back into Tir-Fhiachrach . Mac William Burk musters his army , and lays siege to the town . And on hearing this O ' Domhnaill advances again towards the town , and Mac William leaves the place , and goes to put provisions and warders into the castle of Eiscir-abhann in Tir-Fhiachrach . * 1513 . Eoghan O'Maille was slain this year in Tir-Boghaine , with the crews of three ships . * 1514 . Great depredations were committed by O'Domhnaill in Gailenga , on which occasion he burned and plundered the country as far as Cruachan-Gaileng ; and Ó Ruadháin is killed there by him , and a great many more along with him . * 1519 . A rainy , truly wet , summer and harvest this year ; it was a hard , tormenting year , and a year of suffering and sickness . * 1520 . A great plague in the beginning of this year in Erinn . Mac William Burk , i.e . Meiler the son of Tibbot , was killed per dolum by the sons of Seoinín Mor , son of Mac Seoinín.William , son of William Mac Siurtán , mortuus est . * 1523 . O'Maille , i.e . Cormac , son of Eoghan O'Maille , general supporter of the hospitality and nobility of the west of Connacht , mortuus est . Domhnall , son of Thomas O'Maille , assumed his place . * 1524 . Great inclemency of weather , and mortality of cattle , in the beginning of the year . * 1528 . Great wind in this year , the Friday before Christmas , which threw down a great many wooden and stone buildings , and several trees ; and it broke down , in particular , the monastery of Dún-na-nGall ; and it shattered and blew away a great number of boats on sea and land . * 1532 . The castle of Ard-na-riadh was taken by the sons of O'Dubhda against the son of John Burk ; and a war broke out between themselves and the descendants of Rickard Burk , and many depredations and homicides were committed between them , in hoc anno . * 1533 . The castle of Ard-na-riadh was taken by the sons of Thomas Burk from the sons of O'Dubhda , in the night , in like manner . * 1536 . This year was a sickly , unhealthy year , in which numerous diseases , viz. , a general plague , and small-pox , and a flux-plague , and the bed-distemper , prevailed excessively . Mac David , i.e . Thomas , son of David , son of Edmond , died in hoc anno . Mac Goisdelbh , i.e . John Dubh , died in hoc anno . * 1536 . Thomas O'hUiginn , i.e . the tutor of the men of Erinn and Alba in poetry , died this year . The chieftains of

odql_11061--County_Mayo.txt

What is the county town of Mayo?

Manchester Central Convention Complex ( commonly known as Manchester Central ) is an exhibition and conference centre converted from the former Manchester Central railway station in Manchester , England . Designed by Sir John Fowler , the station , the northern terminus for services to London St Pancras , was opened in July 1880 by the Cheshire Lines Committee . The structure has a distinctive arched roof with a 64-metre span - the second-largest railway station roof span in the United Kingdom , and was granted Grade II * listed building status in 1963 . After 89 years as a railway terminus , it closed to passengers in May 1969 and became an abandoned railway station . It was renovated as an exhibition centre formerly known as the G-MEX Centre in 1982 . From 1986 to 1995 it was Manchester 's primary music concert venue until the construction of the Manchester Arena . The venue was refitted in 2008 to host conferences , exhibitions and is Manchester 's secondary large concert venue . History Manchester Central railway station The complex was originally Manchester Central railway station , one of the city 's main railway terminals . It was built between 1875 and 1880 and was closed to passengers on 5 May 1969 . The station served as the terminus for Midland Railway express trains to London St Pancras . The station 's large arched roof – a huge wrought-iron single-span arched roof , spanning 210 ft , 550 ft long and 90 ft high – was a noted piece of railway engineering and is the widest unsupported iron arch in Britain after the Barlow train shed at London St Pancras . At its height , in the 1930s , more than 400 trains passed through the station every day . The station operated for 89 years , before closing in May 1969 . It became derelict and the train shed was initially used as an indoor car park . G-Mex Centre In 1978 , the structure was acquired by the Greater Manchester County Council to redevelop as a concert venue . In 1982 construction work undertaken by Alfred McAlpine It was the centrepiece of the regeneration plan for the area and wider Castlefield district . The hall covered 10,000 square metres and could be partitioned into various sized units for different exhibitions . Initial construction work concentrated on repairing the derelict structure and re-pointing brickwork which took 18 months . The Greater Manchester Exhibition Centre or G-Mex Centre was opened by Queen Elizabeth II in 1986 after four years of renovation . In 2001 , the Manchester International Convention Centre ( MICC ) was added , comprising an 804-seat auditorium and breakout rooms and the Great Northern Hall . In 2005 , the company running the complex was bought by Manchester City Council . G-Mex was Manchester 's primary concert venue from 1986 to 1995 . Its position as a concert venue diminished after the opening of the Manchester ( then NYNEX ) Arena in 1995 . Manchester Central In January 2007 it was renamed Manchester Central , evoking the memory of the former station and converted into an exhibition and conference centre . The building was renovated at a cost of £30 million in 2008 by Manchester-based architects , Stephenson Bell . The first phase to create a foyer took from February to November 2008 . The second phase , completed towards the end of 2009 , included an extended foyer to the iconic Grade ll listed Central Hall . The old smoked-glass structure was demolished and replaced by a flat-roofed , clear-glazed structure exposing more of the original architecture . The final phase , completed in September 2010 , focussed on the rear of the building . New event spaces were built and rooms refurbished increasing the venue 's range and size of meeting and banqueting spaces . Events The G-Mex Centre has hosted rock concerts over the years . Not long after its official opening , Factory Records used the venue for their Festival of the Tenth Summer in July 1986 to celebrate the 10th anniversary of Punk in the city , and included appearances by The Smiths , and Factory stalwarts New Order . James appeared in 1990 , U2 in June 1992 , Metallica in November 1992 on their The Black Album tour and The Cure in November 1992 . G-Mex had a seating capacity of 9,500 for end stage concerts and 12,500 for standing events . Due to growing competition from the nearby Manchester Arena , Europe 's biggest indoor concert venue , the venue stopped hosting concerts in 1997 , with the last gig by Oasis in December . G-Mex was the 2002 Commonwealth Games venue for gymnastics , weightlifting , judo and wrestling . On the last weekend of 30 and 31 May 2005 , it played host to the play-offs of the 2005 Premier League Darts . After a nine-year break , it was again used for concerts by Snow Patrol in December 2006 , and by Morrissey and The Verve . Marilyn Manson , Franz Ferdinand , Manic Street Preachers , Arctic Monkeys , Bloc Party and Hard-Fi held concerts in December 2007 . Status Quo ( band ) have performed there multiple times . The venue hosted concerts by Placebo in December 2009 , Arcade Fire , Biffy Clyro , Thirty Seconds to Mars , The Taste of Chaos Tour 2010 , deadmau5 , Pendulum in December 2010 and The Eighth Plague Tour . In 2011 , it hosted The Girls ' Day Out Show . In 2009 and 2010 , it played host to the Manchester audition stages of the ITV singer search programme The X Factor . In December 2012 , the venue hosted the finals of series 9 of The X Factor . In September 2006 , the Labour Party moved from traditional seaside venues to hold its annual party conference at the complex . It subsequently hosted conferences for the Confederation of British Industry , ECOFIN , the Liberal Democrats and , in April 2006 , the Conservative Party . It hosted conferences for the Labour Party in 2008 , 2010 , 2012 and 2014 and the Conservatives in 2009 , 2011 , 2013 and 2015 . Manchester Central also played host to the 2014 BUCK convention , a convention for fans of My Little Pony : Friendship Is Magic , as well as the related Summer Sun Celebration concert ( which it also played host to in 2013 ) . Transport The centre is served by Metrolink tram services which stop at Deansgate-Castlefield tram stop ( formerly G-Mex but renamed in September 2010 ) and by National Rail local train services from Deansgate railway station . St Peter 's Square tram stop is a short distance away .

odql_478--Manchester_Central_Convention_Complex.txt

How is the former G-Mex Centre in Manchester now known?

Oklahoma ( Cherokee : Asgaya gigageyi / ᎠᏍᎦᏯ ᎩᎦᎨᏱ ; or transliterated from English as ᎣᎦᎳᎰᎹ ( òɡàlàhoma ) , Pawnee : Uukuhuúwa , Cayuga : Gahnawiyoˀgeh ) is a state located in the South Central United States . Oklahoma is the 20th most extensive and the 28th most populous of the 50 United States . The state 's name is derived from the Choctaw words okla and humma , meaning `` red people '' . It is also known informally by its nickname , The Sooner State , in reference to the non-Native settlers who staked their claims on the choicest pieces of land before the official opening date , and the Indian Appropriations Act of 1889 , which opened the door for white settlement in America 's Indian Territory . The name was settled upon statehood , Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory were merged and Indian was dropped from the name . On November 16 , 1907 , Oklahoma became the 46th state to enter the union . Its residents are known as Oklahomans , or informally `` Okies '' , and its capital and largest city is Oklahoma City . A major producer of natural gas , oil , and agricultural products , Oklahoma relies on an economic base of aviation , energy , telecommunications , and biotechnology . In 2007 , it had one of the fastest-growing economies in the United States , ranking among the top states in per capita income growth and gross domestic product growth . Oklahoma City and Tulsa serve as Oklahoma 's primary economic anchors , with nearly two-thirds of Oklahomans living within their metropolitan statistical areas . With small mountain ranges , prairie , mesas , and eastern forests , most of Oklahoma lies in the Great Plains , Cross Timbers and the U.S . Interior Highlands—a region especially prone to severe weather . In addition to having a prevalence of English , German , Scottish , Scotch-Irish , and Native American ancestry , more than 25 Native American languages are spoken in Oklahoma , second only to California . Oklahoma is located on a confluence of three major American cultural regions and historically served as a route for cattle drives , a destination for southern settlers , and a government-sanctioned territory for Native Americans . Etymology The name Oklahoma comes from the Choctaw phrase okla humma , literally meaning red people . Choctaw Chief Allen Wright suggested the name in 1866 during treaty negotiations with the federal government regarding the use of Indian Territory , in which he envisioned an all-Indian state controlled by the United States Superintendent of Indian Affairs . Equivalent to the English word Indian , okla humma was a phrase in the Choctaw language used to describe Native American people as a whole . Oklahoma later became the de facto name for Oklahoma Territory , and it was officially approved in 1890 , two years after the area was opened to white settlers . Geography Oklahoma is the 20th largest state in the United States , covering an area of 69,898 square miles ( 181,035 km2 ) , with 68,667 square miles ( 177847 km2 ) of land and 1,281 square miles ( 3,188 km2 ) of water . It is one of six states on the Frontier Strip and lies partly in the Great Plains near the geographical center of the 48 contiguous states . It is bounded on the east by Arkansas and Missouri , on the north by Kansas , on the northwest by Colorado , on the far west by New Mexico , and on the south and near-west by Texas . The western edge of the Oklahoma panhandle is out of alignment with its Texas border . The Oklahoma/New Mexico border is actually 2.1 to 2.2 miles east of the Texas line . The border between Texas and New Mexico was set first as a result of a survey by Spain in 1819 . It was then set along the 103rd Meridian . In the 1890s , when Oklahoma was formally surveyed using more accurate surveying equipment and techniques , it was discovered that the Texas line was not set along the 103rd Meridian . Surveying techniques were not as accurate in 1819 , and the actual 103rd Meridian was approximately 2.2 miles to the east . It was much easier to leave the mistake as it was than for Texas to cede land to New Mexico to correct the original surveying error . The placement of the Oklahoma/New Mexico border represents the true 103rd Meridian . Cimarron County in Oklahoma 's panhandle is the only county in the United States that touches four other states : New Mexico , Texas , Colorado and Kansas . Topography Oklahoma is between the Great Plains and the Ozark Plateau in the Gulf of Mexico watershed , generally sloping from the high plains of its western boundary to the low wetlands of its southeastern boundary . Its highest and lowest points follow this trend , with its highest peak , Black Mesa , at 4,973 feet ( 1,516 m ) above sea level , situated near its far northwest corner in the Oklahoma Panhandle . The state 's lowest point is on the Little River near its far southeastern boundary near the town of Idabel , OK , which dips to 289 feet ( 88 m ) above sea level . Among the most geographically diverse states , Oklahoma is one of four to harbor more than 10 distinct ecological regions , with 11 in its borders – more per square mile than in any other state . Its western and eastern halves , however , are marked by extreme differences in geographical diversity : Eastern Oklahoma touches eight ecological regions and its western half contains three . Although having fewer ecological regions Western Oklahoma contains many rare , relic species . Oklahoma has four primary mountain ranges : the Ouachita Mountains , the Arbuckle Mountains , the Wichita Mountains , and the Ozark Mountains . Contained within the U.S . Interior Highlands region , the Ozark and Ouachita Mountains mark the only major mountainous region between the Rocky Mountains and the Appalachians . A portion of the Flint Hills stretches into north-central Oklahoma , and near the state 's eastern border , Cavanal Hill is regarded by the Oklahoma Tourism & Recreation Department as the world 's tallest hill ; at 1,999 feet ( 609 m ) , it fails their definition of a mountain by one foot . The semi-arid high plains in the state 's northwestern corner harbor few natural forests ; the region has a rolling to flat landscape with intermittent canyons and mesa ranges like the Glass Mountains . Partial plains interrupted by small , sky island mountain ranges like the Antelope Hills and the Wichita Mountains dot southwestern Oklahoma ; transitional prairie and oak savannahs cover the central portion of the state . The Ozark and Ouachita Mountains rise from west to east over the state 's eastern third , gradually increasing in elevation in an eastward direction . More than 500 named creeks and rivers make up Oklahoma 's waterways , and with 200 lakes created by dams , it holds the highest number of artificial reservoirs in the nation . Most of the state lies in two primary drainage basins belonging to the Red and Arkansas rivers , though the Lee and Little rivers also contain significant drainage basins . Flora and fauna Forests cover 24 percent of Oklahoma and prairie grasslands composed of shortgrass , mixed-grass , and tallgrass prairie , harbor expansive ecosystems in the state 's central and western portions , although cropland has largely replaced native grasses . Where rainfall is sparse in the western regions of the state , shortgrass prairie and shrublands are the most prominent ecosystems , though pinyon pines , red cedar ( junipers ) , and ponderosa pines grow near rivers and creek beds in the far western reaches of the panhandle . Southwestern Oklahoma contains many rare , disjunct species including sugar maple , bigtooth maple , nolina and southern live oak . Marshlands , sabal minor , cypress forests and mixtures of shortleaf pine , loblolly pine and deciduous forests dominate the state 's southeastern quarter , while mixtures of largely post oak , elm , red cedar ( Juniperus virginiana ) and pine forests cover northeastern Oklahoma . The state holds populations of white-tailed deer , mule deer , antelope , coyotes , mountain lions , bobcats , elk , and birds such as quail , doves , cardinals , bald eagles , red-tailed hawks , and pheasants . In prairie ecosystems , American bison , greater prairie chickens , badgers , and armadillo are common , and some of the nation 's largest prairie dog towns inhabit shortgrass prairie in the state 's panhandle . The Cross Timbers , a region transitioning from prairie to woodlands in Central Oklahoma , harbors 351 vertebrate species . The Ouachita Mountains are home to black bear , red fox , grey fox , and river otter populations , which coexist with a total of 328 vertebrate species in southeastern Oklahoma . Also , in southeastern Oklahoma lives the American alligator . Protected lands Oklahoma has 50 state parks , six national parks or protected regions , two national protected forests or grasslands , and a network of wildlife preserves and conservation areas . Six percent of the state 's 10 million acres ( 40,000 km2 ) of forest is public land , including the western portions of the Ouachita National Forest , the largest and oldest national forest in the Southern United States . With 39,000 acres ( 158 km2 ) , the Tallgrass Prairie Preserve in north-central Oklahoma is the largest protected area of tallgrass prairie in the world and is part of an ecosystem that encompasses only 10 percent of its former land area , once covering 14 states . In addition , the Black Kettle National Grassland covers 31,300 acres ( 127 km2 ) of prairie in southwestern Oklahoma . The Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge is the oldest and largest of nine national wildlife refuges in the state and was founded in 1901 , encompassing 59,020 acres ( 238.8 km2 ) . Of Oklahoma 's federally protected park or recreational sites ; the Chickasaw National Recreation Area is the largest , with 9,898.63 acres ( 18 km2 ) . Other sites include the Santa Fe and Trail of Tears national historic trails , the Fort Smith and Washita Battlefield national historic sites , and the Oklahoma City National Memorial . Climate Oklahoma is located in a humid subtropical region . Oklahoma lies in a transition zone between humid continental climate to the north , semi-arid climate to the west , and humid subtropical climate in the central , south and eastern portions of the state . Most of the state lies in an area known as Tornado Alley characterized by frequent interaction between cold , dry air from Canada , warm to hot , dry air from Mexico and the Southwestern U.S. , and warm , moist air from the Gulf of Mexico . The interactions between these three contrasting air currents produces severe weather ( severe thunderstorms , damaging thunderstorm winds , large hail and tornadoes ) with a frequency virtually unseen anywhere else on planet Earth . An average 62 tornadoes strike the state per year—one of the highest rates in the world . Because of Oklahoma 's position between zones of differing prevailing temperature and winds , weather patterns within the state can vary widely over relatively short distances and can change drastically in a short time . As an example , on November 11 , 1911 , the temperature at Oklahoma City reached 83 °F in the afternoon ( the record high for that date ) , then an Arctic cold front of unprecedented intensity slammed across the state , causing the temperature to crash 66 degrees , down to 17 °F at midnight ( the record low for that date ) ; thus , both the record high and record low for November 11 were set on the same date . This type of phenomenon is also responsible for many of the tornadoes in the area , such as the 1912 Oklahoma tornado outbreak , when a warm front traveled along a stalled cold front , resulting in an average of about one tornado per hour over the course of a day . The humid subtropical climate ( Koppen Cfa ) of central , southern and eastern Oklahoma is influenced heavily by southerly winds bringing moisture from the Gulf of Mexico . Traveling westward , the climate transitions progressively toward a semi-arid zone ( Koppen BSk ) in the high plains of the Panhandle and other western areas from about Lawton westward , less frequently touched by southern moisture . Precipitation and temperatures decline from east to west accordingly , with areas in the southeast averaging an annual temperature of 62 °F ( 17 °C ) and an annual rainfall of generally over 40 in and up to 56 in , while areas of the ( higher-elevation ) panhandle average 58 °F ( 14 °C ) , with an annual rainfall under 17 in . Over almost all of Oklahoma , winter is the driest season . Average monthly precipitation increases dramatically in the spring to a peak in May , the wettest month over most of the state , with its frequent and not uncommonly severe thunderstorm activity . Early June can still be wet , but most years see a marked decrease in rainfall during June and early July . Mid-summer ( July and August ) represents a secondary dry season over much of Oklahoma , with long stretches of hot weather with only sporadic thunderstorm activity not uncommon many years . Severe drought is common in the hottest summers , such as those of 1934 , 1954 , 1980 and 2011 , all of which featured weeks on end of virtual rainlessness and high temperatures well over 100 F. Average precipitation rises again from September to mid-October , representing a secondary wetter season , then declines from late October through December . All of the state frequently experiences temperatures above 100 °F ( 38 °C ) or below 0 °F ( −18 °C ) , though below-zero temperatures are rare in south-central and southeastern Oklahoma . Snowfall ranges from an average of less than 4 in in the south to just over 20 in on the border of Colorado in the panhandle . The state is home to the Storm Prediction Center , the National Severe Storms Laboratory , and the Warning Decision Training Branch , all part of the National Weather Service and located in Norman . Oklahoma 's highest recorded temperature of 120 F was recorded at Tipton on June 27 , 1994 and the lowest recorded temperature of was recorded at Nowata on February 10 , 2011 . History Evidence exists that native peoples traveled through Oklahoma as early as the last ice age . Ancestors of the Wichita and Caddo lived in what is now Oklahoma . The Panhandle culture peoples were precontact residents of the panhandle region . The westernmost center of the Mississippian culture was Spiro Mounds , in what is now Spiro , Oklahoma , which flourished between AD 850 and 1450 . Spaniard Francisco Vásquez de Coronado traveled through the state in 1541 , but French explorers claimed the area in the 1700s and it remained under French rule until 1803 , when all the French territory west of the Mississippi River was purchased by the United States in the Louisiana Purchase . The territory now known as Oklahoma was first a part of the Arkansas Territory from 1819 until 1828 . During the 19th century , thousands of Native Americans were expelled from their ancestral homelands from across North America and transported to the area including and surrounding present-day Oklahoma . The Choctaw was the first of the Five Civilized Tribes to be removed from the southeastern United States . The phrase `` Trail of Tears '' originated from a description of the removal of the Choctaw Nation in 1831 , although the term is usually used for the Cherokee removal . A total of 17,000 Cherokees and 2,000 of their black slaves were deported . The area , already occupied by Osage and Quapaw tribes , was called for the Choctaw Nation until revised Native American and then later American policy redefined the boundaries to include other Native Americans . By 1890 , more than 30 Native American nations and tribes had been concentrated on land within Indian Territory or `` Indian Country '' . All Five Civilized Tribes supported and signed treaties with the [ http : //digital.library.okstate.edu/Chronicles/v031/v031p189.pdf Confederate ] military during the American Civil War . The Cherokee Nation had an internal civil war . Slavery in Indian Territory was not abolished until 1866 . In the period between 1866 and 1899 , cattle ranches in Texas strove to meet the demands for food in eastern cities and railroads in Kansas promised to deliver in a timely manner . Cattle trails and cattle ranches developed as cowboys either drove their product north or settled illegally in Indian Territory . In 1881 , four of five major cattle trails on the western frontier traveled through Indian Territory . Increased presence of white settlers in Indian Territory prompted the United States Government to establish the Dawes Act in 1887 , which divided the lands of individual tribes into allotments for individual families , encouraging farming and private land ownership among Native Americans but expropriating land to the federal government . In the process , railroad companies took nearly half of Indian-held land within the territory for outside settlers and for purchase . Major land runs , including the Land Run of 1889 , were held for settlers where certain territories were opened to settlement starting at a precise time . Usually land was open to settlers on a first come first served basis . Those who broke the rules by crossing the border into the territory before the official opening time were said to have been crossing the border sooner , leading to the term sooners , which eventually became the state 's official nickname . Deliberations to make the territory into a state began near the end of the 19th century , when the Curtis Act continued the allotment of Indian tribal land . 20th and 21st centuries Attempts to create an all-Indian state named Oklahoma and a later attempt to create an all-Indian state named Sequoyah failed but the Sequoyah Statehood Convention of 1905 eventually laid the groundwork for the Oklahoma Statehood Convention , which took place two years later . On November 16 , 1907 , Oklahoma was established as the 46th state in the Union . The new state became a focal point for the emerging oil industry , as discoveries of oil pools prompted towns to grow rapidly in population and wealth . Tulsa eventually became known as the `` Oil Capital of the World '' for most of the 20th century and oil investments fueled much of the state 's early economy . In 1927 , Oklahoman businessman Cyrus Avery , known as the `` Father of Route 66 '' , began the campaign to create U.S. Route 66 . Using a stretch of highway from Amarillo , Texas to Tulsa , Oklahoma to form the original portion of Highway 66 , Avery spearheaded the creation of the U.S. Highway 66 Association to oversee the planning of Route 66 , based in his hometown of Tulsa . Oklahoma also has a rich African American history . There were many black towns that thrived in the early 20th century because of black settlers moving from neighboring states , especially Kansas . The politician Edward P. McCabe encouraged black settlers to come to what was then Indian Territory . He discussed with President Theodore Roosevelt the possibility of making Oklahoma a majority-black state . By the early 20th century , the Greenwood neighborhood of Tulsa was one of the most prosperous African-American communities in the United States . Jim Crow laws had established racial segregation since before the start of the 20th century , but the blacks had created a thriving area . Social tensions were exacerbated by the revival of the Ku Klux Klan after 1915 . The Tulsa Race Riot broke out in 1921 , with whites attacking blacks . In one of the costliest episodes of racial violence in American history , sixteen hours of rioting resulted in 35 city blocks destroyed , $ 1.8 million in property damage , and a death toll estimated to be as high as 300 people . By the late 1920s , the Ku Klux Klan had declined to negligible influence within the state . During the 1930s , parts of the state began suffering the consequences of poor farming practices , extended drought and high winds . Known as the Dust Bowl , areas of Kansas , Texas , New Mexico and northwestern Oklahoma were hampered by long periods of little rainfall and abnormally high temperatures , sending thousands of farmers into poverty and forcing them to relocate to more fertile areas of the western United States . Over a twenty-year period ending in 1950 , the state saw its only historical decline in population , dropping 6.9 percent as impoverished families migrated out of the state after the Dust Bowl . Soil and water conservation projects markedly changed practices in the state and led to the construction of massive flood control systems and dams ; they built hundreds of reservoirs and man-made lakes to supply water for domestic needs and agricultural irrigation . By the 1960s , Oklahoma had created more than 200 lakes , the most in the nation . In 1995 , Oklahoma City was the site of one of the most destructive acts of domestic terrorism in American history . The Oklahoma City bombing of April 19 , 1995 , in which Timothy McVeigh detonated a large , crude explosive device outside the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building , killed 168 people , including 19 children . For his crime , McVeigh was executed by the federal government on June 11 , 2001 . His accomplice , Terry Nichols , is serving life in prison without parole for helping plan the attack and prepare the explosive . On May 31 , 2016 , several cities experienced record setting flooding . Demographics The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Oklahoma was 3,911,338 on July 1 , 2015 , a 4.26 % increase since the 2010 United States Census . At the 2010 Census , 68.7 % of the population was non-Hispanic White , down from 88 % in 1970 , 7.3 % non-Hispanic Black or African American , 8.2 % non-Hispanic American Indian and Alaska Native , 1.7 % non-Hispanic Asian , 0.1 % non-Hispanic Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander , 0.1 % from some other race ( non-Hispanic ) and 5.1 % of two or more races ( non-Hispanic ) . 8.9 % of Oklahoma 's population was of Hispanic , Latino , or Spanish origin ( they may be of any race ) . , 47.3 % of Oklahoma 's population younger than age 1 were minorities , meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white . Oklahoma had a population of 3,642,361 with an estimated 2005 ancestral makeup of 14.5 % German , 13.1 % American , 11.8 % Irish , 9.6 % English , 8.1 % African American , and 11.4 % Native American ( including 7.9 % Cherokee ) though the percentage of people claiming American Indian as their only race was 8.1 % . Most people from Oklahoma who self-identify as having American ancestry are of overwhelmingly English ancestry with significant amounts of Scottish and Welsh inflection as well . The state had the second-highest number of Native Americans in 2002 , estimated at 395,219 , as well as the second highest percentage among all states . , 4.7 % of Oklahoma 's residents were foreign born , compared to 12.4 % for the nation . The center of population of Oklahoma is located in Lincoln County near the town of Sparks . The state 's 2006 per capita personal income ranked 37th at $ 32,210 , though it has the third fastest-growing per capita income in the nation and ranks consistently among the lowest states in cost of living index . The Oklahoma City suburb Nichols Hills is first on Oklahoma locations by per capita income at $ 73,661 , though Tulsa County holds the highest average . In 2011 , 7.0 % of Oklahomans were under the age of 5 , 24.7 % under 18 , and 13.7 % were 65 or older . Females made up 50.5 % of the population . Language The English language has been official in the state of Oklahoma since 2010 . The variety of North American English spoken is called Oklahoma English , and this dialect is quite diverse with its uneven blending of features of North Midland , South Midland , and Southern dialects . In 2000 , 2,977,187 Oklahomans—92.6 % of the resident population five years or older—spoke only English at home , a decrease from 95 % in 1990 . 238,732 Oklahoma residents reported speaking a language other than English in the 2000 census , about 7.4 % of the total population of the state . Spanish is the second most commonly spoken language in the state , with 141,060 speakers counted in 2000 . The most commonly spoken native North American language is Cherokee , with 10,000 speakers living within the Cherokee Nation tribal jurisdiction area of eastern Oklahoma . Cherokee is an official language in the Cherokee Nation tribal jurisdiction area and in the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians . German has 13,444 speakers representing about 0.4 % of the total state population , and Vietnamese is spoken by 11,330 people , or about 0.4 % of the population , many of whom live in the Asia District of Oklahoma City . Other languages include French with 8,258 speakers ( 0.3 % ) , Chinese with 6,413 ( 0.2 % ) , Korean with 3,948 ( 0.1 % ) , Arabic with 3,265 ( 0.1 % ) , other Asian languages with 3,134 ( 0.1 % ) , Tagalog with 2,888 ( 0.1 % ) , Japanese with 2,546 ( 0.1 % ) , and African languages with 2,546 ( 0.1 % ) . In addition to Cherokee , more than 25 Native American languages are spoken in Oklahoma , second only to California ( though , it should be noted that only Cherokee exhibits language vitality at present ) . Religion Oklahoma is part of a geographical region characterized by conservative and Evangelical Christianity known as the `` Bible Belt '' . Spanning the southern and eastern parts of the United States , the area is known for politically and socially conservative views , even though Oklahoma has more voters registered with the Democratic Party than with any other party . Tulsa , the state 's second largest city , home to Oral Roberts University , is sometimes called the `` buckle of the Bible Belt '' . According to the Pew Research Center , the majority of Oklahoma 's religious adherents are Christian , accounting for about 80 percent of the population . The percentage of Oklahomans affiliated with Catholicism is half of the national average , while the percentage affiliated with Evangelical Protestantism is more than twice the national average – tied with Arkansas for the largest percentage of any state . In 2010 , the state 's largest church memberships were in the Southern Baptist Convention ( 886,394 members ) , the United Methodist Church ( 282,347 ) , the Roman Catholic Church ( 178,430 ) , and the Assemblies of God ( 85,926 ) . Other religions represented in the state include Buddhism , Hinduism , and Islam . In 2000 , there were about 5,000 Jews and 6,000 Muslims , with 10 congregations to each group . Oklahoma religious makeup : * Evangelical Protestant – 53 % * Mainline Protestant – 16 % * Roman Catholic – 13 % * Other – 6 % * Unaffiliated – 12 % Economy Oklahoma is host to a diverse range of sectors including aviation , energy , transportation equipment , food processing , electronics , and telecommunications . Oklahoma is an important producer of natural gas , aircraft , and food . The state ranks third in the nation for production of natural gas , is the 27th-most agriculturally productive state , and also

jp_3590--Oklahoma.txt

"What U.S. state is the ""Sooner State""?"

Mass suicide occurs when a group of people commit suicide simultaneously . Examples Mass suicide sometimes occurs in religious settings . Defeated groups may resort to mass suicide rather than being captured . Suicide pacts are a form of mass suicide that are sometimes planned or carried out by small groups of maybe depressed or hopeless people . Mass suicides have been used as a form of political protest , which shows that they can also be used as a statement making tool Historical mass suicides * During the late 2nd century BC , the Teutons are recorded as marching south through Gaul along with their neighbors , the Cimbri , and attacking Roman Italy . After several victories for the invading armies , the Cimbri and Teutones were then defeated by Gaius Marius in 102 BC at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae ( near present-day Aix-en-Provence ) . Their King , Teutobod , was taken in irons . The captured women committed mass suicide , which passed into Roman legends of Germanic heroism : by the conditions of the surrender three hundred of their married women were to be handed over to the Romans . When the Teuton matrons heard of this stipulation , they first begged the consul that they might be set apart to minister in the temples of Ceres and Venus ; then , when they failed to obtain their request and were removed by the lictors , they slew their children and next morning were all found dead in each other 's arms having strangled themselves in the night . * At the end of the fifteen months of the siege of Numantia in summer 133 BC most of the defeated Numantines , instead of surrendering , preferred to commit suicide and set fire to the city . * The 960 members of the Sicarii Jewish community at Masada collectively committed suicide in AD 73 rather than be conquered and enslaved by the Romans . Each man killed his wife and children , then the men drew lots and killed each other until the last man killed himself . Some modern scholars have questioned this account of the events . * The occasional practice of mass suicide known as Jauhar was carried out in medieval times by women of the Rajput communities in India , when the fall of a city besieged by Muslim invaders was certain , in order to avoid capture and dishonour . The best known cases of Jauhar are the three occurrences at the fort of Chittaur in Rajasthan , in 1303 , in 1535 , and 1568 . * In 1337 , when the castle of Pilėnai ( in Lithuania ) was besieged by the army of the Teutonic Knights , the defenders , led by the Duke Margiris , realized that it was impossible to defend themselves any longer and made the decision to commit mass suicide , as well as to set the castle on fire in order to destroy all of their possessions , and anything of value to the enemy . * During the Great Schism of the Russian Church , entire villages of Old Believers burned themselves to death in an act known as `` fire baptism '' . * During the Turkish rule of Greece and shortly before the Greek War of Independence , women from Souli , pursued by the Ottomans , ascended the mount Zalongo , threw their children over the precipice and then jumped themselves , to avoid capture – an event known as the Dance of Zalongo . * Germany was stricken by a series of unprecedented waves of suicides during the final days of the Nazi regime . The reasons for these waves of suicides were numerous and include the effects of Nazi propaganda , the example of the suicide of Adolf Hitler , victims ' attachment to the ideals of the Nazi Party , mass rapes already committed mostly by the Red Army , a reaction to the loss of the war and , consequently , the anticipated Allied occupation of Nazi Germany . Life Magazine speculated about the suicides : `` In the last days of the war the overwhelming realization of utter defeat was too much for many Germans . Stripped of the bayonets and bombast which had given them power , they could not face a reckoning with either their conquerors or their consciences . These found the quickest and surest escape in what Germans call selbstmord , self-murder . '' * On 1 May 1945 , about 1,000 residents of Demmin , Germany , committed mass suicide after the Red Army had sacked the town . * A Balinese mass ritual suicide is called a puputan . Major puputan occurred in 1906–1908 when Balinese kingdoms faced overwhelming Dutch colonial forces . The root of the Balinese term puputan is puput , meaning 'finishing ' or 'ending ' . It is an act that is more symbolic than strategic ; the Balinese are `` a people whose genius for theatre is unsurpassed '' and a puputan is viewed as `` the last act of a tragic dance-drama '' . * Japan is known for its centuries of suicide tradition , from seppuku ceremonial self-disemboweling to kamikaze warriors flying their aircraft into Allied warships during World War II . During this same war , the Japanese forces announced to the people of Saipan that the invading American troops were going to torture and murder anyone on the island . In a desperate effort to avoid this , the people of Saipan committed suicide , mainly by jumping off the nearby cliffsides . Religiously motivated suicides Known suicides Peoples Temple ( 1978 ) On November 18 , 1978 , 918 Americans died in Peoples Temple–related incidents , including 909 members of the Temple , led by Jim Jones , in Jonestown , Guyana . The dead included 276 children . A tape of the Temple 's final meeting in a Jonestown pavilion contains repeated discussions of the group committing `` revolutionary suicide '' , including reference to people taking the poison and the vats to be used . [ http : //jonestown.sdsu.edu/ ? page_id 29084 `` Jonestown Audiotape Primary Project . '' ] Alternative Considerations of Jonestown and Peoples Temple . San Diego State University . On that tape , Jones tells Temple members that Russia , with whom the Temple had been negotiating a potential exodus for months , would not take them after the Temple had murdered Member of Congress Leo Ryan , NBC reporter Don Harris and three others at a nearby airstrip . When members apparently cried , Jones counseled `` Stop this hysterics . This is not the way for people who are Socialists or Communists to die . No way for us to die . We must die with some dignity . '' At the end of the tape , Jones concludes : `` We did n't commit suicide , we committed an act of revolutionary suicide protesting the conditions of an inhumane world . '' The people in Jonestown died of an apparent cyanide poisoning , except for Jones ( injury consistent with self-inflicted gunshot wound ) and his personal nurse . The Temple had spoken of committing `` revolutionary suicide '' in prior instances , and members had previously drunk what Jones told them was poison at least once before , but the `` Flavor Aid '' drink they ingested contained no poison . Concurrently , four other members died in the Temple 's headquarters in Georgetown . Four months later , Michael Prokes , one of the initial survivors , also committed suicide . Solar Temple ( 1994–97 ) From 1994 to 1997 , the Order of the Solar Temple 's members began a series of mass suicides , which led to roughly 74 deaths . Farewell letters were left by members , stating that they believed their deaths would be an escape from the `` hypocrisies and oppression of this world . '' Added to this they felt they were `` moving on to Sirius . '' Records seized by the Quebec police showed that some members had personally donated over $ 1 million to the group 's leader , Joseph Di Mambro . There was also another attempted mass suicide of the remaining members , which was thwarted in the late 1990s . All the suicide/murders and attempts occurred around the dates of the equinoxes and solstices , which likely held some relation to the beliefs of the group . Heaven 's Gate ( 1997 ) On March 27 , 1997 , 39 followers of Heaven 's Gate died in a mass suicide in Rancho Santa Fe , California , which borders San Diego to the north . These people believed , according to the teachings of their group , that through their suicides they were `` exiting their human vessels '' so that their souls could go on a journey aboard a spaceship they believed to be following comet Hale–Bopp . Some male members of the group underwent voluntary castration in preparation for the genderless life they believed awaited them after the suicide . On March 30 , 1997 , Thomas Nichols , younger brother of actress Nichelle Nichols , was discovered dead in his California trailer , with a note nearby that read in part `` I 'm going to the spaceship with Hale–Bopp to be with those who have gone before me . '' Using propane gas to end his life , Nichols , like the members of Heaven 's Gate , had his head covered by a plastic bag and his upper torso covered with a purple shroud . Nichols ' connection with the group is unknown . In May 1997 , two Heaven 's Gate members who had not been present for the mass suicide attempted suicide , one succeeding , the other becoming comatose for two days and then recovering . In February 1998 , the survivor , Chuck Humphrey , committed suicide . Adam House In 2007 , in Mymensingh , Bangladesh , a family of 9 , all members of a novel `` Adam 's cult '' committed mass suicide by hurling themselves onto a train . Although the Daily Mail initially reported that they were victimized for converting to Christianity , diaries recovered from the victims ' home , `` Adam House '' related they wanted a pure life as lived by Adam and Eve , freeing themselves from bondage to any religion and refused contact with any outsiders . After leaving Islam , they did not partake in Christian ceremonies and even worshiped Kali . Disputed religiously motivated suicides Movement for the Restoration of the Ten Commandments of God ( 2000 ) On March 17 , 2000 , 778 members of the Movement for the Restoration of the Ten Commandments of God died in Uganda . The theory that all of the members died in a mass suicide was changed to mass murder when decomposing bodies were discovered in pits with signs of strangulation while others had stab wounds . The group had diverged from the Roman Catholic Church in order to emphasize apocalypticism and alleged Marian apparitions . The group had been called an inward-looking movement that wore matching uniforms and restricted their speech to avoid saying anything dishonest or sinful . On the suicide itself locals said they held a party at which 70 crates of soft drinks and three bulls were consumed . This version of events has been criticized , most notably by Irving Hexham , and a Ugandan source states that even today `` no one can really explain the whys , hows , whats , where , when , etcetera . '' Training centre for release of the Atma-energy This sect was originally a splinter group of the Brahma Kumaris and is known for a police and media scare in which an alleged attempt to commit ritual suicide took place in Teide National Park in Tenerife in 1998 . The group believed in the end of the world but according to the religious studies scholar Georg Schmid and the sociologist Massimo Introvigne had no intention of collective suicide . Popular Culture

jp_233--Mass_suicide.txt

Followers of what cult leader committed mass suicide by drinking Flavor-Ade?

Rome is a British-American-Italian historical drama television series created by John Milius , William J. MacDonald , and Bruno Heller . The show 's two seasons were broadcast on HBO , BBC Two , and RaiDue between 2005 and 2007 . They were later released on DVD and Blu-ray . Rome is set in the 1st century BC , during Ancient Rome 's transition from Republic to Empire . The series features a sprawling cast of characters , many of whom are based on real figures from historical records , but the lead protagonists are ultimately two soldiers named Lucius Vorenus and Titus Pullo , who find their lives intertwined with key historical events . Rome was a ratings success for HBO and the BBC . The series received much media attention from the start , and was honored with numerous awards and nominations in its two-series run . Co-creator Heller stated in December 2008 that a Rome movie was in development , but as of early 2015 no further production had been initiated . The series was filmed in various locations , but most notably in the Cinecittà studios in Italy . Plot overview The series primarily chronicles the lives and deeds of the rich , powerful , and historically significant , but also focuses on the lives , fortunes , families , and acquaintances of two common men : Lucius Vorenus and Titus Pullo , two fictionalized versions of a pair of Roman soldiers mentioned in Caesar 's Commentarii de Bello Gallico . The fictional Vorenus and Pullo manage to witness and often influence many of the historical events presented in the series , although some license is taken . The first season depicts Julius Caesar 's civil war of 49 BC against the traditionalist conservative faction in the Roman Senate ( the Optimates ) , his rise to dictatorship over Rome , and his fall , spanning the time from the end of his Gallic Wars ( 52 BC or 701 ab urbe condita ) until his assassination on 15 March 44 BC ( the infamous Ides of March ) . Against the backdrop of these cataclysmic events , we also see the early years of the young Octavian , who is destined to become Augustus , the first Emperor of Rome . The second season chronicles the power struggle between Octavian and Mark Antony following Caesar 's assassination , spanning the period from Caesar 's death in 44 BC to the suicide of Antony and Cleopatra in 30 B.C . after their defeat at the Battle of Actium . Cast * Kevin McKidd as Lucius Vorenus ( Season 1 and 2 ) – A staunch , traditional Roman officer who struggles to balance his personal beliefs , his duty to his superiors , and the needs of his family and friends . The basis for this character is the historical Roman soldier of the same name , who is briefly mentioned in Julius Caesar 's De Bello Gallico 5.44 . * Ray Stevenson as Titus Pullo ( Season 1 and 2 ) – A friendly , upbeat , devil-may-care soldier with the morals of a pirate , the appetites of a hedonist , and a total lack of personal responsibility , who discovers hidden ideals and integrity within himself . * Ciarán Hinds as Julius Caesar ( Season 1 ) – Caesar is ambitious but his aims and motives are often kept ambiguous to further complicate the plot and test the personal loyalties of other characters . He advertises himself as a reformer who sides with the Plebeians , though he is himself a Patrician . He is also merciful to his beaten enemies , genuinely distressed by their deaths and relieved at their willingness to make peace where a more vindictive individual would have simply killed them . * Kenneth Cranham as Pompey Magnus ( Season 1 ) – A legendary general , past the days of his prime , who tries to recapture the glories of his youth as well as to do what is right for the Republic . The real Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus was a Roman general and politician who was as ambitious as Caesar and just as unorthodox in his youth . He chose to ally himself with the optimates in opposing Caesar and supporting the traditional Roman Republic . * Polly Walker as Atia of the Julii ( Season 1 and 2 ) – The niece of Julius Caesar and mother of Octavian/Augustus and Octavia . She is depicted as a cheerfully amoral and opportunistic manipulator . Her family connections and sexual liaisons have brought her into contact with some of the most powerful individuals in Rome , making her a highly influential figure in Roman society . Atia is very loosely based on the historical figure Atia Balba Caesonia about whom little detail is known . Rome Historical Consultant Jonathan Stamp identifies the historical figure Clodia as the primary basis for the character of Atia . * James Purefoy as Mark Antony ( Season 1 and 2 ) – A very popular and cunning Roman general and politician and a close supporter of Julius Caesar in Season 1 . In Season 2 , he fights the power hungry and unaccomplished Octavian . * Tobias Menzies as Marcus Junius Brutus ( Season 1 and 2 ) – Portrayed as a young man torn between what he believes is right , and his loyalty and love of a man who has been like a father to him . The real Marcus Junius Brutus was the most famous of Julius Caesar 's assassins , and one of the key figures in the civil wars that followed the assassination . * Lindsay Duncan as Servilia of the Junii ( Season 1 and 2 ) – The mother of Marcus Junius Brutus , lover of the married Julius Caesar , and enemy of Atia of the Julii . Servilia is depicted as a sophisticated and regal Roman matron who follows her heart to her detriment , betrayed by love , and hungering for revenge . She slowly becomes as cruel as those whom she would destroy . Servilia is loosely based on the historical personage of Servilia , mother of Marcus Junius Brutus , and famous lover of Julius Caesar . * Indira Varma as Niobe ( Season 1 ) – A beautiful woman devoted to her family , Niobe is a proud Plebeian from a large clan . After marrying Lucius Vorenus and giving birth to their two daughters , she functioned as a single parent when Lucius went off to war . * Max Pirkis ( Season 1 and early 2 ) and Simon Woods ( Season 2 ) as Gaius Octavian – Portrayed as a shrewd , if somewhat cold , young man , with an understanding of the world , people , philosophy and politics that go well beyond his years . Despite this , he is very power hungry and uses the accomplishments of others he is related to as a means to further his political career . The basis for this character is the early life of Augustus , the first Roman Emperor . * Nicholas Woodeson as Posca ( Season 1 and 2 ) – A Greek slave of Julius Caesar , yet also his friend , aide-de-camp , and confidant in most things personal and professional . As a slave , he will seldom receive credit , but it appears that many of the more simple and elegant solutions to Caesar 's problems come from the mind of Posca . Posca is freed and given a stipend in Caesar 's will at the start of the second season . He throws his support behind Antony in later episodes , but later strategically defects to Octavian . In the second episode of the second season , Mark Antony refers to him as a Greek , which is in keeping with his highly educated and influential position for a slave . * Kerry Condon as Octavia of the Julii ( Season 1 and 2 ) – The character is based on the Roman matron Octavia Thurina Minor , sister of Roman Emperor Augustus , born to one of the most powerful families in Rome , the Julii . Octavia is the only daughter and elder child of Atia of the Julii , who is the niece of Gaius Julius Caesar . In Season 2 , she marries Mark Antony , something she did in real life when Antony was newly a widower in 40 BC as part of the Pact of Brundisium , having been ordered by the Senate to set aside the mandatory ten-month term of widowhood after the death of her first husband , Claudius Marcellus . * Rick Warden as Quintus Pompey ( Season 1 and 2 ) – The son of Pompey . There is no basis for this character , but the character may be meant to represent the younger of Pompey 's historical sons Sextus Pompeius . * Karl Johnson as Porcius Cato ( Season 1 ) – An extreme traditionalist , against political and social decay , and a staunch defender of the Roman Republic . The real Cato the Younger was a Roman orator , author and politician who committed suicide to avoid living under Caesar 's tyranny . * David Bamber as Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Season 1 and 2 ) – A moderate politician and scholar , who is challenged with trying to save the traditional Republic from the ambitions of the various characters on the show . The real Cicero was a Roman politician , writer and orator . * Lee Boardman as Timon ( Season 1 and 2 ) – A Roman Jew , depicted as a `` hired sword '' – from bodyguard to assassin – for Atia of the Julii , from whom he is quite willing to take her body in lieu of coin . Production Development William J. MacDonald and John Milius pitched the idea to HBO as a mini series , but the network made it a full-fledged series . In 2002 , HBO and the BBC agreed to co-produce the series , committing a US $ 100–110 million ( £62.7 million ) budget to the production of twelve 1-hour episodes , with HBO contributing $ 85 million , and the BBC contributing $ 15 million . The BBC contributed £800,000 to every episode of Rome in its first season . Rome is the largest co-produced series with the American film market in the BBC 's history . The series also marked the first series on which HBO and the BBC worked together as co-producers , although the two companies had worked together in other roles in earlier series , including Band of Brothers and The Gathering Storm . Tranter from the BBC has said this about the development of Rome : `` It felt like something that could have been developed by us , and HBO felt like natural partners for the BBC '' . On 20 April 2006 , Carolyn Strauss , president of HBO announced the development of a second season for Rome . Filming Between March 2004 and May 2005 Rome was filmed in co-production with Rai Fiction in the Italian countryside on Cinecittà studios ' six sound stages in Rome . A collection of massive sets in Cinecittà studios ' back lots comprised an elaborate `` period reconstruction '' of sections of ancient Rome . It was a huge undertaking , with an international crew of 350 , and more than 50 local Italian interns . The production is regarded as one of the most expensive in the history of television . Funding was generously employed to recreate an impressively detailed set featuring a number of Roman Villas , the Forum , and a vast slum area of the ancient city of Rome . A significant part of this set was later destroyed by a fire that burned down a portion of the Cinecittà Studios in 2007 . According to HBO , the fire started after they had finished filming the second season . A portion of the set was also used in late 2007 by the crew of the long-running BBC sci-fi drama series Doctor Who , for the fourth season episode `` The Fires of Pompeii '' . Audio commentary on the Season 1 DVD indicates that many of the background performers used in the series were also their true professional counterparts . One example is that the actor shown in the series working as a butcher on the streets of Rome was in fact a real-life butcher . Editing In a separate move , the BBC also decided to re-edit the first three episodes ( all directed by Michael Apted ) into two episodes . The BBC claimed that this was because the British audience were more familiar with the history of Rome than their American counterparts and so much of the history was unnecessary ; however , Apted claims that the purpose was to boost the ratings by increasing the prominence of the scenes of sex and violence . In an interview with The Times , Apted said : I 'm really pissed off with the BBC for bringing down my first three episodes to two and , in doing so , taking out much of the vital politics . What also makes me very grumpy is that I was told that the cuts had been introduced by the BBC because they thought British viewers already knew the historical background . But all that 's happened as far as the viewer is concerned is that it has made Rome hard to follow . Apted also said that he only learned of the edits by accident , `` ... a couple of weeks ago when one of the actors told me '' . Since then , the original uncut Season 1 episodes aired on UKTV Drama , coincident with the UK broadcast of Season 2 on BBC Two . The Italian broadcast of the series was also marred by controversy . Strong language was removed in the Italian dubbing process ; as for the more explicit sex scenes and disturbing violence , they were replaced by `` safe '' alternative versions shot during production especially for the Italian market . Rai 4 began showing the `` complete version '' of the series on Italian TV in September 2009 . Music Composer Jeff Beal was invited to audition for Rome after he completed work on HBO 's Carnivàle . The producers sent him a short edit of episode seven . From that , Beal began writing a demo score . Based on head writer Bruno Heller 's desired gritty pre-Christian feel for the series , and HBO 's interest in a non-modern sound , Beal chose to compose and record with live instruments from across the ancient Roman world . For each episode , Beal had about two weeks to work : in the first , he composed for – and recorded – the instruments he performed on the soundtrack . In the second week , he incorporated producer 's notes , orchestrated and recorded the other live instrumental sections . Broadcast and DVD releases Romes first season originally aired on HBO in the United States between 28 August and 20 November 2005 , subsequently being broadcast on the United Kingdom 's BBC Two between 2 November 2005 and 4 January 2006 , and on Rai Due in Italy between 17 March 2006 and 28 April 2006 . The second season aired on HBO in the US from 14 January 2007 to 25 March 2007 . International syndication The series was launched in the United States on 25 August 2005 , at Wadsworth Theatre in Los Angeles . HBO broadcast the series pilot `` The Stolen Eagle '' four days later . According to the Nielsen ratings system , the pilot broadcast was seen by 3.8 million viewers and achieved a 9.1 household rating for Sunday primetime . HBO re-aired the pilot 11 times in the week following the 28 August 2005 premiere , garnering a total viewership of 8.9 million for all 11 airings . After the broadcast of only three first season episodes , HBO announced plans to produce a second season of Rome in 2006 , for release in March 2007 . HBO aired each episode multiple times a week , and by the end of the first season , the total weekly audience for all airings exceeded seven million viewers . The second season premiered in January 2007 , with the first episode attracting 1.5 million viewers . The final episode aired 25 March 2007 in the U.S . In total , HBO spent about $ 10 million US $ to promote Rome . HBO enlisted the Mozilla Firefox web browser in its marketing campaign for the series by designing a downloadable custom Rome Firefox theme . BBC Two premiered Rome in the United Kingdom on 2 November 2005 , attracting 6.6 million viewers ( 27 % ) ; viewing figures declined in future episodes , with the season finale only attracting 3 million viewers ( 13 % ) . The first episode of the second season aired on BBC Two on 20 June 2007 . A `` sanitized '' version of the first series of Rome – with toned-down nudity and violence – aired on Rai Due in Italy , garnering only a meager 10 % audience share . RAI also stated to have co-produced the show , whereas HBO listed only itself and BBC as co-producers . The Italian newspaper , Corriere della Sera called it a `` prime example of historical misinformation '' , and called actor Ciarán Hinds ( Julius Caesar ) a `` parody '' . The paper also called the relationship between Atia of the Julii ( Polly Walker ) and Mark Antony ( James Purefoy ) `` ridiculous '' . The second series was never broadcast at all on analog TV ; however , starting from October 2009 , digital-only channel Rai 4 broadcast the original uncut version of the first series and went on to broadcast the second series unaltered as well . Cancellation and future HBO Chairman Chris Albrecht announced in a July 2006 news conference that season two of Rome would be its last , citing the fact that the series ( called `` notoriously expensive '' by Broadcasting & Cable ) had been developed under a two-year contract with the BBC that would have been difficult for the BBC to extend due to the series ' cost . Of the storyline , co-creator Heller said : Film In a February 2008 interview with Movieweb.com , actor Ray Stevenson stated that a Rome film was in development , with Heller working on a script . Heller confirmed in December that there was `` talk of doing a movie version '' , adding that `` It 's moving along . It 's not there until it is there . I would love to round that show off '' . In an April 2009 interview with the Associated Press , Actor Kevin McKidd stated the `` Rome '' film was `` in development '' , and Lucius Vorenus will likely be a part of it . In March 2010 , Entertainment Weekly stated that Heller had completed the script for Morning Light Productions , the film 's financiers , and was now awaiting a director and a studio , since HBO Films `` wo n't be involved '' . However , in a more recent interview with Entertainment Weekly , Heller indicated the project had stalled – `` I 'm not holding my breath '' . On April 15 , 2014 ScreenRant received reports from Entertainment Weekly in which it was confirmed that a movie based on HBO Rome is indeed on the way . Quote `` As reported in 2009 Bruno Heller , who wrote and executive produced the series , is writing the movie script as well ; the film will be produced by Morning Light Productions . The only question that remains is which epoch of Rome will the movie focus on and which cast members will be featured on the big screen ? '' Kevin McKidd ( Lucius Vorenus ) himself spoke in September 2013 about it . `` There is a script that is being shopped and it 's supposedly very good , I have n't seen it , but I am definitely going to be a part of the movie ... He is very much alive , so that should be a fun story to tell . '' Home release Rome : The Complete First Season was released as a six-disc Region 1 DVD box set in the United States in 2006 , distributed by HBO Home Video . Featuring all 12 episodes , it included features such as episode commentaries , behind-the-scenes footage and making-of features . The set ( without the episodic previews and recaps ) was also released in Region 2 , with the same title . Season 2 was released in North America in 2007 and soon after in Region 2 . Rome : The Complete Series was released in November 2009 on Blu-ray in North America . Episodes Impact Reception Rome has garnered mostly positive reviews . Sean Woods from Rolling Stone called the series `` masterful '' and `` epic '' and gave the series 3.5 out of 4 . Alessandra Stanley from The New York Times said : `` But behind all that gritty squalor the glory that was Rome gets lost '' , while reviewing season 2 . Lisa Schwarzbaum from Entertainment Weekly gave season 2 a B and commented on the `` spectacular '' clothing design . Michael Ventre from Variety magazine was positive towards the series and was intrigued by the `` complex '' character of Atia of the Julii . James Poniewozik from TIME magazine commented on the `` slow start '' , but further stated that the series `` draws you '' to the ancient city of Rome . Empire magazine reviewer Helen O'Hara said : `` Not as good-looking as Gladiator , perhaps , but richer in ( reasonably accurate ) history and texture '' , and gave season 1 of Rome four out of five stars . Robert Bianco from USA Today called season 2 `` the fall of Rome '' , commenting that season 2 was not as good as season 1 citing `` off-key characterizations and plot absurdities '' . Linda Stasi from The New York Post called herself a `` slave '' to the show . Melanie McFarland from Seattle Post-Intelligencer called season 2 `` at top of its form '' and said it was as good as the former season . Historian Robin Lane Fox , writing in The Guardian called the series `` splendidly ambitious '' . Eric Neigher from Slant Magazine called season 1 of Rome `` good art '' . Robert Abele from LA Weekly called it the `` most lavish dramatic series yet '' released by HBO . Awards and nominations Capping its successful first season , Rome won four Emmy Awards out of eight nominations in 2006 , for the episodes `` Caesarion '' , `` Triumph '' , `` Kalends of February '' and `` Stealing from Saturn '' . The series also won an Art Directors Guild ( ADG ) in the category `` Excellence in Production Design – Single-Camera Television Series '' for the pilot episode `` The Stolen Eagle '' . Michael Apted won the Directors Guild of America ( DGA ) in the category `` Outstanding Directing – Drama Series , Night '' for `` The Stolen Eagle '' . The series itself was nominated for a Golden Globe Award in the category `` Best Television Series - Drama '' , and Polly Walker who portrayed Atia of the Julii was nominated in the category `` Best Performance by an Actress In A Television Series – Drama '' . The series was also nominated for three Satellite Awards , two for season 1 and the last for season 2 . The pilot episode `` The Stolen Eagle '' won a Visual Effects Society ( VES ) award in the category `` Outstanding Visual Effects – Broadcast Series '' . Writers Guild of America ( WGA ) nominated the series for the category `` Best Writing – New Television Series '' in 2005 . The series was also nominated for four British Academy Television Awards ( BAFTA ) , three in season 1 ( 2006 ) and one in season 2 ( 2008 ) . In 2005 , the series was nominated for a Cinema Audio Society Award ( CAS ) in the category `` Outstanding Achievement in Sound Mixing for Television Series '' for the episode `` The Spoils '' . The British award ceremony nominated the series for the Royal Television Society ( RTS ) award in the category `` Best Visual Effects – Digital Effects '' . For Season 2 ( 2007 ) Alik Sakharov , A.S.C . won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Cinematography for a Single-Camera Series , for the episode `` Passover '' . Historical deviations There are numerous inaccuracies in the series ' representation of various historical events and personages . Co-creator Bruno Heller has said : `` We try to balance between what people expect from previous portrayals and a naturalistic approach ... This series is much more about how the psychology of the characters affects history than simply following the history as we know it '' . Series Historical Consultant Jonathan Stamp also notes that the show aims for `` authenticity '' rather than `` accuracy '' . The filmmakers stressed that they wanted to portray a more accurate picture of Rome , a gritty and realistic city as opposed to what they call the `` Hollyrome '' presentation that audiences are used to from other films , with `` cleanliness and marble and togas that looked pressed . '' Lucius Vorenus and Titus Pullo are historical figures mentioned briefly in Caesar 's Commentarii de Bello Gallico , but their adventures and involvement in key events in the series are fictional . Some important events are not mentioned in Rome , including the whole year spent before the Battle of Dyrrhachium which , although indecisive , was considered a victory for Pompeius . Many significant members of the Optimates , the traditionalist faction of Brutus and Cato , are also missing from the series . They include Titus Labienus , Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus , Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Crus , and Publius Cornelius Lentulus Spinther , who failed to empty Rome 's treasury before the Optimates departure , resulting in a severe lack of funds to support their war effort .

odql_8307--Rome_(TV_series).txt

In Rome, who formed the 'First Triumvirate' with Julius Caesar and Crassus?

A metal ( from Greek μέταλλον métallon , `` mine , quarry , metal '' ) is a material ( an element , compound , or alloy ) that is typically hard , opaque , shiny , and has good electrical and thermal conductivity . Metals are generally malleable — that is , they can be hammered or pressed permanently out of shape without breaking or cracking — as well as fusible ( able to be fused or melted ) and ductile ( able to be drawn out into a thin wire ) . About 91 of the 118 elements in the periodic table are metals , the others are nonmetals or metalloids . Some elements appear in both metallic and non-metallic forms . Astrophysicists use the term `` metal '' to collectively describe all elements other than hydrogen and helium . In that sense , the metallicity of an object is the proportion of its matter made up of chemical elements other than hydrogen and helium . Many elements and compounds that are not normally classified as metals become metallic under high pressures ; these are formed as metallic allotropes of non-metals . Structure and bonding The atoms of metallic substances are typically arranged in one of three common crystal structures , namely body-centered cubic ( bcc ) , face-centered cubic ( fcc ) , and hexagonal close-packed ( hcp ) . In bcc , each atom is positioned at the center of a cube of eight others . In fcc and hcp , each atom is surrounded by twelve others , but the stacking of the layers differs . Some metals adopt different structures depending on the temperature . Atoms of metals readily lose their outer shell electrons , resulting in a free flowing cloud of electrons within their otherwise solid arrangement . This provides the ability of metallic substances to easily transmit heat and electricity . While this flow of electrons occurs , the solid characteristic of the metal is produced by electrostatic interactions between each atom and the electron cloud . This type of bond is called a metallic bond . Properties Chemical Metals are usually inclined to form cations through electron loss , reacting with oxygen in the air to form oxides over various timescales ( iron rusts over years , while potassium burns in seconds ) . Examples : 4 Na + O2 → 2 Na2O ( sodium oxide ) 2 Ca + O2 → 2 CaO ( calcium oxide ) 4 Al + 3 O2 → 2 Al2O3 ( aluminium oxide ) . The transition metals ( such as iron , copper , zinc , and nickel ) are slower to oxidize because they form a passivating layer of oxide that protects the interior . Others , like palladium , platinum and gold , do not react with the atmosphere at all . Some metals form a barrier layer of oxide on their surface which can not be penetrated by further oxygen molecules and thus retain their shiny appearance and good conductivity for many decades ( like aluminium , magnesium , some steels , and titanium ) . The oxides of metals are generally basic , as opposed to those of nonmetals , which are acidic . Exceptions are largely oxides with very high oxidation states such as CrO3 , Mn2O7 , and OsO4 , which have strictly acidic reactions . Painting , anodizing or plating metals are good ways to prevent their corrosion . However , a more reactive metal in the electrochemical series must be chosen for coating , especially when chipping of the coating is expected . Water and the two metals form an electrochemical cell , and if the coating is less reactive than the coatee , the coating actually promotes corrosion . Physical Metals in general have high electrical conductivity , high thermal conductivity , and high density . Typically they are malleable and ductile , deforming under stress without cleaving . In terms of optical properties , metals are shiny and lustrous . Sheets of metal beyond a few micrometres in thickness appear opaque , but gold leaf transmits green light . Although most metals have higher densities than most nonmetals , there is wide variation in their densities , lithium being the least dense solid element and osmium the densest . The alkali and alkaline earth metals in groups I A and II A are referred to as the light metals because they have low density , low hardness , and low melting points . The high density of most metals is due to the tightly packed crystal lattice of the metallic structure . The strength of metallic bonds for different metals reaches a maximum around the center of the transition metal series , as those elements have large amounts of delocalized electrons in tight binding type metallic bonds . However , other factors ( such as atomic radius , nuclear charge , number of bonds orbitals , overlap of orbital energies and crystal form ) are involved as well . Electrical The electrical and thermal conductivities of metals originate from the fact that their outer electrons are delocalized . This situation can be visualized by seeing the atomic structure of a metal as a collection of atoms embedded in a sea of highly mobile electrons . The electrical conductivity , as well as the electrons ' contribution to the heat capacity and heat conductivity of metals can be calculated from the free electron model , which does not take into account the detailed structure of the ion lattice . When considering the electronic band structure and binding energy of a metal , it is necessary to take into account the positive potential caused by the specific arrangement of the ion cores – which is periodic in crystals . The most important consequence of the periodic potential is the formation of a small band gap at the boundary of the Brillouin zone . Mathematically , the potential of the ion cores can be treated by various models , the simplest being the nearly free electron model . Mechanical Mechanical properties of metals include ductility , i.e . their capacity for plastic deformation . Reversible elastic deformation in metals can be described by Hooke 's Law for restoring forces , where the stress is linearly proportional to the strain . Forces larger than the elastic limit , or heat , may cause a permanent ( irreversible ) deformation of the object , known as plastic deformation or plasticity . This irreversible change in atomic arrangement may occur as a result of : * The action of an applied force ( or work ) . An applied force may be tensile ( pulling ) force , compressive ( pushing ) force , shear , bending or torsion ( twisting ) forces . * A change in temperature ( heat ) . A temperature change may affect the mobility of the structural defects such as grain boundaries , point vacancies , line and screw dislocations , stacking faults and twins in both crystalline and non-crystalline solids . The movement or displacement of such mobile defects is thermally activated , and thus limited by the rate of atomic diffusion . Viscous flow near grain boundaries , for example , can give rise to internal slip , creep and fatigue in metals . It can also contribute to significant changes in the microstructure like grain growth and localized densification due to the elimination of intergranular porosity . Screw dislocations may slip in the direction of any lattice plane containing the dislocation , while the principal driving force for `` dislocation climb '' is the movement or diffusion of vacancies through a crystal lattice . In addition , the nondirectional nature of metallic bonding is also thought to contribute significantly to the ductility of most metallic solids . When the planes of an ionic bond slide past one another , the resultant change in location shifts ions of the same charge into close proximity , resulting in the cleavage of the crystal ; such shift is not observed in covalently bonded crystals where fracture and crystal fragmentation occurs . Alloys An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements in which the main component is a metal . Most pure metals are either too soft , brittle or chemically reactive for practical use . Combining different ratios of metals as alloys modifies the properties of pure metals to produce desirable characteristics . The aim of making alloys is generally to make them less brittle , harder , resistant to corrosion , or have a more desirable color and luster . Of all the metallic alloys in use today , the alloys of iron ( steel , stainless steel , cast iron , tool steel , alloy steel ) make up the largest proportion both by quantity and commercial value . Iron alloyed with various proportions of carbon gives low , mid and high carbon steels , with increasing carbon levels reducing ductility and toughness . The addition of silicon will produce cast irons , while the addition of chromium , nickel and molybdenum to carbon steels ( more than 10 % ) results in stainless steels . Other significant metallic alloys are those of aluminium , titanium , copper and magnesium . Copper alloys have been known since prehistory—bronze gave the Bronze Age its name—and have many applications today , most importantly in electrical wiring . The alloys of the other three metals have been developed relatively recently ; due to their chemical reactivity they require electrolytic extraction processes . The alloys of aluminium , titanium and magnesium are valued for their high strength-to-weight ratios ; magnesium can also provide electromagnetic shielding . These materials are ideal for situations where high strength-to-weight ratio is more important than material cost , such as in aerospace and some automotive applications . Alloys specially designed for highly demanding applications , such as jet engines , may contain more than ten elements . Categories Base metal In chemistry , the term base metal is used informally to refer to a metal that oxidizes or corrodes relatively easily , and reacts variably with dilute hydrochloric acid ( HCl ) to form hydrogen . Examples include iron , nickel , lead and zinc . Copper is considered a base metal as it oxidizes relatively easily , although it does not react with HCl . It is commonly used in opposition to noble metal . In alchemy , a base metal was a common and inexpensive metal , as opposed to precious metals , mainly gold and silver . A longtime goal of the alchemists was the transmutation of base metals into precious metals . In numismatics , coins in the past derived their value primarily from the precious metal content . Most modern currencies are fiat currency , allowing the coins to be made of base metal . Ferrous metal The term `` ferrous '' is derived from the Latin word meaning `` containing iron '' . This can include pure iron , such as wrought iron , or an alloy such as steel . Ferrous metals are often magnetic , but not exclusively . Noble metal Noble metals are metals that are resistant to corrosion or oxidation , unlike most base metals . They tend to be precious metals , often due to perceived rarity . Examples include gold , platinum , silver , rhodium , iridium and palladium . Precious metal A precious metal is a rare metallic chemical element of high economic value . Chemically , the precious metals are less reactive than most elements , have high luster and high electrical conductivity . Historically , precious metals were important as currency , but are now regarded mainly as investment and industrial commodities . Gold , silver , platinum and palladium each have an ISO 4217 currency code . The best-known precious metals are gold and silver . While both have industrial uses , they are better known for their uses in art , jewelry , and coinage . Other precious metals include the platinum group metals : ruthenium , rhodium , palladium , osmium , iridium , and platinum , of which platinum is the most widely traded . The demand for precious metals is driven not only by their practical use , but also by their role as investments and a store of value . Palladium was , as of summer 2006 , valued at a little under half the price of gold , and platinum at around twice that of gold . Silver is substantially less expensive than these metals , but is often traditionally considered a precious metal for its role in coinage and jewelry . Heavy metal A heavy metal is any relatively dense metal or metalloid . More specific definitions have been proposed , but none have obtained widespread acceptance . Some heavy metals have niche uses , or are notably toxic ; some are essential in trace amounts . Extraction Metals are often extracted from the Earth by means of mining ores that are rich sources of the requisite elements , such as bauxite . Ore is located by prospecting techniques , followed by the exploration and examination of deposits . Mineral sources are generally divided into surface mines , which are mined by excavation using heavy equipment , and subsurface mines . Once the ore is mined , the metals must be extracted , usually by chemical or electrolytic reduction . Pyrometallurgy uses high temperatures to convert ore into raw metals , while hydrometallurgy employs aqueous chemistry for the same purpose . The methods used depend on the metal and their contaminants . When a metal ore is an ionic compound of that metal and a non-metal , the ore must usually be smelted — heated with a reducing agent — to extract the pure metal . Many common metals , such as iron , are smelted using carbon as a reducing agent . Some metals , such as aluminium and sodium , have no commercially practical reducing agent , and are extracted using electrolysis instead . Sulfide ores are not reduced directly to the metal but are roasted in air to convert them to oxides . Recycling of metals Demand for metals is closely linked to economic growth . During the 20th century , the variety of metals uses in society grew rapidly . Today , the development of major nations , such as China and India , and advances in technologies , are fuelling ever more demand . The result is that mining activities are expanding , and more and more of the world 's metal stocks are above ground in use , rather than below ground as unused reserves . An example is the in-use stock of copper . Between 1932 and 1999 , copper in use in the US rose from 73g to 238g per person . Metals are inherently recyclable , so in principle , can be used over and over again , minimizing these negative environmental impacts and saving energy . For example , 95 % of the energy used to make aluminium from bauxite ore is saved by using recycled material . Levels of metals recycling are generally low . In 2010 , the International Resource Panel , hosted by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) published reports on metal stocks that exist within society and their recycling rates . The report authors observed that the metal stocks in society can serve as huge mines above ground . They warned that the recycling rates of some rare metals used in applications such as mobile phones , battery packs for hybrid cars and fuel cells are so low that unless future end-of-life recycling rates are dramatically stepped up these critical metals will become unavailable for use in modern technology . Metallurgy Metallurgy is a domain of materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements , their intermetallic compounds , and their mixtures , which are called alloys . Applications Some metals and metal alloys possess high structural strength per unit mass , making them useful materials for carrying large loads or resisting impact damage . Metal alloys can be engineered to have high resistance to shear , torque and deformation . However the same metal can also be vulnerable to fatigue damage through repeated use or from sudden stress failure when a load capacity is exceeded . The strength and resilience of metals has led to their frequent use in high-rise building and bridge construction , as well as most vehicles , many appliances , tools , pipes , non-illuminated signs and railroad tracks . The two most commonly used structural metals , iron and aluminium , are also the most abundant metals in the Earth 's crust . Metals are good conductors , making them valuable in electrical appliances and for carrying an electric current over a distance with little energy lost . Electrical power grids rely on metal cables to distribute electricity . Home electrical systems , for the most part , are wired with copper wire for its good conducting properties . The thermal conductivity of metal is useful for containers to heat materials over a flame . Metal is also used for heat sinks to protect sensitive equipment from overheating . The high reflectivity of some metals is important in the construction of mirrors , including precision astronomical instruments . This last property can also make metallic jewelry aesthetically appealing . Some metals have specialized uses ; radioactive metals such as uranium and plutonium are used in nuclear power plants to produce energy via nuclear fission . Mercury is a liquid at room temperature and is used in switches to complete a circuit when it flows over the switch contacts . Shape memory alloy is used for applications such as pipes , fasteners and vascular stents . Metals can be doped with foreign molecules – organic , inorganic , biological and polymers . This doping entails the metal with new properties that are induced by the guest molecules . Applications in catalysis , medicine , electrochemical cells , corrosion and more have been developed . Trade The World Bank reports that China was the top importer of ores and metals in 2005 followed by the United States and Japan . History The nature of metals has fascinated humans for many centuries , because these materials provided people with tools of unsurpassed properties both in war and in their preparation and processing . Pure gold and silver were known to humans since the Stone Age . Lead and silver were fused from their ores as early as the fourth millennium BC . Ancient Latin and Greek writers such as Theophrastus , Pliny the Elder in his Natural History , or Pedanius Dioscorides , did not try to classify metals . The ancients never attained the concept `` metal '' as a distinct elementary substance with fixed , characteristic chemical and physical properties . Following Empedocles , all substances within the sublunary sphere were assumed to vary in their constituent classical elements of earth , water , air and fire . Following the Pythagoreans , Plato assumed that these elements could be further reduced to plane geometrical shapes ( triangles and squares ) bounding space and relating to the regular polyhedra in the sequence earth : cube , water : icosahedron , air : octahedron , fire : tetrahedron . However , this philosophical extension did not become as popular as the simple four elements , after it was rejected by Aristotle . Aristotle also rejected the atomic theory of Democritus , since he classified the implied existence of a vacuum necessary for motion as a contradiction ( a vacuum implies nonexistence , therefore can not exist ) . Aristotle did , however , introduce underlying antagonistic qualities ( or forces ) of dry vs. wet and cold vs. heat into the composition of each of the four elements . The word `` metal '' originally meant `` mines '' and only later gained the general meaning of products from materials obtained in mines . In the first centuries A.D. a relation between the planets and the existing metals was assumed as Gold : Sun , Silver : Moon , Electrum : Jupiter , Iron : Mars , Copper : Venus , Tin : Mercury , Lead : Saturn . After electrum was determined to be a combination of silver and gold , the relations Tin : Jupiter and Mercury : Mercury were substituted into the previous sequence . Arabic and medieval alchemists believed that all metals , and in fact , all sublunar matter , were composed of the principle of sulfur , carrying the combustible property , and the principle of mercury , the mother of all metals and carrier of the liquidity or fusibility , and the volatility properties . These principles were not necessarily the common substances sulfur and mercury found in most laboratories . This theory reinforced the belief that the all metals were destined to become gold in the bowels of the earth through the proper combinations of heat , digestion , time , and elimination of contaminants , all of which could be developed and hastened through the knowledge and methods of alchemy . Paracelsus added the third principle of salt , carrying the nonvolatile and incombustible properties , in his tria prima doctrine . These theories retained the four classical elements as underlying the composition of sulfur , mercury and salt . The first systematic text on the arts of mining and metallurgy was De la Pirotechnia by Vannoccio Biringuccio , which treats the examination , fusion , and working of metals . Sixteen years later , Georgius Agricola published De Re Metallica in 1555 , a clear and complete account of the profession of mining , metallurgy , and the accessory arts and sciences , as well as qualifying as the greatest treatise on the chemical industry through the sixteenth century . He gave the following description of a metal in his De Natura Fossilium ( 1546 ) . Metal is a mineral body , by nature either liquid or somewhat hard . The latter may be melted by the heat of the fire , but when it has cooled down again and lost all heat , it becomes hard again and resumes its proper form . In this respect it differs from the stone which melts in the fire , for although the latter regain its hardness , yet it loses its pristine form and properties . Traditionally there are six different kinds of metals , namely gold , silver , copper , iron , tin and lead . There are really others , for quicksilver is a metal , although the Alchemists disagree with us on this subject , and bismuth is also . The ancient Greek writers seem to have been ignorant of bismuth , wherefore Ammonius rightly states that there are many species of metals , animals , and plants which are unknown to us . Stibium when smelted in the crucible and refined has as much right to be regarded as a proper metal as is accorded to lead by writers . If when smelted , a certain portion be added to tin , a bookseller 's alloy is produced from which the type is made that is used by those who print books on paper . Each metal has its own form which it preserves when separated from those metals which were mixed with it . Therefore neither electrum nor Stannum [ not meaning our tin ] is of itself a real metal , but rather an alloy of two metals . Electrum is an alloy of gold and silver , Stannum of lead and silver . And yet if silver be parted from the electrum , then gold remains and not electrum ; if silver be taken away from Stannum , then lead remains and not Stannum . Whether brass , however , is found as a native metal or not , can not be ascertained with any surety . We only know of the artificial brass , which consists of copper tinted with the colour of the mineral calamine . And yet if any should be dug up , it would be a proper metal . Black and white copper seem to be different from the red kind . Metal , therefore , is by nature either solid , as I have stated , or fluid , as in the unique case of quicksilver . But enough now concerning the simple kinds .

sfq_9644--Metal.txt

Haematite is an ore of which metal?

`` Gunga Din '' is a 1892 poem by Rudyard Kipling , set in British India . It was the inspiration for a 1939 film of the same title . Background The poem is a rhyming narrative from the point of view of an English soldier in India , about an Indian water-bearer ( a bhishti ) who saves the soldier 's life but is soon shot and killed . In the final three lines , the soldier regrets the abuse he dealt to Din and admits that Din is the better man of the two . The poem was published as one of the set of martial poems called the Barrack-Room Ballads . In contrast to Kipling 's later poem `` The White Man 's Burden '' , `` Gunga Din '' is named after the Indian , portraying him as a heroic character who is not afraid to face danger on the battlefield as he tends to wounded men . The English soldiers who order Din around and beat him for not bringing them water fast enough are presented as being callous and shallow , and ultimately inferior to him . Although `` Din '' is frequently pronounced to rhyme with `` pin '' , the rhymes within the poem make it clear that it should be pronounced to rhyme with `` green '' . Adaptations The poem inspired a 1939 adventure film of the same name from RKO Radio Pictures starring Cary Grant , Victor McLaglen , Douglas Fairbanks Jr. , Joan Fontaine , and Sam Jaffe in the title role . The movie was remade in 1961 as Sergeants 3 , starring the Rat Pack . The locale was moved from British-colonial India to the old West . The Gunga Din character was played in this film by Sammy Davis , Jr .. Many elements of the 1939 film were also incorporated into Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom . In 1958 , Bobby Darin wrote and recorded the song `` That 's the Way Love Is '' in which , referring to the unsolved riddle of love , he sings `` And if ya come up with the answer , You 're a better man , sir , than I … Gunga Din '' .

qg_248--Gunga_Din.txt

January 18, 1936 saw the death of what English writer and youngest recipient of the Nobel prize in Literature, responsible for such classics as The Jungle Book, The Man Who Would Be King, Gunga Din, and If?

Dean Martin ( born Dino Paul Crocetti , June 7 , 1917 – December 25 , 1995 ) was an American singer , actor , comedian , and film producer . One of the most popular and enduring American entertainers of the mid-20th century , Martin was nicknamed the `` King Of Cool '' for his seemingly effortless charisma and self-assurance . He and Jerry Lewis were partners in the immensely popular comedy team Martin and Lewis . He was a member of the `` Rat Pack '' and a star in concert stage/nightclubs , recordings , motion pictures , and television . He was the host of the television variety program The Dean Martin Show ( 1965–1974 ) and The Dean Martin Celebrity Roast ( 1974–1985 ) . Martin 's relaxed , warbling crooning voice earned him dozens of hit singles including his signature songs `` Memories Are Made of This '' , `` That 's Amore '' , `` Everybody Loves Somebody '' , `` You 're Nobody till Somebody Loves You '' , `` Sway '' , `` Volare '' , and `` Ai n't That a Kick in the Head ? `` . Early life Martin was born on June 7 , 1917 in Steubenville , Ohio , to an Italian father , Gaetano Alfonso Crocetti ( 1894–1967 ) , and an Italian-American mother , Angela Crocetti ( née Barra ; 1899–1966 ) . They were married in 1914 . His father , who was a barber , was originally from Montesilvano , in Abruzzo , and his maternal grandparents ' origins are believed to be also from Abruzzo even if it is not clearly known . Martin had an older brother named William Alfonso Crocetti ( 1916-1968 ) . Martin 's first language was an Abruzzese dialect of Italian , and he did not speak English until he started school at the age of 5 . He attended Grant Elementary School in Steubenville where he was bullied for his broken English . He later took up the drums as a hobby as a teenager . Martin then dropped out of Steubenville High School in the 10th grade because he thought he was smarter than his teachers . He bootlegged liquor , served as a speakeasy croupier , was a blackjack dealer , worked in a steel mill and boxed as a welterweight . At 15 he was a boxer who billed himself as `` Kid Crochet '' . His prizefighting earned him a broken nose ( later straightened ) , a scarred lip , many broken knuckles ( a result of not being able to afford tape used to wrap boxers ' hands ) , and a bruised body . Of his 12 bouts , he said : `` I won all but 11 . '' For a time , he roomed with Sonny King , who , like Martin , was starting in show business and had little money . It is said that Martin and King held bare-knuckle matches in their apartment , fighting until one was knocked out ; people paid to watch . Martin knocked out King in the first round of an amateur boxing match . Martin gave up boxing to work as a roulette stickman and croupier in an illegal casino behind a tobacco shop , where he had started as a stock boy . At the same time he sang with local bands , calling himself `` Dino Martini '' ( after the Metropolitan Opera tenor , Nino Martini ) . He got his break working for the Ernie McKay Orchestra . He sang in a crooning style influenced by Harry Mills ( of the Mills Brothers ) , among others . In the early 1940s , he started singing for bandleader Sammy Watkins , who suggested he change his name to Dean Martin . In October 1941 Martin married Elizabeth ( `` Betty '' ) Anne McDonald , they had four children , and the marriage ended in 1949 . Martin worked for various bands throughout the early 1940s , mostly on looks and personality until he developed his own singing style . Martin flopped at the Riobamba , a nightclub in New York , when he followed Frank Sinatra in 1943 , but it was the setting for their meeting . Martin was drafted into the United States Army in 1944 during World War II , serving a year in Akron , Ohio . He was reclassified as 4-F and discharged ( possibly because of a double hernia , Jerry Lewis referred to the surgery Martin needed for this in his autobiography ) . By 1946 , Martin was doing well , but he was little more than an East Coast nightclub singer with a common style , similar to that of Bing Crosby . Career Teaming with Jerry Lewis Martin attracted the attention of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and Columbia Pictures , but a Hollywood contract was not forthcoming . He met comic Jerry Lewis at the Glass Hat Club in New York , where both were performing . Martin and Lewis formed a fast friendship which led to their participation in each other 's acts and the formation of a music-comedy team . Martin and Lewis 's debut together occurred at Atlantic City 's 500 Club on July 24 , 1946 , and they were not well received . The owner , Skinny D'Amato , warned them that if they did not come up with a better act for their second show that night , they would be fired . Huddling in the alley behind the club , Lewis and Martin agreed to `` go for broke '' , they divided their act between songs , skits , and ad-libbed material . Martin sang and Lewis dressed as a busboy , dropping plates and making a shambles of Martin 's performance and the club 's decorum until Lewis was chased from the room as Martin pelted him with breadrolls . They did slapstick , reeled off old vaudeville jokes , and did whatever else popped into their heads . The audience laughed . This success led to a series of well-paying engagements on the Eastern seaboard , culminating in a run at New York 's Copacabana . The act consisted of Lewis interrupting and heckling Martin while he was trying to sing , with the two ultimately chasing each other around the stage . The secret , both said , is that they ignored the audience and played to each other . The team made its TV debut on the first broadcast of CBS-TV network 's The Ed Sullivan Show ( then called `` The Toast Of The Town '' ) on June 20 , 1948 with composers Rodgers and Hammerstein also appearing . A radio series began in 1949 , the year Martin and Lewis signed with Paramount producer Hal B. Wallis as comedy relief for the movie My Friend Irma . Their agent , Abby Greshler , negotiated one of Hollywood 's best deals : although they received only $ 75,000 between them for their films with Wallis , Martin and Lewis were free to do one outside film a year , which they would co-produce through their own York Productions . They also controlled their club , record , radio and television appearances , and through these they earned millions of dollars . In Dean & Me , Lewis calls Martin one of the great comic geniuses of all time . But harsh comments from critics , as well as frustration with the similarity of Martin and Lewis movies , which producer Hal Wallis refused to change , led to Martin 's dissatisfaction . He put less enthusiasm into the work , leading to escalating arguments with Lewis . Martin told his partner he was `` nothing to me but a dollar sign '' . The act broke up in 1956 , 10 years to the day from the first teaming . Martin 's first solo film , Ten Thousand Bedrooms ( 1957 ) , was a box office failure . He was still popular as a singer , but with rock and roll to the fore , the era of the pop crooner was waning . Solo career Martin wanted to become a real actor , known for more than slapstick comedy films . Though offered a fraction of his former salary to co-star in a war drama , The Young Lions ( 1958 ) , his part would be with Marlon Brando and Montgomery Clift . Tony Randall already had the part , but talent agency MCA realized that with this film , Martin would become a triple threat : they could make money from his work in night clubs , films and records . Martin replaced Randall and the film turned out to be the beginning of Martin 's comeback . Martin starred alongside Frank Sinatra for the first time in an acclaimed Vincente Minnelli drama , Some Came Running ( 1958 ) . By the mid-1960s , Martin was a movie , recording , television and nightclub star , while Lewis ' film career declined . Martin was acclaimed as Dude in Rio Bravo ( 1959 ) , directed by Howard Hawks and also starring John Wayne and singer Ricky Nelson . He would team again with Wayne in The Sons of Katie Elder ( 1965 ) , cast as brothers . In 1960 , Martin was cast in the film version of the Judy Holliday stage musical comedy Bells Are Ringing . He won a Golden Globe nomination for his performance in the 1960 film comedy Who Was That Lady ? but continued to seek dramatic roles , portraying a Southern politician in 1961 's Ada and starring in 1963 's screen adaptation of an intense stage drama , Toys in the Attic , opposite Geraldine Page . He and Sinatra teamed up for several more movies , the crime caper Ocean 's 11 , the musical Robin and the 7 Hoods and the western comedies Sergeants 3 and 4 for Texas , some featuring their so-called Rat Pack pals Sammy Davis , Jr. , Peter Lawford and Joey Bishop , as well as a romantic comedy , Marriage on the Rocks . Martin also co-starred with Shirley MacLaine in a number of films , including Some Came Running , Artists and Models , Career , All in a Night 's Work and What a Way to Go ! He played a satiric variation of his own womanizing persona as Las Vegas singer `` Dino '' in Billy Wilder 's comedy Kiss Me , Stupid ( 1964 ) with Kim Novak , and he poked fun at his image in films such as the Matt Helm spy spoofs of the 1960s , in which he was a co-producer . In the third Matt Helm film The Ambushers ( 1967 ) , Helm , about to be executed , receives a last cigarette and tells the provider , `` I 'll remember you from the great beyond , '' continuing sotto voce , `` somewhere around Steubenville , I hope . '' As a singer , Martin copied the styles of Harry Mills ( of the Mills Brothers ) , Bing Crosby , and Perry Como until he developed his own and could hold his own in duets with Sinatra and Crosby . Like Sinatra , he could not read music , but he recorded more than 100 albums and 600 songs . His signature tune , `` Everybody Loves Somebody '' , knocked the Beatles ' `` A Hard Day 's Night '' off number one in the United States in 1964 . This was followed by `` The Door is Still Open to My Heart '' , which reached number six that year . Elvis Presley was said to have been influenced by Martin , and patterned `` Love Me Tender '' after his style . Martin , like Elvis , was influenced by country music . By 1965 , some of Martin 's albums , such as Dean `` Tex '' Martin , The Hit Sound of Dean Martin , Welcome to My World and Gentle On My Mind , were composed of country and western songs by artists such as Johnny Cash , Merle Haggard and Buck Owens . Martin hosted country performers on his TV show and was named `` Man Of the Year '' by the Country Music Association in 1966 . But the image of Martin as a Vegas entertainer in a tuxedo has been an enduring one . `` Ai n't That a Kick in the Head ? `` , a song Martin performed in Ocean 's 11 , did not become a hit at the time , but has enjoyed a revival in the media and pop culture . For three decades , Martin was among the most popular acts in Las Vegas . Martin sang and was one of the smoothest comics in the business , benefiting from the decade of comedy with Lewis . Martin 's daughter , Gail , also sang in Vegas and on his TV show , co-hosting his summer replacement series on NBC . Daughter Deana and son Ricci are singers who continue to perform . Eldest son Craig was a producer on Martin 's television show and daughter Claudia was an actress in films such as For Those Who Think Young . Though often thought of as a ladies ' man , Martin spent a lot of time with his family ; as second wife Jeanne put it , prior to the couple 's divorce , `` He was home every night for dinner . '' The Rat Pack As Martin 's solo career grew , he and Frank Sinatra became friends . In the late 1950s and early 1960s , Martin and Sinatra , along with friends Joey Bishop , Peter Lawford , and Sammy Davis , Jr. formed the Rat Pack , so-called after an earlier group of social friends , the Holmby Hills Rat Pack centered on Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall , of which Sinatra had been a member ( The Martin-Sinatra-Davis-Lawford-Bishop group referred to themselves as `` The Summit '' or `` The Clan '' and never as `` The Rat Pack '' , although this has remained their identity in popular imagination ) . The men made films together , formed part of the Hollywood social scene , and were politically influential ( through Lawford 's marriage to Patricia Kennedy , sister of President John F. Kennedy ) . The Rat Pack was legendary for its Las Vegas Strip performances . For example , the marquee at the Sands Hotel might read DEAN MARTIN—MAYBE FRANK—MAYBE SAMMY . Their appearances were valuable because the city would flood with wealthy gamblers . Their act ( always in tuxedo ) consisted of each singing individual numbers , duets and trios , along with seemingly improvised slapstick and chatter . In the socially charged 1960s , their jokes revolved around adult themes , such as Sinatra 's womanizing and Martin 's drinking , as well as Davis 's race and religion . Sinatra and Martin supported the civil rights movement and refused to perform in clubs that would not allow African-American or Jewish performers . Posthumously , the Rat Pack has experienced a popular revival , inspiring the George Clooney/Brad Pitt `` Ocean 's '' trilogy . The Dean Martin Show In 1965 , Martin launched his weekly NBC comedy-variety series , The Dean Martin Show , which ran for 264 episodes until 1974 . The show exploited his image as a carefree boozer . Martin capitalized on his laid-back persona of the half-drunk crooner , hitting on women with remarks that would get anyone else slapped , and making snappy if slurred remarks about fellow celebrities during his roasts . During an interview on the British TV documentary Wine , Women and Song , aired in 1983 , he stated , perhaps tongue-in-cheek , that he had someone record them on cassette tape so he could listen to them . His TV show was a success . The show 's loose format featured quick-witted improvisation from Martin and his weekly guests . This prompted a battle between Martin and NBC censors , who insisted on more scrutiny of the content . The show was often in the Top Ten . Martin , appreciative of the show 's producer , his friend Greg Garrison , made a handshake deal giving Garrison , a pioneer TV producer in the 1950s , 50 % of the show . However , the validity of that ownership is the subject of a lawsuit brought by NBCUniversal . Despite Martin 's reputation as a drinker – perpetuated via his vanity license plate `` DRUNKY '' – he masked his self-discipline . He was often the first to call it a night , and when not on tour or on a film location , liked to go home to see his wife and children . He borrowed the lovable-drunk shtick from Joe E. Lewis , but his convincing portrayals of heavy boozers in Some Came Running and Howard Hawks 's Rio Bravo led to unsubstantiated claims of alcoholism . Martin starred in and co-produced four Matt Helm superspy comedy adventures during this time , as well as a number of Westerns . By the early 1970s , The Dean Martin Show was still earning solid ratings , and although he was no longer a Top 40 hitmaker , his record albums continued to sell . He found a way to make his passion for golf profitable by offering a signature line golf balls and the Dean Martin Tucson Open was an event on golf 's PGA Tour from 1972–75 . At his death , Martin was reportedly the single largest minority shareholder of RCA stock . Now comfortable financially , Martin began reducing his schedule . The final ( 1973–74 ) season of his variety show would be retooled into one of celebrity roasts , requiring less involvement . After the show 's cancellation , NBC continued to air The Dean Martin Celebrity Roast format in a series of TV specials through 1984 . In those 11 years , Martin and his panel of pals made fun of stars in this order : Ronald Reagan , Hugh Hefner , Ed McMahon , William Conrad , Kirk Douglas , Bette Davis , Barry Goldwater , Johnny Carson , Wilt Chamberlain , Hubert Humphrey , Carroll O'Connor , Monty Hall , Jack Klugman & Tony Randall , Zsa Zsa Gabor , Leo Durocher , Truman Capote , Don Rickles , Ralph Nader , Jack Benny , Redd Foxx , Bobby Riggs , George Washington , Dan Rowan & Dick Martin , Hank Aaron , Joe Namath , Bob Hope , Telly Savalas , Lucille Ball , Jackie Gleason , Sammy Davis , Jr. , Michael Landon , Evel Knievel , Valerie Harper , Muhammad Ali , Dean Martin himself , Dennis Weaver , Joe Garagiola , Danny Thomas , Angie Dickinson , Gabe Kaplan , Ted Knight , Peter Marshall , Dan Haggerty , Frank Sinatra , Jack Klugman , Jimmy Stewart , George Burns , Betty White , Suzanne Somers , Joan Collins , Kent McCord , Martin Milner , and Mr. T . Later career For nearly a decade , Martin had recorded as many as four albums a year for Reprise Records . That stopped in November 1974 , when Martin recorded his final Reprise album , Once In A While , which was released in 1978 . His last recordings were for Warner Brothers Records . An album titled The Nashville Sessions was released in 1983 , from which he had a hit with `` ( I Think That I Just Wrote ) My First Country Song '' , which was recorded with Conway Twitty and made a respectable showing on the country charts . A follow-up single , `` L.A. Is My Home '' / `` Drinking Champagne '' , came in 1985 . The 1975 film drama Mr. Ricco marked Martin 's final starring role , in which he played a criminal defense lawyer . He played a featured role in the 1981 comedy The Cannonball Run and its sequel , both starring Burt Reynolds . In 1972 , he filed for divorce from his second wife , Jeanne . A week later , his business partnership with the Riviera dissolved amid reports of the casino 's refusal to agree to Martin 's request to perform only once a night . He was taken by the MGM Grand Hotel and Casino , where he was the featured performer on the hotel 's opening night December 23 , 1973 , and also signed a three-picture deal with MGM Studios . Less than a month after his second marriage had dissolved , Martin married 26-year-old Catherine Hawn , on April 25 , 1973 . Hawn had been the receptionist at the chic Gene Shacrove hair salon in Beverly Hills . They divorced November 10 , 1976 . He was also briefly engaged to Gail Renshaw , Miss World–U.S.A . 1969 . Eventually , Martin reconciled with Jeanne , though they never remarried . He also made a public reconciliation with Lewis on the Labor Day Muscular Dystrophy Association telethon in 1976 . Frank Sinatra shocked Lewis by bringing Martin out on stage . As Martin and Lewis embraced , the audience cheered and the phones lit up , resulting in one of the telethon 's most profitable years . Lewis reported the event was one of the three most memorable of his life . Lewis quipped , `` So , you working ? '' Martin , playing drunk , replied that he was `` at the Meggum '' ( meaning the MGM Grand ) . This , with the death of Martin 's son Dean Paul Martin more than a decade later , helped bring the two men together . They maintained a quiet friendship , but only performed again once , in 1989 , on Martin 's 72nd birthday . Personal life Martin was married three times . Subsequent to the divorce of his first wife , Elizabeth Anne `` Betty '' McDonald , Martin gained custody of their children ; Betty lived out her life in quiet obscurity in San Francisco . They had four children ; Craig Martin ( born 1942 ) , Claudia Martin ( born March 16 , 1944 , died 2001 of breast cancer ) , Gail Martin ( born 1945 ) and Deana Martin ( born 1948 ) . Martin 's second wife was Jeanne Biegger , a former Orange Bowl queen from Coral Gables , Florida . Their marriage lasted 24 years ( 1949–1973 ) and had three children : Dean Paul Martin ( November 17 , 1951 – March 21 , 1987 ; jet fighter crash ) , Ricci Martin ( born 1953 ) and Gina Martin ( born 1956 ) . Her marriage made Martin the father-in-law of the Beach Boys ' Carl Wilson . Figure skater Dorothy Hamill and actress Olivia Hussey were his daughters-in-law during their marriages to Dean Paul Martin . Martin 's third marriage to Catherine Hawn lasted three years . Martin initiated the divorce proceedings . Martin adopted Hawn 's daughter , Sasha . Martin 's uncle was Leonard Barr , who appeared in several of his shows . In the 1960s and early 1970s he lived at 363 Copa De Oro Road in Bel Air , Los Angeles , before selling it to Tom Jones for $ 500,000 in June 1976 . Later years and end of career Martin returned to films briefly with appearances in the two star-laden , critically panned but commercially successful Cannonball Run movies . He also had a minor hit single with `` Since I Met You Baby '' and made his first music video , which appeared on MTV . The video was created by Martin 's youngest son , Ricci . On March 21 , 1987 , Martin 's son , actor Dean Paul Martin ( formerly Dino of the 1960s `` teeny-bopper '' rock group Dino , Desi & Billy ) , died when his F-4 Phantom II jet fighter crashed while flying with the California Air National Guard . Later , a tour with Davis and Sinatra in 1988 sputtered . Martin , who responded best to a club audience , felt lost in the huge stadiums they were performing in at Sinatra 's insistence , and he was not interested in drinking until dawn after performances . His final Vegas shows were at Bally 's Hotel in 1990 . There he had his final reunion with Jerry Lewis on his 72nd birthday . Martin 's last two TV appearances involved tributes to his former Rat Pack members . On December 8 , 1989 , he joined stars in Sammy Davis Jr 's 60th anniversary celebration , which aired a few weeks before Davis died from throat cancer . In December 1990 , he congratulated Frank Sinatra on his 75th birthday special . Death Martin , a heavy smoker , was diagnosed with lung cancer at Cedars Sinai Medical Center in September 1993 , and was told he needed an operation to prolong his life , but Dean refused . He retired from public life in early 1995 and died of acute respiratory failure resulting from emphysema at his Beverly Hills home on December 25 , 1995 , Christmas Day at age 78 . The lights of the Las Vegas Strip were dimmed in his honor . Martin is interred at the Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery in Los Angeles . His crypt features the epitaph `` Everybody Loves Somebody Sometime '' , the name of his signature song . Tributes and legacy In 1996 , Ohio Route 7 through Steubenville , was rededicated as Dean Martin Boulevard . Road signs bearing an Al Hirschfeld caricature of Martin 's likeness designate the stretch with a historical marker bearing a small picture and brief biography in the Gazebo Park at Route 7 and North Fourth Street . An annual Dean Martin Festival celebration is held in Steubenville . Impersonators , friends and family , and entertainers , many of Italian ancestry , appear . In 2005 , Clark County , Nevada , renamed a portion of Industrial Road as Dean Martin Drive . A similarly named street was dedicated in 2008 in Rancho Mirage , California . Martin 's family was presented a gold record in 2004 for Dino : The Essential Dean Martin , his fastest-selling album , which also hit the iTunes Top 10 . For the week ending December 23 , 2006 , the Dean Martin and Martina McBride duet of `` Baby , It 's Cold Outside '' reached No . 7 on the R & R AC chart . It also went to No . 36 on the R & R Country chart – the last time Martin had a song this high in the charts was in 1965 , with the song `` I Will , '' which reached No . 10 on the Pop chart . An album of duets , Forever Cool , was released by Capitol/EMI in 2007 . It features Martin 's voice with Kevin Spacey , Shelby Lynne , Joss Stone , Big Bad Voodoo Daddy , Robbie Williams , McBride and others . His footprints were immortalized at Grauman 's Chinese Theatre in 1964 . Martin has three stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame : one at 6519 Hollywood Boulevard for movies ; the second at 1617 Vine for recordings ; and a third at 6651 Hollywood Boulevard for television . In February 2009 , Martin was honored with a posthumous Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award . Four of his surviving children , Gail , Deana , Ricci and Gina accepted it on his behalf . In popular culture A number of Martin songs have been featured across popular culture for decades . Hits such as `` Ai n't That a Kick in the Head '' , `` Sway '' , `` You 're Nobody Till Somebody Loves You '' , `` That 's Amore '' , and Martin 's signature song `` Everybody Loves Somebody '' have been in films ( such as the Oscar-winning Logorama , A Bronx Tale , Casino , Goodfellas , Payback , Mission : Impossible – Ghost Protocol , Sexy Beast , Moonstruck , Vegas Vacation , Swingers and Return to Me ) , television series ( such as American Dad ! , Friends , The Sopranos , and House MD ) , video games ( such as The Godfather : The Game , The Godfather II , Fallout : New Vegas and Mafia II ) , and fashion shows ( such as the 2008 Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show ) . Danny Gans portrayed Martin in the 1992 CBS miniseries Sinatra . Martin was portrayed by Joe Mantegna in the 1998 HBO movie about Sinatra and Martin titled The Rat Pack . Mantegna was nominated for both an Emmy Award and a Golden Globe Award for the role . British actor Jeremy Northam portrayed the entertainer

odql_4785--Dean_Martin.txt

The song with theshortest title to have reached number one in the UK charts was released by Telly Savalas in 1975. What was it called?

A vast number of ancient Roman deities are known by name . The most familiar today are those the Romans identified with Greek counterparts ( see interpretatio graeca ) , integrating Greek myths , iconography , and sometimes religious practices into Roman culture , including Latin literature , Roman art , and religious life as it was experienced throughout the Empire . Many of the Romans ' own gods remain obscure , known only by name and function , through inscriptions and texts that are often fragmentary—particularly those who belong to the archaic religion of the Romans dating back to the era of kings , the so-called `` religion of Numa , '' perpetuated or revived over the centuries . Some archaic deities have Italic or Etruscan counterparts , as identified both by ancient sources and by modern scholars . Throughout the Empire , the deities of peoples in the provinces were given new theological interpretations in light of functions or attributes they shared with Roman deities . An extensive alphabetical list follows a survey of theological groups as constructed by the Romans themselves . For cult pertaining to deified Roman emperors ( divi ) , see Imperial cult . Roman God lists Main deities * Jupiter : The mighty king of the gods . Roman God of the Sky , thunderstorms , lightning , weather and air . Also god of law , order , justice , governance and strength . Most important god of the Romans and usually had the highest divine authority over other gods . * Neptune : One of the brothers of Jupiter , one of the prime gods and ruler of the seas . The patron of sailors and the protector of ships . * Juno : Queen of the Gods and wife of Jupiter . Goddess of Marriage and Women . Protector and Counsellor of Rome . * Mars : God of War , Spring and Justice . Patron of the Roman Legions and divine father of Romulus and Remus . * Venus : Goddess of Love and consort of Mars . Divine mother of Aeneas , ancestor of the Romans . * Bellona : Goddess of War , Conquest and Peace . * Minerva : Goddess of Wisdom , Divine Counsel , Useful Arts , Crafts and Later War . * Janus : God of Beginnings , Endings , Transition , Doorways and Keys . * Vesta : Goddess of the Home and the Hearth . Patron of Rome . Triads * Archaic Triad : Jupiter , Mars , Quirinus . * Capitoline Triad : Jupiter , Juno , Minerva * Plebeian or Aventine Triad : Ceres , Liber , Libera , dating to 493 BC . Groupings of twelve Lectisternium of 217 BC A lectisternium is a banquet for the gods , at which they appear as images seated on couches , as if present and participating . In describing the lectisternium of the Twelve Great Gods in 217 BC , the Augustan historian Livy places the deities in gender-balanced pairs : * Jupiter-Juno * Neptune-Minerva * Mars-Venus * Apollo-Diana * Vulcan-Vesta * Mercury-Ceres Divine male-female complements such as these , as well as the anthropomorphic influence of Greek mythology , contributed to a tendency in Latin literature to represent the gods as `` married '' couples or ( as in the case of Venus and Mars ) lovers . Dii Consentes Varro uses the name Dii Consentes for twelve deities whose gilded images stood in the forum . These were also placed in six male-female pairs . Although individual names are not listed , they are assumed to be the deities of the lectisternium . A fragment from Ennius , within whose lifetime the lectisternium occurred , lists the same twelve deities by name , though in a different order from that of Livy : Juno , Vesta , Minerva , Ceres , Diana , Venus , Mars , Mercurius , Jove , Neptunus , Vulcanus , Apollo . The Dii Consentes are sometimes seen as the Roman equivalent of the Greek Olympians . The meaning of Consentes is subject to interpretation , but is usually taken to mean that they form a council or consensus of deities . Di Flaminales The three Roman deities cultivated by major flamens * Jupiter * Mars * Quirinus Twelve Roman deities attended by the minor flamens * Carmentis * Ceres * Falacer * Flora * Furrina * Palatua * Pomona * Portunes * Vulcan * Volturnus * Two other deities who are not known . Di selecti Varro gives a list of twenty principal gods of Roman religion : * Janus * Jupiter * Saturn * Genius * Mercury * Apollo * Mars * Vulcan * Neptune * Sol * Orcus * Liber * Tellus * Ceres * Juno * Luna * Diana * Minerva * Venus * Vesta Sabine gods Varro , who was himself of Sabine origin , gives a list of Sabine gods who were adopted by the Romans : * Feronia * Minerva * Novensides * Pales * Salus * Fortuna * Fons * Fides * Ops * Flora * Vediovis * Saturn * Sol * Luna * Vulcan * Summanus * Larunda * Terminus * Quirinus * Vortumnus * Lares * Diana * Lucina Elsewhere , Varro claims Sol Indiges , who had a sacred grove at Lavinium , as Sabine but at the same time equates him with Apollo . Of those listed , he writes , `` several names have their roots in both languages , as trees that grow on a property line creep into both fields . Saturn , for instance , can be said to have another origin here , and so too Diana . '' Varro makes various claims for Sabine origins throughout his works , some more plausible than others , and his list should not be taken at face value . But the importance of the Sabines in the early cultural formation of Rome is evidenced , for instance , by the bride abduction of the Sabine women by Romulus 's men , and in the Sabine ethnicity of Numa Pompilius , second king of Rome , to whom are attributed many of Rome 's religious and legal institutions . Varro , however , says that the altars to most of these gods were established at Rome by King Tatius as the result of a vow ( votum ) . Collectives Even in invocations , which generally required precise naming , the Romans sometimes spoke of gods as groups or collectives rather than naming them as individuals . Some groups , such as the Camenae and Parcae , were thought of as a limited number of individual deities , even though the number of these might not be given consistently in all periods and all texts . The following groups , however , are numberless collectives . Spatial tripartition Varro grouped the gods broadly into three divisions of heaven , earth , and underworld : * di superi , the gods above or heavenly gods , whose altars were designated as altaria . * di terrestres , `` terrestrial gods , '' whose altars were designated as arae . * di inferi , the gods below , that is , the gods of the underworld , infernal or chthonic gods , whose altars were foci , fire pits or specially constructed hearths . More common is a dualistic contrast between superi and inferi . Di indigetes and novensiles The di indigetes were thought by Georg Wissowa to be Rome 's indigenous deities , in contrast to the di novensides or novensiles , `` newcomer gods '' . No ancient source , however , poses this dichotomy , which is not generally accepted among scholars of the 21st century . The meaning of the epithet indiges ( singular ) has no scholarly consensus , and noven may mean `` nine '' ( novem ) rather than `` new '' . Titles and honorifics Certain honorifics and titles could be shared by different gods , divine personifications , demi-gods and divi ( deified mortals ) . Augustus and Augusta Augustus , `` the elevated or august one '' ( masculine form ) is an honorific and title awarded to Octavian in recognition of his unique status , the extraordinary range of his powers , and the apparent divine approval of his principate . After his death and deification , the title was awarded to each of his successors . It also became a near ubiquitous title or honour for various minor local deities , including the Lares Augusti of local communities , and obscure provincial deities such as the North African Marazgu Augustus . This extension of an Imperial honorific to major and minor deities of Rome and her provinces is considered a ground-level feature of Imperial cult . Augusta , the feminine form , is an honorific and title associated with the development and dissemination of Imperial cult as applied to Roman Empresses , whether living , deceased or deified as divae . The first Augusta was Livia , wife of Octavian , and the title is then shared by various state goddesses including Bona Dea , Ceres , Juno , Minerva , and Ops ; by many minor or local goddesses ; and by the female personifications of Imperial virtues such as Pax and Victoria . Bonus and Bona The epithet Bonus , `` the Good , '' is used in Imperial ideology with abstract deities such as Bona Fortuna ( `` Good Fortune '' ) , Bona Mens ( `` Good Thinking '' or `` Sound Mind '' ) , and Bona Spes ( `` Valid Hope , '' perhaps to be translated as `` Optimism '' ) . During the Republic , the epithet may be most prominent with Bona Dea , `` the Good Goddess '' whose rites were celebrated by women . Bonus Eventus , `` Good Outcome '' , was one of Varro 's twelve agricultural deities , and later represented success in general . Caelestis From the middle Imperial period , the title Caelestis , `` Heavenly '' or `` Celestial '' , is attached to several goddesses embodying aspects of a single , supreme Heavenly Goddess . The Dea Caelestis was identified with the constellation Virgo ( `` The Virgin '' ) , who holds the divine balance of justice . In the Metamorphoses of Apuleius , the protagonist Lucius prays to the Hellenistic Egyptian goddess Isis as Regina Caeli , `` Queen of Heaven '' , who is said to manifest also as Ceres , `` the original nurturing parent '' ; Heavenly Venus ( Venus Caelestis ) ; the `` sister of Phoebus '' , that is , Diana or Artemis as she is worshipped at Ephesus ; or Proserpina as the triple goddess of the underworld . Juno Caelestis was the Romanised form of the Carthaginian Tanit . Grammatically , the form Caelestis can also be a masculine word , but the equivalent function for a male deity is usually expressed through syncretization with Caelus , as in Caelus Aeternus Iuppiter , `` Jupiter the Eternal Sky . '' Invictus Invictus ( `` Unconquered , Invincible '' ) was in use as a divine epithet by the early 3rd century BC . In the Imperial period , it expressed the invincibility of deities embraced officially , such as Jupiter , Mars , Hercules , and Sol . On coins , calendars , and other inscriptions , Mercury , Saturn , Silvanus , Fons , Serapis , Sabazius , Apollo , and the Genius are also found as Invictus . Cicero considers it a normal epithet for Jupiter , in regard to whom it is probably a synonym for Omnipotens . It is also used in the Mithraic mysteries . Mater and Pater Mater ( `` Mother '' ) was an honorific that respected a goddess 's maternal authority and functions , and not necessarily `` motherhood '' per se . Early examples included Terra Mater ( Mother Earth ) and the Mater Larum ( Mother of the Lares ) . Vesta , a goddess of chastity usually conceived of as a virgin , was honored as Mater . A goddess known as Stata Mater was a compital deity credited with preventing fires in the city . From the middle Imperial era , the reigning Empress becomes Mater castrorum et senatus et patriae , the symbolic Mother of military camps , the senate , and the fatherland . The Gallic and Germanic cavalry ( auxilia ) of the Roman Imperial army regularly set up altars to the `` Mothers of the Field '' ( Campestres , from campus , `` field , '' with the title Matres or Matronae ) . See also Magna Mater ( Great Mother ) following . Gods were called Pater ( `` Father '' ) to signify their preeminence and paternal care , and the filial respect owed to them . Pater was found as an epithet of Dis , Jupiter , Mars , and Liber , among others . Magna Mater `` The Great Mother '' was a title given to Cybele in her Roman cult . Some Roman literary sources accord the same title to Maia and other goddesses . Indigitamenta The indigitamenta are deities known only or primarily as a name ; they may be minor entities , or epithets of major gods . Lists of deities were kept by the College of Pontiffs to assure that the correct names were invoked for public prayers . The books of the Pontiffs are lost , known only through scattered passages in Latin literature . The most extensive lists are provided by the Church Fathers who sought systematically to debunk Roman religion while drawing on the theological works of Varro , also surviving only in quoted or referenced fragments . W.H . Roscher collated the standard modern list of indigitamenta , though other scholars may differ with him on some points . Alphabetical list For minor deities known for a single function or by a single name , see : * Indigitamenta * List of Roman birth and childhood deities * List of Roman agricultural deities A number of figures from Greek mythology who were not part of Roman religious practice appear in Latin mythological narratives and as poetic allusions ; for these names , see : * List of Greek mythological figures A * Abundantia , divine personification of abundance and prosperity . * Acca Larentia , a diva of complex meaning and origin in whose honor the Larentalia was held . * Acis , god of the Acis River in Sicily . * Aerecura , goddess possibly of Celtic origin , associated with the underworld and identified with Proserpina . * Aequitas , divine personification of fairness . * Aesculapius , the Roman equivalent of Asclepius , god of health and medicine . * Aeternitas , goddess and personification of eternity . * Aion ( Latin spelling Aeon ) , Hellenistic god of cyclical or unbounded time , related to the concepts of aevum or saeculum * Aius Locutius , divine voice that warned the Romans of the imminent Gallic invasion . * Alernus or Elernus ( possibly Helernus ) , an archaic god whose sacred grove ( lucus ) was near the Tiber river . He is named definitively only by Ovid . The grove was the birthplace of the nymph Cranea , and despite the obscurity of the god , the state priests still carried out sacred rites ( sacra ) there in the time of Augustus . Alernus may have been a chthonic god , if a black ox was the correct sacrificial offering to him , since dark victims were offered to underworld gods . Dumézil wanted to make him a god of beans . * Angerona , goddess who relieved people from pain and sorrow . * Angitia , goddess associated with snakes and Medea . * Anna Perenna , early goddess of the `` circle of the year '' , her festival was celebrated March 15 . * Annona , the divine personification of the grain supply to the city of Rome . * Antevorta , goddess of the future and one of the Camenae ; also called Porrima . * Apollo , god of poetry , music , and oracles , and one of the Dii Consentes . * Arkeus Ultor , Roman God of Battle ; son of Mars and Bellona . * Arimanius , an obscure Mithraic god . * Aura , often plural Aurae , `` the Breezes '' . * Aurora , goddess of the dawn . * Averruncus , a god propitiated to avert calamity . B * Bacchus , god of wine , sensual pleasures , and truth , originally a cult title for the Greek Dionysus and identified with the Roman Liber . * Bellona or Duellona , war goddess . * Bona Dea , the `` women 's goddess '' with functions pertaining to fertility , healing , and chastity . * Bonus Eventus , divine personification of `` Good Outcome '' . * Bubona , goddess of cattle . C * Caca , an archaic fire goddess and `` proto-Vesta '' ; the sister of Cacus . * Cacus , originally an ancient god of fire , later regarded as a giant . * Caelus , god of the sky before Jupiter . * Camenae , goddesses with various attributes including fresh water , prophecy , and childbirth . There were four of them : Carmenta , Egeria , Antevorta , and Postvorta . * Cardea , goddess of the hinge ( cardo ) , identified by Ovid with Carna ( below ) * Carmenta , goddess of childbirth and prophecy , and assigned a flamen minor . The leader of the Camenae . * Carmentes , two goddesses of childbirth : Antevorta and Postvorta or Porrima , future and past . * Carna , goddess who preserved the health of the heart and other internal organs . * Ceres , goddess of the harvest and mother of Proserpina , and one of the Dii Consentes.The Roman equivalent of Demeter [ Greek goddess ] . * Clementia , goddess of forgiveness and mercy . * Cloacina , goddess who presided over the system of sewers in Rome ; identified with Venus . * Concordia , goddess of agreement , understanding , and marital harmony . * Consus , chthonic god protecting grain storage . * Cupid , Roman god of love . The son of Venus , and equivalent to Greek Eros . * Cura , personification of care and concern who according to a single source created humans from clay . * Cybele , an imported tutelary goddess often identified with Magna Mater D * Dea Dia , goddess of growth . * Dea Tacita ( `` The Silent Goddess '' ) , a goddess of the dead ; later equated with the earth goddess Larenta . * Decima , minor goddess and one of the Parcae ( Roman equivalent of the Moirai ) . The measurer of the thread of life , her Greek equivalent was Lachesis . * Devera or Deverra , goddess who ruled over the brooms used to purify temples in preparation for various worship services , sacrifices and celebrations ; she protected midwives and women in labor . * Diana , goddess of the hunt , the moon , virginity , and childbirth , twin sister of Apollo and one of the Dii Consentes . * Diana Nemorensis , local version of Diana . The Roman equivalent of Artemis [ Greek goddess ] * Discordia , personification of discord and strife . The Roman equivalent of Eris [ Greek goddess ] * Dius Fidius , god of oaths , associated with Jupiter . * Di inferi , deities associated with death and the underworld . * Disciplina , personification of discipline . * Dis Pater or Dispater , god of wealth and the underworld ; perhaps a translation of Greek Plouton ( Pluto ) . E * Egeria , water nymph or goddess , later considered one the Camenae . * Empanda or Panda , a goddess whose temple never closed to those in need . * Epona , Gallo-Roman goddess of horses and horsemanship , usually assumed to be of Celtic origin . * Edesia , Roman Goddess of food who presides over banquets . F * Falacer , obscure god . He was assigned a minor flamen . * Fama , goddess of fame and rumor . * Fascinus , phallic god who protected from invidia ( envy ) and the evil eye . * Fauna , goddess of prophecy , but perhaps a title of other goddesses such as Maia . * Faunus , god of flocks . * Faustitas , goddess who protected herd and livestock . * Februus , god of Etruscan origin for whom the month of February was named ; concerned with purification * Febris , `` Fever , '' goddess with the power to cause or prevent fevers and malaria . * Fecunditas , personification of fertility . * Felicitas , personification of good luck and success . * Ferentina , patron goddess of the city Ferentinum , Latium , protector of the Latin commonwealth . * Feronia , goddess concerned with wilderness , plebeians , freedmen , and liberty in a general sense . * Fides , personification of loyalty . * Flora , goddess of flowers , was assigned a flamen minor . * Fornax , goddess probably conceived of to explain the Fornacalia , `` Oven Festival . '' * Fontus or Fons , god of wells and springs . * Fortuna , goddess of fortune . * Fufluns , god of wine , natural growth and health . He was adopted from Etruscan religion . * Fulgora , personification of lightning . * Furrina , goddess whose functions are mostly unknown , but in archaic times important enough to be assigned a flamen . G * Genius , the tutelary spirit or divinity of each individual * Gratiae , Roman term for the Charites or Graces . H * Hercules , god of strength , whose worship was derived from the Greek hero Heracles but took on a distinctly Roman character . * Hermaphroditus , an androgynous Greek god whose mythology was imported into Latin literature . * Honos , a divine personification of honor . * Hora , the wife of Quirinus . I * Indiges , the deified Aeneas . * Intercidona , minor goddess of childbirth ; invoked to keep evil spirits away from the child ; symbolised by a cleaver . * Inuus , god of fertility and sexual intercourse , protector of livestock . * Invidia , goddess of envy and wrongdoing . J * Janus , double-faced or two-headed god of beginnings and endings and of doors . * Juno , Queen of the Gods and goddess of matrimony , and one of the Dii Consentes.The Roman equivalent of Hera [ Greek goddess ] . * Jupiter , King of the Gods and the storm , air , and sky god , father of Venus , and one of the Dii Consentes ; was assigned a flamen maior . Also known as Zeus in Greek mythology . * Justitia , goddess of justice . * Juturna , goddess of fountains , wells , and springs . * Juventas , goddess of youth . L * Lares , household gods . * Laverna , patroness of thieves , con men and charlatans . * Latona , goddess of light . * Lemures , the malevant dead . * Levana , goddess of the rite through which fathers accepted newborn babies as their own . * Letum , personification of death . * Liber , a god of male fertility , viniculture and freedom , assimilated to Roman Bacchus and Greek Dionysus . * Libera , Liber 's female equivalent , assimilated to Roman Proserpina and Greek Persephone . * Liberalitas , goddess or personification of generosity . * Libertas , goddess or personification of freedom . * Libitina , goddess of death , corpses and funerals . * Lua , goddess to whom soldiers sacrificed captured weapons , probably a consort of Saturn . * Lucifer , god of the morning star * Lucina , goddess of childbirth , but often as an aspect of Juno . * Luna , goddess of the moon . * Lupercus , god of shepherds and wolves ; as the god of the Lupercalia , his identity is obscure , but he is sometimes identified with the Greek god Pan . * Lympha , often plural lymphae , a water deity assimilated to the Greek nymphs . M * Mana Genita , goddess of infant mortality * Manes , the souls of the dead who came to be seen as household deities . * Mania , the consort of the Etruscan underworld god Mantus , and perhaps to be identified with the tenebrous Mater Larum ; not to be confused with the Greek Maniae . * Mantus , an Etruscan god of the dead and ruler of the underworld . * Mars , god of war and father of Romulus , the founder of Rome ; one of the Archaic Triad assigned a flamen maior ; lover of Venus ; one of the Dii Consentes.Greek equivalent-Ares . * Mater Matuta , goddess of dawn and childbirth , patroness of mariners . * Meditrina , goddess of healing , introduced to account for the festival of Meditrinalia . * Mefitis or Mephitis , goddess and personification of poisonous gases and volcanic vapours . * Mellona or Mellonia , goddess of bees and bee-keeping . * Mena or Mene , goddess of fertility and menstruation . * Mercury , messenger of the gods and bearer of souls to the underworld , and one of the Dii Consentes . Roman counterpart of the Greek god Hermes . * Minerva , goddess of wisdom , war , the arts , industries and trades , and one of the Dii Consentes . Roman equivalent of the Greek goddess Athena . * Mithras , god worshipped in the Roman empire ; popular with soldiers . * Molae , daughters of Mars , probably goddesses of grinding of the grain . * Moneta , minor goddess of memory , equivalent to the Greek Mnemosyne . Also used as an epithet of Juno . * Mors , personification of death and equivalent of the Greek Thanatos . * Morta , minor goddess of death and one of the Parcae ( Roman equivalent of the Moirai ) . The cutter of the thread of life , her Greek equivalent was Atropos . * Murcia or Murtia , a little-known goddess who was associated with the myrtle , and in other sources was called a goddess of sloth and laziness ( both interpretations arising from false etymologies of her name ) . Later equated with Venus in the form of Venus Murcia . * Mutunus Tutunus , a phallic god . N * Naenia , goddess of funerary lament . * Nascio , personification of the act of birth . * Necessitas , goddess of destiny , the Roman equivalent of Ananke . * Nemesis , goddess of revenge ( Greek ) . * Neptune , god of the sea , earthquakes , and horses , and one of the Dii Consentes . Greek Equivalent is Poseidon . *

odql_11982--List_of_Roman_deities.txt

Who was the Roman goddess of Death?

Oscar-Claude Monet ( ; ; 14 November 1840 – 5 December 1926 ) was a founder of French Impressionist painting , and the most consistent and prolific practitioner of the movement 's philosophy of expressing one 's perceptions before nature , especially as applied to plein-air landscape painting . The term `` Impressionism '' is derived from the title of his painting Impression , soleil levant ( Impression , Sunrise ) , which was exhibited in 1874 in the first of the independent exhibitions mounted by Monet and his associates as an alternative to the Salon de Paris . Monet 's ambition of documenting the French countryside led him to adopt a method of painting the same scene many times in order to capture the changing of light and the passing of the seasons . From 1883 Monet lived in Giverny , where he purchased a house and property , and began a vast landscaping project which included lily ponds that would become the subjects of his best-known works . In 1899 he began painting the water lilies , first in vertical views with a Japanese bridge as a central feature , and later in the series of large-scale paintings that was to occupy him continuously for the next 20 years of his life . Monet and Impressionism First `` Impressionist '' exhibition From the late 1860s , Monet and other like-minded artists met with rejection from the conservative Académie des Beaux-Arts , which held its annual exhibition at the Salon de Paris . During the latter part of 1873 , Monet , Pierre-Auguste Renoir , Camille Pissarro , and Alfred Sisley organized the Société anonyme des artistes peintres , sculpteurs et graveurs ( Anonymous Society of Painters , Sculptors , and Engravers ) to exhibit their artworks independently . At their first exhibition , held in April 1874 , Monet exhibited the work that was to give the group its lasting name . Impression , Sunrise was painted in 1872 , depicting a Le Havre port landscape . From the painting 's title the art critic Louis Leroy , in his review , `` L'Exposition des Impressionnistes , '' which appeared in Le Charivari , coined the term `` Impressionism '' . It was intended as disparagement but the Impressionists appropriated the term for themselves . Biography Birth and childhood Claude Monet was born on 14 November 1840 on the fifth floor of 45 rue Laffitte , in the 9th arrondissement of Paris . He was the second son of Claude Adolphe Monet and Louise Justine Aubrée Monet , both of them second-generation Parisians . On 20 May 1841 , he was baptized in the local parish church , Notre-Dame-de-Lorette , as Oscar-Claude , but his parents called him simply Oscar . ( He signed his juvenilia `` O. Monet '' . ) Despite being baptized Catholic , Monet later became an atheist . In 1845 , his family moved to Le Havre in Normandy . His father wanted him to go into the family grocery business , but Monet wanted to become an artist . His mother was a singer . On 1 April 1851 , Monet entered Le Havre secondary school of the arts . Locals knew him well for his charcoal caricatures , which he would sell for ten to twenty francs . Monet also undertook his first drawing lessons from Jacques-François Ochard , a former student of Jacques-Louis David . On the beaches of Normandy around 1856 he met fellow artist Eugène Boudin , who became his mentor and taught him to use oil paints . Boudin taught Monet `` en plein air '' ( outdoor ) techniques for painting . [ http : //www.guggenheimcollection.org/site/artist_bio_165.html Biography for Claude Monet ] Guggenheim Collection . Retrieved 6 January 2007 . Both received the influence of Johan Barthold Jongkind . On 28 January 1857 , his mother died . At the age of sixteen , he left school and went to live with his widowed , childless aunt , Marie-Jeanne Lecadre . Paris and Algeria When Monet traveled to Paris to visit the Louvre , he witnessed painters copying from the old masters . Having brought his paints and other tools with him , he would instead go and sit by a window and paint what he saw . Monet was in Paris for several years and met other young painters , including Édouard Manet and others who would become friends and fellow Impressionists . After drawing a low ballot number in March 1861 , Monet was drafted into the First Regiment of African Light Cavalry ( Chasseurs d'Afrique ) in Algeria for a seven-year period of military service . His prosperous father could have purchased Monet 's exemption from conscription but declined to do so when his son refused to give up painting . While in Algeria Monet did only a few sketches of casbah scenes , a single landscape , and several portraits of officers , all of which have been lost . In a Le Temps interview of 1900 however he commented that the light and vivid colors of North Africa `` contained the germ of my future researches '' After about a year of garrison duty in Algiers , Monet contracted typhoid fever and briefly went absent without leave . Following convalescence , Monet 's aunt intervened to get him out of the army if he agreed to complete a course at an art school . It is possible that the Dutch painter Johan Barthold Jongkind , whom Monet knew , may have prompted his aunt on this matter . Disillusioned with the traditional art taught at art schools , in 1862 Monet became a student of Charles Gleyre in Paris , where he met Pierre-Auguste Renoir , Frédéric Bazille and Alfred Sisley . Together they shared new approaches to art , painting the effects of light en plein air with broken color and rapid brushstrokes , in what later came to be known as Impressionism . In January 1865 Monet was working on a version of Le déjeuner sur l'herbe , aiming to present it for hanging at the Salon , which had rejected Manet 's Le déjeuner sur l'herbe two years earlier.Charles F. Stuckey , p. 11–16 Monet 's painting was very large and could not be completed in time . ( It was later cut up , with parts now in different galleries . ) Monet submitted instead a painting of Camille or The Woman in the Green Dress ( La femme à la robe verte ) , one of many works using his future wife , Camille Doncieux , as his model . Both this painting and a small landscape were hung . The following year Monet used Camille for his model in Women in the Garden , and On the Bank of the Seine , Bennecourt in 1868 . Camille became pregnant and gave birth to their first child , Jean , in 1867 . Monet and Camille married on 28 June 1870 , just before the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War , and , after their excursion to London and Zaandam , they moved to Argenteuil , in December 1871 . During this time Monet painted various works of modern life . He and Camille lived in poverty for most of this period . Following the successful exhibition of some maritime paintings , and the winning of a silver medal at Le Havre , Monet 's paintings were seized by creditors , from whom they were bought back by a shipping merchant , Gaudibert , who was also a patron of Boudin . Franco-Prussian War and Argenteuil After the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War ( 19 July 1870 ) , Monet and his family took refuge in England in September 1870 , where he studied the works of John Constable and Joseph Mallord William Turner , both of whose landscapes would serve to inspire Monet 's innovations in the study of color . In the spring of 1871 , Monet 's works were refused authorisation for inclusion in the Royal Academy exhibition.Charles Stuckey `` Monet , a Retrospective '' , Hugh Lauter Levin Associates , 195 In May 1871 , he left London to live in Zaandam , in the Netherlands , where he made twenty-five paintings ( and the police suspected him of revolutionary activities ) . He also paid a first visit to nearby Amsterdam . In October or November 1871 , he returned to France . From December 1871 to 1878 he lived at Argenteuil , a village on the right bank of the Seine river near Paris , and a popular Sunday-outing destination for Parisians , where he painted some of his best-known works . In 1873 , Monet purchased a small boat equipped to be used as a floating studio . From the boat studio Monet painted landscapes and also portraits of Édouard Manet and his wife ; Manet in turn depicted Monet painting aboard the boat , accompanied by Camille , in 1874 . In 1874 , he briefly returned to Holland . Impressionism The first Impressionist exhibition was held in 1874 at 35 boulevard des Capucines , Paris , from 15 April to 15 May . The primary purpose of the participants was not so much to promote a new style , but to free themselves from the constraints of the Salon de Paris . The exhibition , open to anyone prepared to pay 60 francs , gave artists the opportunity to show their work without the interference of a jury . Renoir chaired the hanging committee and did most of the work himself , as others members failed to present themselves . In addition to Impression : Sunrise ( pictured above ) Monet presented four oil paintings and seven pastels . Among the paintings he displayed was The Luncheon ( 1868 ) , which features Camille Doncieux and Jean Monet , and which had been rejected by the Paris Salon of 1870 . Also in this exhibition was a painting titled Boulevard des Capucines , a painting of the boulevard done from the photographer Nadar 's apartment at no . 35 . Monet painted the subject twice , and it is uncertain which of the two pictures , that now in the Pushkin Museum in Moscow , or that in the Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art in Kansas City , was the painting that appeared in the groundbreaking 1874 exhibition , though more recently the Moscow picture has been favoured . Altogether , 165 works were exhibited in the exhibition , including 4 oils , 2 pastels and 3 watercolors by Morisot ; 6 oils and 1 pastel by Renoir ; 10 works by Degas ; 5 by Pissarro ; 3 by Cézanne ; and 3 by Guillaumin . Several works were on loan , including Cézanne 's Modern Olympia , Morisot 's Hide and Seek ( owned by Manet ) and 2 landscapes by Sisley that had been purchased by Durand-Ruel . The total attendance is estimated at 3500 , and some works did sell , though some exhibitors had placed their prices too high . Pissarro was asking 1000 francs for The Orchard and Monet the same for Impression : Sunrise , neither of which sold . Renoir failed to obtain the 500 francs he was asking for La Loge , but later sold it for 450 francs to Père Martin , dealer and supporter of the group . File : Monet , Claude - View At Rouelles , Le Havre ( 1858 ) .jpg|View at Rouelles , Le Havre 1858 , Private collection ; an early work showing the influence of Corot and Courbet File : Claude Monet - Mouth of the Seine.jpg|Mouth of the Seine at Honfleur , 1865 , Norton Simon Foundation , Pasadena , CA ; indicates the influence of Dutch maritime painting . File : Claude Monet 024.jpg|Women in the Garden , 1866–1867 , Musée d'Orsay , Paris . Image : Claude Monet 022.jpg|Woman in a Garden , 1867 , Hermitage , St. Petersburg ; a study in the effect of sunlight and shadow on colour Image : Claude Monet - Jardin à Sainte-Adresse.jpg|Jardin à Sainte-Adresse , 1867 , Metropolitan Museum of Art , New York . File : Claude Monet - The Luncheon - Google Art Project.jpg|The Luncheon , 1868 , Städel , which features Camille Doncieux and Jean Monet , was rejected by the Paris Salon of 1870 but included in the first Impressionists ' exhibition in 1874 . File : Claude Monet La Grenouillére.jpg|La Grenouillére 1869 , Metropolitan Museum of Art , New York ; a small plein-air painting created with broad strokes of intense colour . File : Claude Monet - The Magpie - Google Art Project.jpg|The Magpie , 1868–1869 . Musée d'Orsay , Paris ; one of Monet 's early attempts at capturing the effect of snow on the landscape . See also Snow at Argenteuil . File : Claude Monet , 1870 , Le port de Trouville ( Breakwater at Trouville , Low Tide ) , oil on canvas , 54 x 65.7 cm , Museum of Fine Arts , Budapest.jpg|Le port de Trouville ( Breakwater at Trouville , Low Tide ) , 1870 , Museum of Fine Arts , Budapest . File : Claude Monet 002.jpg|La plage de Trouville , 1870 , National Gallery , London . The left figure may be Camille , on the right possibly the wife of Eugène Boudin , whose beach scenes influenced Monet . File : Claude Monet - Jean Monet on his Hobby Horse.jpg|Jean Monet on his hobby horse , 1872 , Metropolitan Museum of Art , New York File : Claude Monet - Springtime - Google Art Project.jpg|Springtime 1872 , Walters Art Museum Death of Camille In 1876 , Camille Monet became ill with tuberculosis . Their second son , Michel , was born on 17 March 1878 . This second child weakened her already fading health . In the summer of that year , the family moved to the village of Vétheuil where they shared a house with the family of Ernest Hoschedé , a wealthy department store owner and patron of the arts . In 1878 , Camille Monet was diagnosed with uterine cancer , and she died on 5 September 1879 at the age of thirty-two . Monet made a study in oils of his dead wife . Many years later , Monet confessed to his friend Georges Clemenceau that his need to analyse colours was both the joy and torment of his life . He explained , I one day found myself looking at my beloved wife 's dead face and just systematically noting the colours according to an automatic reflex ! John Berger describes the work as `` a blizzard of white , grey , purplish paint ... a terrible blizzard of loss which will forever efface her features . In fact there can be very few death-bed paintings which have been so intensely felt or subjectively expressive . '' Vétheuil After several difficult months following the death of Camille , Monet began to create some of his best paintings of the 19th century . During the early 1880s , Monet painted several groups of landscapes and seascapes in what he considered to be campaigns to document the French countryside . These began to evolve into series of pictures in which he documented the same scene many times in order to capture the changing of light and the passing of the seasons . Monet 's friend Ernest Hoschedé became bankrupt , and left in 1878 for Belgium . After the death of Camille Monet in September 1879 , and while Monet continued to live in the house in Vétheuil , Alice Hoschedé helped Monet to raise his two sons , Jean and Michel . She took them to Paris to live alongside her own six children , Blanche ( who married Jean Monet ) , Germaine , Suzanne , Marthe , Jean-Pierre , and Jacques . In the spring of 1880 , Alice Hoschedé and all the children left Paris and rejoined Monet at Vétheuil . In 1881 , all of them moved to Poissy , which Monet hated . In April 1883 , looking out the window of the little train between Vernon and Gasny , he discovered Giverny in Normandy . Monet , Alice Hoschedé and the children moved to Vernon , then to the house in Giverny , where he planted a large garden and where he painted for much of the rest of his life . Following the death of her estranged husband , Monet married Alice Hoschedé in 1892 . File : Claude Monet , 1873 , Camille Monet on a Bench , oil on canvas , 60.6 x 80.3 cm , The Metropolitan Museum of Art , New York.jpg|Camille Monet on a Garden Bench , 1873 , Metropolitan Museum of Art , New York File : Claude Monet - The Artist 's House at Argenteuil.jpg|The Artist 's house at Argenteuil , 1873 , The Art Institute of Chicago File : Claude Monet 037.jpg|Coquelicots , La promenade ( Poppies ) , 1873 , Musée d'Orsay , Paris File : Pont Argenteuil Monet 1.jpg|Argenteuil , 1874 , National Gallery of Art , Washington D.C . File : Claude Monet The Studio Boat.jpg|The Studio Boat , 1874 , Kröller-Müller Museum , Otterlo , Netherlands File : Claude_Monet_-_Woman_with_a_Parasol_-_Madame_Monet_and_Her_Son_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg|Woman with a Parasol – Madame Monet and Her Son , 1875 File : Claude Monet - Flowered Riverbank , Argenteuil.jpg|Flowers on the riverbank at Argenteuil , 1877 , Pola Museum of Art , Japan File : Claude Monet 003.jpg|Saint Lazare train station , Paris , 1877 , The Art Institute of Chicago File : Monet - Vetheuil im Nebel.jpg|Vétheuil in the Fog , 1879 , Musée Marmottan Monet , Paris Giverny Monet 's house and garden At the beginning of May 1883 , Monet and his large family rented a house and 2 acre from a local landowner . The house was situated near the main road between the towns of Vernon and Gasny at Giverny . There was a barn that doubled as a painting studio , orchards and a small garden . The house was close enough to the local schools for the children to attend and the surrounding landscape offered many suitable motifs for Monet 's work . The family worked and built up the gardens and Monet 's fortunes began to change for the better as his dealer Paul Durand-Ruel had increasing success in selling his paintings . By November 1890 , Monet was prosperous enough to buy the house , the surrounding buildings and the land for his gardens . During the 1890s , Monet built a greenhouse and a second studio , a spacious building well lit with skylights . Monet wrote daily instructions to his gardener , precise designs and layouts for plantings , and invoices for his floral purchases and his collection of botany books . As Monet 's wealth grew , his garden evolved . He remained its architect , even after he hired seven gardeners . Monet purchased additional land with a water meadow . In 1893 he began a vast landscaping project which included lily ponds that would become the subjects of his best-known works . White water lilies local to France were planted along with imported cultivars from South America and Egypt , resulting in a range of colours including yellow , blue and white lilies that turned pink with age.Art Gallery of Victoria , [ http : //www.ngv.vic.gov.au/whats-on/exhibitions/exhibitions/monets-garden/explore/themes/waterlilies-symbol-of-the-orient-and-modern-science Monet 's Garden ] , ( retrieved 16 December 2013 ) In 1899 he began painting the water lilies , first in vertical views with a Japanese bridge as a central feature , and later in the series of large-scale paintings that was to occupy him continuously for the next 20 years of his life . This scenery , with its alternating light and mirror-like reflections , became an integral part of his work . By the mid-1910s Monet had achieved : File : Monet - Im Garten - 1895.jpeg|In the Garden , 1895 , Collection E. G. Buehrle , Zürich File:1914-26 Claude Monet Agapanthus MOMA NY anagoria.JPG|Agapanthus , between 1914 and 1926 , Museum of Modern Art , New York File : Claude Monet - Les arceaux de roses , Giverny ( Les arceaux fleuris ) .jpg|The rose arches , Giverny , 1913 , private collection File : Water-Lilies-and-Japanese-Bridge- ( 1897-1899 ) -Monet.jpg|Water Lilies and the Japanese bridge , 1897–99 , Princeton University Art Museum File : Monet - Seerosen 1906.jpg|Water Lilies , 1906 , Art Institute of Chicago File : Monet - Seerosen6.jpg|Water Lilies , Musée Marmottan Monet File : Nympheas 71293 3.jpg|Water Lilies , c. 1915 , Neue Pinakothek , Munich File : Monet - Seerosen5.jpg|Water Lilies , c. 1915 , Musée Marmottan Monet Last years Failing sight Monet 's second wife , Alice , died in 1911 , and his oldest son Jean , who had married Alice 's daughter Blanche , Monet 's particular favourite , died in 1914 . After Alice died , Blanche looked after and cared for Monet . It was during this time that Monet began to develop the first signs of cataracts . During World War I , in which his younger son Michel served and his friend and admirer Clemenceau led the French nation , Monet painted a series of weeping willow trees as homage to the French fallen soldiers . In 1923 , he underwent two operations to remove his cataracts . The paintings done while the cataracts affected his vision have a general reddish tone , which is characteristic of the vision of cataract victims . It may also be that after surgery he was able to see certain ultraviolet wavelengths of light that are normally excluded by the lens of the eye ; this may have had an effect on the colors he perceived . After his operations he even repainted some of these paintings , with bluer water lilies than before . Death Monet died of lung cancer on 5 December 1926 at the age of 86 and is buried in the Giverny church cemetery . Monet had insisted that the occasion be simple ; thus only about fifty people attended the ceremony . His home , garden , and waterlily pond were bequeathed by his son Michel , his only heir , to the French Academy of Fine Arts ( part of the Institut de France ) in 1966 . Through the Fondation Claude Monet , the house and gardens were opened for visits in 1980 , following restoration . In addition to souvenirs of Monet and other objects of his life , the house contains his collection of Japanese woodcut prints . The house and garden , along with the Museum of Impressionism , are major attractions in Giverny , which hosts tourists from all over the world . File : Nymphéas reflets de saule 1916-19.jpg|Water Lilies and Reflections of a Willow ( 1916–19 ) , Musée Marmottan Monet Image : Claude Monet , Water-Lily Pond and Weeping Willow.JPG|Water-Lily Pond and Weeping Willow , 1916–1919 , Sale Christie 's New York , 1998 File : Claude Monet , Weeping Willow.JPG|Weeping Willow , 1918–1919 , Columbus Museum of Art Image : Claude Monet Weeping Willow.jpg|Weeping Willow , 1918–1919 , Kimball Art Museum , Fort Worth , Monet 's Weeping Willow paintings were an homage to the fallen French soldiers of World War I File : Monet - Das Haus in den Rosen.jpeg|House Among the Roses , between 1917 and 1919 , Albertina , Vienna File : Monet- Der Rosenweg in Giverny.jpeg|The Rose Walk , Giverny , 1920–22 , Musée Marmottan Monet File:1920-22 Claude Monet The Japanese Footbridge MOMA NY anagoria.JPG|The Japanese Footbridge , 1920–22 , Museum of Modern Art File : Monet - Garten in Giverny.jpg|The Garden at Giverny Monet 's methods Monet has been described as `` the driving force behind Impressionism '' . Crucial to the art of the Impressionist painters was the understanding of the effects of light on the local colour of objects , and the effects of the juxtaposition of colours with each other . Monet 's long career as a painter was spent in the pursuit of this aim . In 1856 , his chance meeting with Eugene Boudin , a painter of small beach scenes , opened his eyes to the possibility of plein-air painting . From that time , with a short interruption for military service , he dedicated himself to searching for new and improved methods of painterly expression . To this end , as a young man , he visited the Paris Salon and familiarised himself with the works of older painters , and made friends with other young artists . The five years that he spent at Argenteuil , spending much time on the River Seine in a little floating studio , were formative in his study of the effects of light and reflections . He began to think in terms of colours and shapes rather than scenes and objects . He used bright colours in dabs and dashes and squiggles of paint . Having rejected the academic teachings of Gleyre 's studio , he freed himself from theory , saying `` I like to paint as a bird sings . '' In 1877 a series of paintings at St-Lazare Station had Monet looking at smoke and steam and the way that they affected colour and visibility , being sometimes opaque and sometimes translucent . He was to further use this study in the painting of the effects of mist and rain on the landscape . The study of the effects of atmosphere were to evolve into a number of series of paintings in which Monet repeatedly painted the same subject in different lights , at different hours of the day , and through the changes of weather and season . This process began in the 1880s and continued until the end of his life in 1926 . His first series exhibited as such was of Haystacks , painted from different points of view and at different times of the day . Fifteen of the paintings were exhibited at the Galerie Durand-Ruel in 1891 . In 1892 he produced what is probably his best-known series , twenty-six views of Rouen Cathedral . In these paintings Monet broke with painterly traditions by cropping the subject so that only a portion of the facade is seen on the canvas . The paintings do not focus on the grand Medieval building , but on the play of light and shade across its surface , transforming the solid masonry . Other series include Poplars , Mornings on the Seine , and the Water Lilies that were painted on his property at Giverny . Between 1883 and 1908 , Monet traveled to the Mediterranean , where he painted landmarks , landscapes , and seascapes , including a series of paintings in Venice . In London he painted four series : the Houses of Parliament , London , Charing Cross Bridge , Waterloo Bridge , and Views of Westminster Bridge . Helen Gardner writes : File : La Gare Saint-Lazare - Claude Monet.jpg|La Gare Saint-Lazare , 1877 , Musée d'Orsay File : Arrival of the Normandy Train , Gare Saint-Lazare 1877 Claude Monet.jpg|Arrival of the Normandy Train , Gare Saint-Lazare , 1877 , The Art Institute of Chicago File : Claude Monet The Cliffs at Etretat.jpg|The Cliffs at Etretat , 1885 , Clark Institute , Williamstown File : Monet - Segelboote hinter der Nadel bei Eretat 1885.jpg|Sailboats behind the needle at Etretat , 1885 Image : Claude Monet , Grainstacks in the Sunlight , Morning Effect , 1890 , oil on canvas 65 x 100 cm.jpg|Two paintings from a series of grainstacks , 1890–91 : Grainstacks in the Sunlight , Morning Effect , Image:1270 Wheatstacks , 1890-91 , 65.8 x 101 cm , 25 7-8 x 39 3-4 in , The Art Institute of Chicago.jpg|Grainstacks , end of day , Autumn , 1890–1891 , Art Institute of Chicago File : Claude Monet - Les Peupliers.jpg|Poplars ( Autumn ) , 1891 , Philadelphia Museum of Art File : Monet Poplars on the River Epte.jpg|Poplars at the River Epte , 1891 Tate File : Claude Monet - Branch of the Seine near Giverny.JPG|The Seine Near Giverny , 1897 , Museum of Fine Arts , Boston File : Claude Monet - Morning on the Seine - Google Art Project.jpg|Morning on the Seine , 1898 , National Museum of Western Art Image : Charing Cross Bridge , Monet.jpg|Charing Cross Bridge , 1899 , Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum Madrid File : Claude Monet - Charing Cross Bridge ( Saint Louis ) .jpg|Charing Cross Bridge , London , 1899–1901 , Saint Louis Art Museum Image : Claude Monet - Houses of Parliament , London.jpg|Two paintings from a series of The Houses of Parliament ,

odql_11076--Claude_Monet.txt

Who painted 'Rouen Cathedral: Sunset' found in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, USA?

Connective tissue ( CT ) is one of the four types of biological tissue that support , connect , or separate different types of tissues and organs in the body . It develops from the mesoderm . The other three types are epithelial , muscle , and nervous tissue . Connective tissue is found in between other tissues everywhere in the body , including the nervous system . In the central nervous system , the three outer membranes ( the meninges ) that envelop the brain and spinal cord are composed of connective tissue . All connective tissue apart from blood and lymph consists of three main components : fibers ( elastic and collagenous fibers ) , ground substance and cells . ( Not all authorities include blood or lymph as connective tissue . ) Blood and lymph lack the fiber component . All are immersed in the body water . The cells of connective tissue include fibroblasts , adipocytes , macrophages , mast cells and leucocytes . Structure Connective tissue can be broadly subdivided into connective tissue proper , and special connective tissue . Connective tissue proper consists of loose connective tissue and dense connective tissue ( which is further subdivided into dense regular and dense irregular connective tissues . ) Special connective tissue consists of reticular connective tissue , adipose tissue , cartilage , bone , and blood . Other kinds of connective tissues include fibrous , elastic , and lymphoid connective tissues . New vascularised connective tissue that forms in the process of wound healing is termed granulation tissue . Fibroblasts are the cells responsible for the production of some CT . Type I collagen , is present in many forms of connective tissue , and makes up about 25 % of the total protein content of the mammalian body . Characteristics Characteristics of CT : * Cells are spread through an extracellular fluid . * Ground substance - A clear , colorless , and viscous fluid containing glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans to fix the body water and the collagen fibers in the intercellular spaces . Ground substance slows the spread of pathogens . * Fibers . Not all types of CT are fibrous . Examples of non-fibrous CT include adipose tissue and blood . Adipose tissue gives `` mechanical cushioning '' to the body , among other functions . Although there is no dense collagen network in adipose tissue , groups of adipose cells are kept together by collagen fibers and collagen sheets in order to keep fat tissue under compression in place ( for example , the sole of the foot ) . The matrix of blood is plasma . * Both the ground substance and proteins ( fibers ) create the matrix for CT . Function Connective tissue has a wide variety of functions that depend on the types of cells and the different classes of fibers involved . Loose and dense irregular connective tissue , formed mainly by fibroblasts and collagen fibers , have an important role in providing a medium for oxygen and nutrients to diffuse from capillaries to cells , and carbon dioxide and waste substances to diffuse from cells back into circulation . They also allow organs to resist stretching and tearing forces . Dense regular connective tissue , which forms organized structures , is a major functional component of tendons , ligaments and aponeuroses , and is also found in highly specialized organs such as the cornea . Elastic fibers , made from elastin and fibrillin , also provide resistance to stretch forces . They are found in the walls of large blood vessels and in certain ligaments , particularly in the ligamenta flava . In hematopoietic and lymphatic tissues , reticular fibers made by reticular cells provide the stroma—or structural support—for the parenchyma—or functional part—of the organ . Mesenchyme is a type of connective tissue found in developing organs of embryos that is capable of differentiation into all types of mature connective tissue . Another type of relatively undifferentiated connective tissue is mucous connective tissue , found inside the umbilical cord . Various type of specialized tissues and cells are classified under the spectrum of connective tissue , and are as diverse as brown and white adipose tissue , blood , cartilage and bone . Cells of the immune system , such as macrophages , mast cells , plasma cells and eosinophils are found scattered in loose connective tissue , providing the ground for starting inflammatory and immune responses upon the detection of antigens . Clinical significance It is estimated that 1 in 10 people have a connective tissue disorder . Diseases of connective tissue include : * Connective tissue neoplasms including sarcomas such as hemangiopericytoma and malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor in nervous tissue . * Congenital diseases include Marfan syndrome and Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome . * Myxomatous degeneration – a pathological weakening of connective tissue . * Mixed connective tissue disease – a disease of the autoimmune system , also undifferentiated connective tissue disease . * Systemic lupus erythematosus ( SLE ) – a major autoimmune disease of connective tissue * Scurvy , caused by a deficiency of vitamin C which is necessary for the synthesis of collagen . Staining of connective tissue For microscopic viewing , most of the connective tissue staining-techniques , color tissue fibers in contrasting shades . Collagen may be differentially stained by any of the following : * Van Gieson 's stain * Masson 's trichrome stain * Mallory 's trichrome stain * Aniline blue stain * Eosin * Reticulin stain

sfq_1244--Connective_tissue.txt

What is the name of the strong fibrous tissue that joins one bone to another at a joint?

The Salem witch trials were a series of hearings and prosecutions of people accused of witchcraft in colonial Massachusetts between February 1692 and May 1693 . The trials resulted in the executions of twenty people , fourteen of them women , and all but one by hanging . Five others ( including two infant children ) died in prison . Twelve other women had previously been executed in Massachusetts and Connecticut during the 17th century . Despite being generally known as the Salem Witch Trials , the preliminary hearings in 1692 were conducted in several towns : Salem Village ( now Danvers ) , Salem Town , Ipswich , and Andover . The most infamous trials were conducted by the Court of Oyer and Terminer in 1692 in Salem Town . The episode is one of the Colonial America 's most notorious cases of mass hysteria . It has been used in political rhetoric and popular literature as a vivid cautionary tale about the dangers of isolationism , religious extremism , false accusations , and lapses in due process . It was not unique , but a Colonial American example of the much broader phenomenon of witch trials in the early modern period , which took place also in England and France . Many historians consider the lasting effects of the trials to have been highly influential in subsequent United States history . According to historian George Lincoln Burr , `` the Salem witchcraft was the rock on which the theocracy shattered . '' At the 300th anniversary events in 1992 to commemorate the victims of the trials , a park was dedicated in Salem and a memorial in Danvers . In November 2001 , the Massachusetts legislature passed an act exonerating all of those convicted and listing them by name , including some persons left out of earlier actions . In January 2016 , the University of Virginia announced its Gallows Hill Project team had determined the execution site in Salem , where the nineteen `` witches '' had been hanged . The city owns the site and is planning a memorial to the victims . Background In 17th-century Colonial America , the supernatural was considered part of everyday life ; many people believed that Satan was present and active on Earth . This concept emerged in Europe during the fifteenth century and spread with the later colonization of North America colonies . Peasants used a kind of witchcraft to invoke particular charms for farming and agriculture . Over time , the idea of white magic transformed into dark magic and became associated with demons and evil spirits . From 1560 to 1670 , witchcraft persecutions became common as superstitions became associated with the devil . In Against Modern Sadducism ( 1668 ) , Joseph Glanvill claimed that he could prove the existence of witches and ghosts of the supernatural realm . Glanvill wrote about the `` denial of the bodily resurrection , and the [ supernatural ] spirits . '' In his treatise , Glanvill claimed that ingenious men should believe in witches and apparitions ; if they doubted the reality of spirits , they not only denied demons , but also the almighty God . Glanvill wanted to prove that the supernatural could not be denied ; those who did deny apparitions were considered heretics for it also disproved their beliefs in angels . Works by men such as Glanvill and Cotton Mather tried to prove that `` demons were alive . '' Claimed witchcraft executions in New England The executions at Salem were not the first of their kind in New England , nor in the American colonies . The earliest recorded case was that of Alse Young in 1647 in Hartford , Connecticut . Historian Clarence F. Jewett included a list of other people executed in New England in The Memorial History of Boston : Including Suffolk County , Massachusetts 1630–1880 ( Ticknor and Company , 1881 ) . Political context New England had been settled by religious refugees seeking to build a pure , Bible-based society . They lived closely with the sense of the supernatural . The original 1629 Royal Charter of the Massachusetts Bay Colony was vacated in 1684 , The Glorious Revolution in Massachusetts : Selected Documents , 1689–1692 ( henceforth cited as Glorious Revolution ) , Robert Earle Moody and Richard Clive Simmons ( eds . ) , Colonial Society of Massachusetts : Boston , MA , 1988 , p. 2. after which King James II installed Sir Edmund Andros as the Governor of the Dominion of New England . Andros was ousted in 1689 after the `` Glorious Revolution '' in England replaced the Catholic James II with the Protestant co-rulers William and Mary . Simon Bradstreet and Thomas Danforth , the colony 's last leaders under the old charter , resumed their posts as governor and deputy governor , but lacked constitutional authority to rule , because the old charter had been vacated . At the same time tensions erupted between English colonists settling in `` the Eastward '' ( the present-day coast of Maine ) and French-supported Wabanaki Indians of that territory in what came to be known as King William 's War . This was thirteen years after the devastating King Philip 's War with the Wampanoag and other indigenous tribes in southern and western New England . In October 1690 , Sir William Phips led an unsuccessful attack on French-held Quebec . Between 1689 and 1692 , Native Americans continued to attack many English settlements along the Maine coast , leading to the abandonment of some of the settlements , and resulting in a flood of refugees into areas like Essex County . A new charter for the enlarged Province of Massachusetts Bay was given final approval in England on October 16 , 1691 . News of the appointment of Phips as the new governor reached Boston in late January , and a copy of the new charter reached Boston on February 8 , 1692 . Phips arrived in Boston on May 14 and was sworn in as governor two days later , along with Lieutenant Governor William Stoughton . One of the first orders of business for the new governor and council on May 27 , 1692 , was the formal nomination of county justices of the peace , sheriffs , and the commission of a Special Court of Oyer and Terminer to handle the large numbers of people who were `` thronging '' the jails . Paul Boyer and Stephen Nissenbaum have postulated that without a valid charter , the colony had no legitimate form of government to try capital cases until Phips arrived with the new charter . This has been disputed by David Konig . He points out that between charters , according to the Records of the Court of Assistants , the colony tried and condemned a group of fourteen pirates on January 27 , 1690 , for acts of piracy and murder committed in August and October 1689 . Local context Salem Village ( present-day Danvers , Massachusetts ) was known for its fractious population , who had many internal disputes , and for disputes between the village and Salem Town ( present-day Salem ) . Arguments about property lines , grazing rights , and church privileges were rife , and neighbors considered the population as `` quarrelsome '' . In 1672 , the villagers had voted to hire a minister of their own , apart from Salem Town . The first two ministers , James Bayley ( 1673–79 ) and George Burroughs ( 1680–83 ) , stayed only a few years each , departing after the congregation failed to pay their full rate . ( Burroughs would subsequently be arrested at the height of the witchcraft hysteria , and was hanged as a witch in August 1692 . ) Despite the ministers ' rights being upheld by the General Court and the parish being admonished , each of the two ministers still chose to leave . The third minister , Deodat Lawson ( 1684–88 ) , stayed for a short time , leaving after the church in Salem refused to ordain him—and therefore not over issues with the congregation . The parish disagreed about Salem Village 's choice of Samuel Parris as its first ordained minister . On June 18 , 1689 , the villagers agreed to hire Parris for £66 annually , `` one third part in money and the other two third parts in provisions , '' and use of the parsonage . On October 10 , 1689 , however , they raised his benefits , voting to grant him the deed to the parsonage and two acres ( 0.8 hectares ) of land . This conflicted with a 1681 Village resolution which stated that `` it shall not be lawful for the inhabitants of this village to convey the houses or lands or any other concerns belonging to the Ministry to any particular persons or person : not for any cause by vote or other ways '' . Though the prior ministers ' fates and the level of contention in Salem Village were valid reasons for caution in accepting the position , Rev Parris increased the village 's divisions by delaying his acceptance . He did not seem able to settle his new parishioners ' disputes : by deliberately seeking out `` iniquitous behavior '' in his congregation and making church members in good standing suffer public penance for small infractions , he contributed significantly to the tension within the village . Its bickering increased , unabated . Historian Marion Starkey suggests that , in this atmosphere , serious conflict may have been inevitable . Religious context Prior to the constitutional turmoil of the 1680s , Massachusetts government had been dominated by conservative Puritan secular leaders . Influenced by Calvinism , Puritans had opposed many of the traditions of the Church of England , including use of the Book of Common Prayer , the use of priestly vestments ( cap and gown ) during services , the use of the Holy Cross during baptism , and kneeling during the sacrament , all of which they believed constituted popery . King Charles I was hostile to this viewpoint , and Anglican church officials tried to repress these dissenting views during the 1620s and 1630s . Some Puritans and other religious minorities had sought refuge in the Netherlands , but ultimately many made a major migration to colonial North America to establish their own society.Francis J. Bremer and Tom Webster , eds . Puritans and Puritanism in Europe and America : A Comprehensive Encyclopedia ( ABC-CLIO , 2006 ) These immigrants , who were mostly constituted of families , established several of the earliest colonies in New England , of which the Massachusetts Bay Colony was the largest and most economically important . They intended to build a society based on their religious beliefs . Colonial leaders were elected by the freemen of the colony , those individuals who had had their religious experiences formally examined and had been admitted to one of the colony 's Puritan congregations . The colonial leadership were prominent members of their congregations , and regularly consulted with the local ministers on issues facing the colony . In the early 1640s , England erupted in civil war . The Puritan-dominated Parliamentarians emerged victorious , and the Crown was supplanted by the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell in 1653 . Its failure led to restoration of the old order under Charles II . Emigration to New England slowed significantly in these years . In Massachusetts , a successful merchant class began to develop that was less religiously motivated than the colony 's early settlers . Local rumors of witchcraft Prior to 1692 , there had been rumors of witchcraft in villages neighboring Salem Village and other towns . Cotton Mather , a minister of Boston 's North Church ( not to be confused with the later Anglican North Church associated with Paul Revere ) , was a prolific publisher of pamphlets , including some that expressed his belief in witchcraft . In his book Memorable Providences Relating to Witchcrafts and Possessions ( 1689 ) , Mather describes his `` oracular observations '' and how `` stupendous witchcraft '' had affected the children of Boston mason John Goodwin.Mather , Cotton . Memorable Providence , Relating to Witchraft and Possessions . [ http : //www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/salem/ASA_MATH.HTM law.umkc.edu ] ; accessed June 5 , 2010 . Mather illustrates how the Goodwins ' eldest child had been tempted by the devil and stolen linen from the washerwoman Goody Glover.Records of the Salem Witch-Hunt , Rosenthal , et al. , 2009 , p. 15 , n2 Glover was characterized as a disagreeable old woman and described by her husband as a witch ; this may have been why she was accused of casting spells on the Goodwin children . After the event , four out of six Goodwin children began to have strange fits , or what some people referred to as `` the disease of astonishment . '' The manifestations attributed to the disease quickly became associated with witchcraft . Symptoms included neck and back pains , tongues being drawn from their throats , and loud random outcries ; other symptoms included having no control over their bodies such as becoming limber , flapping their arms like birds , or trying to harm others as well as themselves . These symptoms would fuel the craze of 1692 . Timeline Most accounts begin with the afflictions of the girls in the Parris household in January/February 1692 and end with the last trials in May 1693 . Some historians begin with earlier events to place the trials in the wider context of other witch-hunts , and some end later , to include information about restitution to victims and their families . Initial events In Salem Village , in February 1692 , Betty Parris , age 9 , and her cousin Abigail Williams , age 11 , the daughter and niece , respectively , of Reverend Samuel Parris , began to have fits described as `` beyond the power of Epileptic Fits or natural disease to effect '' by John Hale , the minister of the nearby town of Beverly . The girls screamed , threw things about the room , uttered strange sounds , crawled under furniture , and contorted themselves into peculiar positions , according to the eyewitness account of Rev . Deodat Lawson , a former minister in Salem Village . The girls complained of being pinched and pricked with pins . A doctor , historically assumed to be William Griggs , could find no physical evidence of any ailment . Other young women in the village began to exhibit similar behaviors . When Lawson preached as a guest in the Salem Village meetinghouse , he was interrupted several times by outbursts of the afflicted . The first three people accused and arrested for allegedly afflicting Betty Parris , Abigail Williams , 12-year-old Ann Putnam , Jr. , and Elizabeth Hubbard , were Sarah Good , Sarah Osborne , and Tituba . Some historians believe that the accusation by Ann Putnam Jr. suggests that a family feud may have been a major cause of the witch trials . At the time , a vicious rivalry was underway between the Putnam and Porter families , one which deeply polarized the people of Salem . Citizens would often have heated debates , which escalated into full-fledged fighting , based solely on their opinion of the feud . Good was a homeless beggar , known to seek food and shelter from neighbors . She was accused of witchcraft because of her appalling reputation . At her trial , she was accused of rejecting Puritan ideals of self-control and discipline when she chose to torment and `` scorn [ children ] instead of leading them towards the path of salvation '' . Sarah Osborne rarely attended church meetings . She was accused of witchcraft because the Puritans believed that Osborne had her own self-interests in mind following her remarriage to an indentured servant . The citizens of the town disapproved of her trying to control her son 's inheritance from her previous marriage . Tituba , a black or Indian slave , likely became a target because of her ethnic differences from most of the other villagers . She was accused of attracting girls like Abigail Williams and Betty Parris with stories of enchantment from Malleus Maleficarum . These tales about sexual encounters with demons , swaying the minds of men , and fortune-telling were said to stimulate the imaginations of girls and made Tituba an obvious target of accusations . Each of these women was a kind of outcast , and exhibited many of the character traits typical of the `` usual suspects '' for witchcraft accusations ; they were left to defend themselves . Brought before the local magistrates on the complaint of witchcraft , they were interrogated for several days , starting on March 1 , 1692 , then sent to jail . In March , others were accused of witchcraft : Martha Corey , child Dorothy Good , and Rebecca Nurse in Salem Village , and Rachel Clinton in nearby Ipswich . Martha Corey had expressed skepticism about the credibility of the girls ' accusations , and thus drawn attention . The charges against her and Rebecca Nurse deeply troubled the community because Martha Corey was a full covenanted member of the Church in Salem Village , as was Rebecca Nurse in the Church in Salem Town . If such upstanding people could be witches , the townspeople thought , then anybody could be a witch , and church membership was no protection from accusation . Dorothy Good , the daughter of Sarah Good , was only 4 years old , but not exempted from questioning by the magistrates ; her answers were construed as a confession that implicated her mother . In Ipswich , Rachel Clinton was arrested for witchcraft at the end of March on independent charges unrelated to the afflictions of the girls in Salem Village . Accusations and examinations before local magistrates When Sarah Cloyce ( Nurse 's sister ) and Elizabeth ( Bassett ) Proctor were arrested in April , they were brought before John Hathorne and Jonathan Corwin at a meeting in Salem Town . The men were not only local magistrates , but members of the Governor 's Council . Present for the examination were Deputy Governor Thomas Danforth , and Assistants Samuel Sewall , Samuel Appleton , James Russell and Isaac Addington . Objections by Elizabeth 's husband , John Proctor , during the proceedings resulted in his arrest that day . Within a week , Giles Corey ( Martha 's husband , and a covenanted church member in Salem Town ) , Abigail Hobbs , Bridget Bishop , Mary Warren ( a servant in the Proctor household and sometime accuser ) , and Deliverance Hobbs ( stepmother of Abigail Hobbs ) were arrested and examined . Abigail Hobbs , Mary Warren and Deliverance Hobbs all confessed and began naming additional people as accomplices . More arrests followed : Sarah Wildes , William Hobbs ( husband of Deliverance and father of Abigail ) , Nehemiah Abbott Jr. , Mary Eastey ( sister of Cloyce and Nurse ) , Edward Bishop , Jr. and his wife Sarah Bishop , and Mary English . On April 30 , the Rev . George Burroughs , Lydia Dustin , Susannah Martin , Dorcas Hoar , Sarah Morey and Philip English ( Mary 's husband ) were arrested . Nehemiah Abbott Jr. was released because the accusers agreed he was not the person whose specter had afflicted them . Mary Eastey was released for a few days after her initial arrest because the accusers failed to confirm that it was she who had afflicted them ; she was arrested again when the accusers reconsidered . In May , accusations continued to pour in , but some of those suspects began to evade apprehension . Multiple warrants were issued before John Willard and Elizabeth Colson were apprehended ; George Jacobs Jr. and Daniel Andrews were not caught . Until this point , all the proceedings were investigative , but on May 27 , 1692 , William Phips ordered the establishment of a Special Court of Oyer and Terminer for Suffolk , Essex and Middlesex counties to prosecute the cases of those in jail . Warrants were issued for more people . Sarah Osborne , one of the first three persons accused , died in jail on May 10 , 1692 . Warrants were issued for 36 more people , with examinations continuing to take place in Salem Village : Sarah Dustin ( daughter of Lydia Dustin ) , Ann Sears , Bethiah Carter Sr. and her daughter Bethiah Carter Jr. , George Jacobs , Sr. and his granddaughter Margaret Jacobs , John Willard , Alice Parker , Ann Pudeator , Abigail Soames , George Jacobs , Jr. ( son of George Jacobs , Sr. and father of Margaret Jacobs ) , Daniel Andrew , Rebecca Jacobs ( wife of George Jacobs , Jr. and sister of Daniel Andrew ) , Sarah Buckley and her daughter Mary Witheridge . Also included were Elizabeth Colson , Elizabeth Hart , Thomas Farrar , Sr. , Roger Toothaker , Sarah Proctor ( daughter of John and Elizabeth Proctor ) , Sarah Bassett ( sister-in-law of Elizabeth Proctor ) , Susannah Roots , Mary DeRich ( another sister-in-law of Elizabeth Proctor ) , Sarah Pease , Elizabeth Cary , Martha Carrier , Elizabeth Fosdick , Wilmot Redd , Sarah Rice , Elizabeth Howe , Capt . John Alden ( son of John Alden and Priscilla Mullins ) , William Proctor ( son of John and Elizabeth Proctor ) , John Flood , Mary Toothaker ( wife of Roger Toothaker and sister of Martha Carrier ) and her daughter Margaret Toothaker , and Arthur Abbott . When the Court of Oyer and Terminer convened at the end of May , the total number of people in custody was 62 . Cotton Mather wrote to one of the judges , John Richards , a member of his congregation , on May 31 , 1692 , expressing his support of the prosecutions , but cautioning him , `` do not lay more stress on pure spectral evidence than it will bear ... It is very certain that the Devils have sometimes represented the Shapes of persons not only innocent , but also very virtuous . Though I believe that the just God then ordinarily provides a way for the speedy vindication of the persons thus abused . '' Formal prosecution : The Court of Oyer and Terminer The Court of Oyer and Terminer convened in Salem Town on June 2 , 1692 , with William Stoughton , the new Lieutenant Governor , as Chief Magistrate , Thomas Newton as the Crown 's Attorney prosecuting the cases , and Stephen Sewall as clerk . Bridget Bishop 's case was the first brought to the grand jury , who endorsed all the indictments against her . Bishop was described as not living a Puritan lifestyle , for she wore black clothing and odd costumes , which was against the Puritan code . When she was examined before her trial , Bishop was asked about her coat , which had been awkwardly “ cut or torn in two ways ” . This , along with her `` immoral '' lifestyle , affirmed that she was a witch . She went to trial the same day and was convicted . On June 3 , the grand jury endorsed indictments against Rebecca Nurse and John Willard , but they did not go to trial immediately , for reasons which are unclear . Bishop was executed by hanging on June 10 , 1692 . Immediately following this execution , the court adjourned for 20 days ( until June 30 ) while it sought advice from New England 's most influential ministers `` upon the state of things as they then stood . '' Their collective response came back dated June 15 and composed by Cotton Mather : # The afflicted state of our poor neighbours , that are now suffering by molestations from the invisible world , we apprehend so deplorable , that we think their condition calls for the utmost help of all persons in their several capacities . # We can not but , with all thankfulness , acknowledge the success which the merciful God has given unto the sedulous and assiduous endeavours of our honourable rulers , to detect the abominable witchcrafts which have been committed in the country , humbly praying , that the discovery of those mysterious and mischievous wickednesses may be perfected . # We judge that , in the prosecution of these and all such witchcrafts , there is need of a very critical and exquisite caution , lest by too much credulity for things received only upon the Devil 's authority , there be a door opened for a long train of miserable consequences , and Satan get an advantage over us ; for we should not be ignorant of his devices . # As in complaints upon witchcrafts , there may be matters of inquiry which do not amount unto matters of presumption , and there may be matters of presumption which yet may not be matters of conviction , so it is necessary , that all proceedings thereabout be managed with an exceeding tenderness towards those that may be complained of , especially if they have been persons formerly of an unblemished reputation . # When the first inquiry is made into the circumstances of such as may lie under the just suspicion of witchcrafts , we could wish that there may be admitted as little as is possible of such noise , company and openness as may too hastily expose them that are examined , and that there may no thing be used as a test for the trial of the suspected , the lawfulness whereof may be doubted among the people of God ; but that the directions given by such judicious writers as Perkins and Bernard [ be consulted in such a case ] . # Presumptions whereupon persons may be committed , and , much more , convictions whereupon persons may be condemned as guilty of witchcrafts , ought certainly to be more considerable than barely the accused person 's being represented by a specter unto the afflicted ; inasmuch as it is an undoubted and notorious thing , that a demon may , by God 's permission , appear , even to ill purposes , in the shape of an innocent , yea , and a virtuous man . Nor can we esteem alterations made in the sufferers , by a look or touch of the accused , to be an infallible evidence of guilt , but frequently liable to be abused by the Devil 's legerdemains . # We know not whether some remarkable affronts given to the Devils by our disbelieving those testimonies whose whole force and strength is from them alone , may not put a period unto the progress of the dreadful calamity begun upon us , in the accusations of so many persons , whereof some , we hope , are yet clear from the great transgression laid unto their charge . # Nevertheless , we can not but humbly recommend unto the government , the speedy and vigorous prosecution of such as have rendered themselves obnoxious , according to the direction given in the laws of God , and the wholesome statutes of the English nation , for the detection of witchcrafts . Hutchinson sums the letter , `` The two first and the last sections of this advice took away the force of all the others , and the prosecutions went on with more vigor than before . '' ( Reprinting the letter years later in Magnalia , Cotton Mather left out these `` two first and the last '' sections . ) Major Nathaniel Saltonstall Esq . resigned from the court on or about June 16 , presumably dissatisfied with the letter and that it had not outright barred the admission of spectral evidence . According to Upham , Saltonstall deserves the credit for `` being the only public man of his day who had the sense or courage to condemn the proceedings , at the start . '' ( chapt . VII ) More people were accused , arrested and examined , but now in Salem Town , by former local magistrates John Hathorne , Jonathan Corwin and Bartholomew Gedney , who had become judges of the Court of Oyer and Terminer . Suspect Roger Toothaker died in prison on June 16 , 1692 . From June 30 through early July , grand juries endorsed indictments against Sarah Good , Elizabeth Howe , Susannah Martin , Elizabeth Proctor , John Proctor , Martha Carrier , Sarah Wildes and

qw_1551--Salem_witch_trials.txt

Whose play about the Salem witch trials in the 17th century drew parallels to McCarthyism in the 1950s?

Glenn Hoddle ( born 27 October 1957 ) is an English former footballer and manager who played as a midfielder for Tottenham Hotspur , AS Monaco , Chelsea and Swindon Town and at international level for England . He was most recently first team coach at Queens Park Rangers having been appointed , on a part-time basis , to assist Harry Redknapp in the summer of 2014 . However , following Redknapp 's resignation in February 2015 , Hoddle also left the club . In 2007 he was inducted into the National Football Museum Hall of Fame , which cited him as one of the most gifted English footballers of his generation , exhibiting `` sublime balance and close control , unrivalled passing and vision and extraordinary shooting ability , both from open play and set pieces '' . He has been manager of Swindon Town ( earning promotion to the Premier League ) , Chelsea ( taking them to the FA Cup final ) , Southampton , Tottenham Hotspur ( reaching a League Cup final ) and most recently Wolverhampton Wanderers . As manager , he took England to the World Cup second round in 1998 , where they lost to Argentina on penalties . He is currently running the Glenn Hoddle Academy in Spain , set up to help young British players return to professional football after being released by their clubs . Hoddle 's younger brother Carl was also a footballer and died from a brain aneurysm on 2 March 2008 at the age of 40 . Playing career Hoddle was born in Hayes , Hillingdon , London . He started his career at Watford , having been a product of their youth academy . Hoddle also played over 45 matches for his secondary school before being spotted at a school football game by a passing scout who was apparently walking his dog at the time . Tottenham Hotspur Hoddle joined the club as a schoolboy apprentice in April 1974 following the recommendation of another Tottenham legend , Martin Chivers . He successfully overcame knee problems in his early teens and collected England Youth caps prior to making his first-team debut as a 17-year-old substitute against Norwich City in August 1975 . Spurs drew 2–2 . Hoddle was forced to wait until February 1976 to start a First Division match and immediately announced his arrival with a spectacular strike past Stoke City and England goalkeeper Peter Shilton . He flourished under the management of Keith Burkinshaw and despite the club 's relegation to the Second Division in 1976–77 after 27 seasons of First Division football , a Hoddle-inspired Spurs side won promotion to the top flight at the first attempt . As Tottenham 's transitional phase continued , Hoddle 's enigmatic and often controversial international career began in December 1976 against Wales in an Under-21 fixture . He would collect another seven caps at that level and play twice for the England ' B ' team prior to scoring on his full international debut against Bulgaria in November 1979 . The 1979–80 campaign heralded the emergence of Hoddle as a top-class player ; the 22-year-old midfielder scored 19 goals in 41 league appearances and was awarded the PFA Young Player of the Year award at the end of the season . In 1981 , he starred as Spurs won the FA Cup for the sixth time , defeating Manchester City in a replay and the following season Tottenham retained the FA Cup ( Hoddle scored in both the Final and Final replay ) and finished the League campaign in fourth place , the club 's best league position since 1971 . Hoddle performed as the midfield fulcrum in many of these successes and also contributed magnificently as the team reached the final of the League Cup , losing 3–1 to Liverpool , and the semi-final stage of the European Cup Winners Cup . During the summer of 1982 , Hoddle played in two of England 's matches in the opening group phase of the FIFA World Cup , starting against Kuwait after a substitute appearance in a 2–0 victory over Czechoslovakia . Hoddle 's involvement in the following three seasons was limited by a number of niggling injury problems ( he started only 76 of a possible 126 league matches ) but nevertheless , Hoddle proved to be the architect behind the team 's 1984 UEFA Cup triumph despite missing the Final due to fitness concerns . In October 1983 , he helped Spurs win 6–2 on aggregate against a Feyenoord Rotterdam side containing Johan Cruyff . Such was the quality of his performance in both matches , the Dutch legend entered the Tottenham dressing room and offered Hoddle his shirt as a sign of respect . Spurs came close to further honours in the next three seasons , reaching third place in the First Division and the quarter-finals of the UEFA Cup in 1984–85 and another FA Cup Final in 1987 , losing 3–2 to Coventry City , the only time the North London club has experienced defeat in the final of the famous knock-out competition . The unexpected loss to the Midlands side was Hoddle 's last match for Spurs as newly appointed AS Monaco manager Arsène Wenger brought him to the principality for a fee of £750,000 . Between 1975 and 1987 , the gifted playmaker scored 110 goals in 490 first-team matches in all competitions , only four players ( Steve Perryman , Pat Jennings , Gary Mabbutt and Cyril Knowles ) have made more appearances in a Spurs shirt . At international level , Hoddle won 44 caps for England during his Tottenham career . In 1987 , Hoddle also found himself in the pop charts , with the single `` Diamond Lights ' '' making the UK Top 20 in a duet with Spurs and England team-mate Chris Waddle . AS Monaco Hoddle announced in 1987 that he would be leaving Tottenham Hotspur at the end of the season to pursue a career overseas where his style of play would be appreciated by continental managers and supporters , and to play European level football with English clubs banned after Heysel . He joined AS Monaco alongside George Weah and fellow Englishman Mark Hateley and immediately inspired the club to the 1988 Ligue 1 championship , its first league title in six seasons . Hoddle was voted the Best Foreign Player in French football and helped to guide the team to the quarter-finals of the European Cup in the 1988–89 campaign . Arsène Wenger was the coach who brought him to Monaco and ironically Hoddle would go on to face his former manager in the heated North London Derby as manager of Tottenham Hotspur . However , a severe knee injury curtailed his career at the highest level and in November 1990 , the 33-year-old left the club by mutual consent having helped to improve the standing of English footballers in foreign countries . During his three and a half-year spell in France , Hoddle represented England nine times , making his international farewell against the Soviet Union in June 1988 . He returned to England and signed for Chelsea on a non-contract basis , leaving Stamford Bridge in March 1991 without playing a senior match to assume his first managerial post as player-manager of Swindon Town . England international career Hoddle made his debut in England 's Euro 80 qualifying tie against Bulgaria on 22 November 1979 , scoring in a 2–0 win at Wembley . He scored in his third appearance against Australia on 31 May 1980 in a friendly in Sydney . His third goal came in his fifth appearance on 25 March 1981 in a game against Spain at Wembley , which England lost 2–1 . He reached the 10-cap point of his career on 27 April 1982 in the British Home Championship clash with Wales in Cardiff , which England won 1–0 . By this stage of his international career he had scored four goals . He was included in the 1982 and 1986 FIFA World Cup squads , playing an important role in the latter campaign when England reached the quarter-finals against Argentina . Hoddle also featured prominently in the European Championship squads of 1980 and 1988 , making his 53rd and final international appearance in the final group game of Euro 88 , in a 3–1 defeat to the Soviet Union in West Germany . He had scored eight goals for the England senior side in a career stretching nine years , the last of his international goals coming on 23 April 1986 in a 2–1 friendly win over Scotland at Wembley . Managerial career Swindon Town Hoddle arrived at a troubled club with The Robins badly affected by a financial scandal which had seen them stripped of promotion to the First Division at the end of the 1989–90 season , a controversy which had negatively impacted the team 's league form as they had been forced to sell several key players including midfielder Alan McLoughlin . Hoddle prevented Swindon from slipping into the Third Division and further improvement throughout the 1991–92 season saw the Wiltshire club finish ninth , just missing out on a play-off place . They had briefly led the table in October . Swindon reached the new Division One play-offs in 1993 and beat Leicester City 4–3 at Wembley , and were then promoted to the Premier League . Hoddle scored Swindon 's first goal of the final . The 36-year-old Hoddle was one of the most highly rated young managers in England and many bigger clubs were demanding his services . Just days after guiding Swindon to promotion , he accepted the offer to manage Chelsea and was succeeded at Swindon by his assistant and former Spurs team-mate John Gorman . Chelsea In June 1993 , Hoddle became player-manager of Chelsea ( he retired from the playing side in 1995 ) . His assistant at Chelsea was the former Tottenham manager Peter Shreeves , and they reached the FA Cup final in Hoddle 's first season , where they lost 4–0 to Manchester United . But United had done the double , and consolation for their failure to win the trophy came in the form of a Cup Winners ' Cup place . Chelsea reached the semi finals of that competition in 1994–95 and lost by a single goal to Real Zaragoza , who went on to beat Arsenal in the final . Hoddle guided Chelsea to the FA Cup Semi-finals in 1995–96 , but was unable to take them beyond 11th place in the Premiership – they had occupied this final position three times in four years . He did establish them as a force in cup competitions and made them capable of attracting top-class players – such as Ruud Gullit – to the club . England Hoddle 's three-year reign at Chelsea came to an end in 1996 when he accepted the England manager 's job on 2 May that year . He guided England to qualification for the 1998 World Cup , securing the team 's entry with a memorable 0–0 draw in Rome against Italy . However , he caused controversy by omitting Paul Gascoigne from the squad and installing supposed faith healer Eileen Drewery as part of the England coaching staff , which led to the team being dubbed `` The Hod Squad '' .He did not pick Ray Parlour for World Cup 1998 because he asked Eileen Drewery for a `` short back and sides '' when she placed her hands on his sholders after Glenn Hoddle requested Parlour to visit her . [ http : //www.4thegame.com/club/wfc/news/25185/PERRY+TIPPED+TO+JOIN+THE+HOD+SQUAD.html Perry Tipped To Join The Hod Squad : ] They reached the Second Round of the 1998 tournament , losing on penalties to Argentina . Hoddle came under fire after a disappointing start to the Euro 2000 qualifying campaign . Hoddle 's time in charge of the national team was , sometime later , praised by Harry Redknapp who believed him to have been the `` perfect man for the job '' . Hoddle 's 60 % win rate during his spell as manager is only bettered by Sir Alf Ramsey and Fabio Capello . Dismissal from England job On 30 January 1999 , with the England team preparing for Euro 2000 , and amidst the fall-out from the previous season 's World Cup , Hoddle gave an interview to Matt Dickinson of The Times newspaper in an attempt to defend himself against his critics ( over issues such as Eileen Drewery and his faith ) and show a strong front for the remainder of the qualifiers . Dickinson 's interview revealed that Hoddle had a `` controversial belief that the disabled , and others , are being punished for sins in a former life . '' Hoddle 's comments were criticised by several politicians including Sports Minister Tony Banks and Prime Minister Tony Blair . Public opinion , based upon the immediate media furore resulted in ( according to one BBC poll ) 90 % of respondents believing Hoddle should not continue as English manager . However , the BBC survey showed that while many considered his comments insensitive to disabled people , others defended his right to express his religious beliefs by claiming that to sack him would constitute religious discrimination . Hoddle stated that he was not prepared to resign and claimed his words were misinterpreted and pointed out his contributions and commitment to organisations helping disabled people . The Football Association terminated Hoddle 's contract on 2 February 1999 , which was welcomed by representatives of disabled groups . The disabled rights campaigner Lord Ashley however , while criticising Hoddle 's views , defended his right to express them , likening the campaign against Hoddle to a `` witchhunt '' and considered Hoddle 's dismissal `` a sad day for British tolerance and freedom of speech '' a view which was shared by the Daily Mirror and Daily Mail and in several foreign newspapers . [ http : //www.iht.com/articles/1999/02/03/rob.t.php European Soccer / Commentary : Wave of Outrage Sweeps Away English Coach – International Herald Tribune ] Some writers considered the remarks were used as a pretext to get rid of him . Hoddle apologised for the offence that had been caused , stating it had never been his intention and continued to fundraise for disabled groups after being dismissed . Much later criticism was made of Hoddle 's dismissal on the grounds that he had been forced out for non-footballing reasons . Southampton Hoddle was back in football within a year as Southampton manager , succeeding Dave Jones , who had been suspended to concentrate on clearing his name in connection with child abuse charges . Although these charges were later found to be false , Jones was not re-instated and Hoddle continued to be manager . Hoddle kept the Saints in the Premier League against all odds but left acrimoniously in March 2001 to return to Tottenham as manager . Southampton were on course for a 10th-place finish – their highest since 1995 – when Hoddle left . Tottenham Hotspur Tottenham 's league record in the decade leading up to Hoddle 's appointment was disappointing ; they had not finished in the top five since 1990 and their only major trophies in that time had been the FA Cup in 1991 and Football League Cup in 1999 . Hoddle was determined to establish them as a top playing side , and during his first season he had some wonderful opportunities to succeed . Just days after his appointment in April 2001 , his first match in charge was an F.A Cup semi-final against great rivals Arsenal which Spurs lost 2–1 . The following year , Tottenham reached the League Cup final in February 2002 ; after winning 5–1 against Hoddle 's former club Chelsea in the semi-final second leg , Spurs were the favourites but they lost 2–1 to Blackburn Rovers . The club 's promising early season form ( which saw Hoddle voted Premier League Manager of the Month for October 2001 ) dwindled away into mediocrity and they finished ninth in the Premiership , an improvement on the previous season 's 11th place but considerably less than what most people had been expecting . Spurs began the 2002–03 season in fine form and Hoddle was named Premiership Manager of the Month for August 2002 after they ended the month top of the league . Although few people expected them to stay there , 10th place in the final table was still disappointing . The pressure began to build up on Hoddle and he was sacked in September 2003 after a poor start to the season , in which the team picked up just four points from their opening six league games and lay in the Premiership relegation zone . Coincidentally , his final game in charge was a 3–1 loss to old side Southampton . Wolverhampton Wanderers Hoddle was linked with a return to Southampton in early 2004 , but opposition from supporters meant chairman Rupert Lowe pursued alternative targets and ultimately selected Paul Sturrock instead . Instead he returned to management on 7 December 2004 with Wolverhampton Wanderers , again succeeding Dave Jones . Wolves lost only one of remaining 25 games but failed to reach the play-offs because 15 of those games had been draws . Wolves were expected to finish in the top 6 under Hoddle in the 2005–06 season but again draws cost them with Wolves drawing 19 of their 46 league games . They were also one of the lowest goalscoring teams in the division scoring just 50 goals in the league all season . Wolves finished 7th , 8 points off the playoffs . Wolves fans turned against Hoddle and there were chants against him during the last home game of the season against Watford . The board kept faith with Hoddle , but he stepped down on 1 July 2006 , stating differing expectations between himself and the club as the reason for his departure . In his time with Wolverhampton Wanderers , the club drew 34 league games in his 76 games in charge , spanning over two seasons . His name was linked with the manager 's job at Leeds United ( owned by former Chelsea chairman Ken Bates ) when Kevin Blackwell was sacked in September 2006 , but the job went to Dennis Wise ( who had played for Chelsea when Hoddle was the manager ) instead . Football academy By January 2008 , Hoddle was attempting to raise the capital to form the Glenn Hoddle Academy based in Spain . The aim of the academy is to give another chance to young players released by football clubs in England to become professional players . Ikechi Anya was his first player at the academy to get a professional contract at a club , with Sevilla Atlético in Spain . In June 2011 , it was announced that The Glenn Hoddle Academy had linked up with English Conference North side Hyde . The Academy had previously enjoyed a link with the Spanish fourth-tier side Jerez Industrial , providing their entire squad and coaches , but fell out in a dispute over cash . Management offers Hoddle says he has had 26 serious management offers but insists he will not return to management until the academy is able to run itself . In April 2014 he revealed he had come close to taking over from Andre Villas Boas at Tottenham , before the job was given to Tim Sherwood . `` I did have talks with Daniel Levy and the club , '' Hoddle said . `` He wanted a little bit of advice and a bit of a sounding board for himself . `` [ I said ) ' I am there for you if you want me to take it to the end of the season and then we will have a little look at it then , I would be prepared to do that ' . `` I would n't do it for any other club for that short period of time . It was just that it is in my DNA . I have loved my time at other clubs , I really have , but being a Spurs supporter since I was eight , going there very young , it is in my blood . '' In August 2014 , Hoddle was appointed first team coach at Queens Park Rangers under Harry Redknapp . However , on 3 February 2015 , Redknapp resigned , following which Hoddle also left the club . In June 2016 , after England 's 2-1 loss to Iceland at Euro 2016 and manager Roy Hodgson 's subsequent resignation , Harry Redknapp and Alan Shearer both put forward Hoddle as a candidate for the job . Notable TV Work Hoddle also works as a football pundit , where he worked mainly with Sky Sports but also worked for ITV during their coverage of the 2014 FIFA World Cup . In 2015 , Hoddle became a pundit for BT Sport . Career statistics Managerial statistics Honours As a player ; Tottenham Hotspur * UEFA Cup winner : 1984 * FA Cup winner : 1981 , 1982 * FA Charity Shield shared : 1981 * FA Charity Shield runner-up 1982 ; AS Monaco * French Division 1 winner : 1987-88 * French Cup winner : 1991 ; Individual * PFA Young Player of the Year : 1979–80 * Second Division PFA Team of the Year : 1977–78 * First Division PFA Team of the Year : 1979–80 , 1981–82 , 1983–84 , 1985–86 , 1986–87 * French Division 1 Foreign Player of the Year : 1987-88 * English Football Hall of Fame Inductee : 2007 As a player manager ; Swindon Town * 1993 Football League First Division play-off Final Winners ; Chelsea * FA Cup runner-up : 1994 As a manager ; Tottenham Hotspur * Worthington Cup runner-up : 2001–02 ; England * Tournoi de France winner : 1997

odql_3188--Glenn_Hoddle.txt

Which Scot was Glenn Hoddle's assistant in the 'England job'?

Washington , D.C. has been the capital of the United States since 1800 . Eight other cities have served as the meeting place for the U.S. Congress and are therefore considered to have once been the capital of the United States . In addition , each of the fifty U.S. states and the five principal territories of the United States maintains its own capital . __TOC__ State capitals In 33 of the 50 U.S. states , the state capital is not the state 's most populous city . Trenton , New Jersey , and Carson City , Nevada border another state , while Juneau , Alaska , shares a border with the Canadian province of British Columbia . The dates listed in the following table indicate the year in which the city started to continuously serve as the state 's sole capital . Most states have changed their capital city at least once—see Historical state capitals for details . Insular area capitals An insular area is a United States territory that is neither a part of one of the fifty states nor a part of the District of Columbia , the nation 's federal district . Those insular areas with territorial capitals are listed below . Former national capitals From 1774 to 1800 , Congress met in numerous locations ; therefore , the following cities can be said to have once been the United States capital : ; First Continental Congress * Carpenters ' Hall , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania : September 5 , 1774 to October 24 , 1774 ; Second Continental Congress * Independence Hall , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania : May 10 , 1775 to December 12 , 1776 * Henry Fite House , Baltimore , Maryland : December 20 , 1776 to February 27 , 1777 * Independence Hall , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania : March 4 , 1777 to September 18 , 1777 * Court House , Lancaster , Pennsylvania : September 27 , 1777 ( one day ) * Court House , York , Pennsylvania : September 30 , 1777 to June 2 , 1778 * College Hall , College of Philadelphia : July 2 , 1778 to July 20 , 1778 * Independence Hall , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania : July 23 , 1778 to March 1 , 1781 ; Congress of the Confederation * Independence Hall , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania : March 1 , 1781 to June 21 , 1783 * Nassau Hall , Princeton , New Jersey : June 30 , 1783 to November 4 , 1783 * Maryland State House , Annapolis , Maryland : November 26 , 1783 to August 19 , 1784 * French Arms Tavern , Trenton , New Jersey : November 1 , 1784 to December 24 , 1784 * City Hall ( Federal Hall ) , New York City , New York : January 11 , 1785 to October 2 , 1788 * Fraunces Tavern , New York City , New York : October 6 , 1788 to March 3 , 1789 ; United States Constitution * Federal Hall , New York City , New York : March 4 , 1789 to December 5 , 1790 * Congress Hall , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania : December 6 , 1790 to May 14 , 1800 * United States Capitol , Washington , D.C. : November 17 , 1800 to February 27 , 1801 * United States Capitol , Washington , D.C. : February 27 , 1801 to December 8 , 1815 * Old Brick Capitol , Washington , D.C. : December 8 , 1815 to 1819 * United States Capitol , Washington , D.C. : 1819 to present Kingdom and Republic of Hawaii Prior to becoming a territory of the United States in 1898 , Hawaii was an independent country . Five sites served as its capital : * Waikīkī . Served as the capital of the Kingdom of Hawaii , 1795–1796 * Hilo . Served as the capital of the Kingdom of Hawaii , 1796–1803 * Kailua-Kona . Served as the capital of the Kingdom of Hawaii , 1812–1820 * Lahaina . Served as the capital of the Kingdom of Hawaii , 1820–1845 . * Honolulu * * Served as the capital of the Kingdom of Hawaii , 1803–1812 . * * Served as the capital of the Kingdom of Hawaii , 1845–January 17 , 1893 . * * Served as the seat of the Provisional Government of Hawaii after the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii , January 17 , 1893 – July 4 , 1894 . * * Served as the capital of the Republic of Hawaii when it was established on July 4 , 1894 until the Republic was annexed by the United States on July 7 , 1898 under the Newlands Resolution to become the Territory of Hawaii . On becoming a state in 1959 , Honolulu became the capital of the State of Hawaii . Republic of Texas Before joining the United States under the Texas Annexation in 1845 , Texas was an independent nation known as the Republic of Texas . Seven cities served as its capital : * Washington ( now Washington-on-the-Brazos ) , 1836 * Harrisburg ( now part of Houston ) , 1836 * Galveston , 1836 * Velasco , 1836 * West Columbia , 1836 * Houston , 1837–1839 * Austin , 1839–1845 ( also present-day capital of the State of Texas ) Unrecognized national capitals There have been a handful of nations within the current borders of the United States which were never officially recognized as legally independent sovereign entities ; however , these nations did have de facto control over their respective regions during their existence . Vermont Republic Before joining the United States as the fourteenth state , Vermont was an independent republic known as the Vermont Republic . Two cities served as the capital of the Republic : * Westminster , 1777 * Windsor , 1777–1791 The current capital of the State of Vermont is Montpelier . Confederate States of America The Confederate States of America had two capitals during its existence . The first capital was established on February 4 , 1861 in Montgomery , Alabama and remained there until it was moved to Richmond on May 29 , 1861 . The Confederate state capitals remained the same as in the Union , although as advancing Federals used the same capitals for military districts , some of the Confederate governments were relocated or they moved out of state , traveling along with rebel armies . * Montgomery , Alabama , February 4 , 1861 – May 29 , 1861 * Richmond , Virginia , May 29 , 1861 – April 3 , 1865 State of Franklin The State of Franklin was an autonomous , secessionist United States territory created , not long after the end of the American Revolution , from territory that later was ceded by North Carolina to the federal government . Franklin 's territory later became part of the state of Tennessee . Franklin was never officially admitted into the Union of the United States and existed for only four years . * Jonesborough , Tennessee , 1784– ? * Greeneville , Tennessee , 1785 ? – ? State of Muskogee The State of Muskogee was a short-lived Native American state in Florida . It consisted of several tribes of Creeks and Seminoles . It existed from 1799 to 1803 . It had one capital : * Miccosukee , 1799–1803 Republic of West Florida The Republic of West Florida was a short-lived republic consisting of parts of Louisiana , Mississippi , Florida and Alabama . * St. Francisville , Louisiana , 1810 Republic of Indian Stream The Republic of Indian Stream was an unrecognized independent nation within the present state of New Hampshire . * Pittsburg , New Hampshire , 1832–1835 California Republic Before being annexed by the United States in 1848 ( following the Mexican–American War ) , a small portion of north-central California declared itself the California Republic , in an act of independence from Mexico , in 1846 ( see Bear Flag Revolt ) . The republic only existed a month before it disbanded itself , to join the advancing American army and therefore became part of the United States . The very short-lived California Republic was never recognized by the United States , Mexico or any other nation . There was one de facto capital of the California Republic : * Sonoma , 1846 Historical state capitals Most of the original Thirteen Colonies had their capitals occupied or attacked by the British during the American Revolution . State governments operated where and as they could . The City of New York was occupied by British troops from 1776 to 1783 . A similar situation occurred during the War of 1812 , during the American Civil War in many Confederate states , and during the Pueblo Revolt of 1680–1692 in New Mexico . Twenty-two state capitals have been a capital longer than their state has been a state , since they served as the capital of a predecessor territory , colony , or republic . Boston , Massachusetts has been a capital city continuously since 1630 , making it the longest-running U.S. capital . Santa Fe , New Mexico , has been a capital city the longest having become capital in 1610 and interrupted only by the Pueblo Revolt of 1680–1692 . The table below includes the following information : # The state , the year in which statehood was granted , and the state 's capital ( as of 2014 ) are shown in bold . # The year listed for each capital is the starting date ; the ending date is the starting date for the successor unless otherwise indicated . # In many cases , former capital cities of states are outside the current state borders . These cities are indicated with the abbreviated name of the state in which the city is located ( as of 2010 ) .

qb_4561--List_of_capitals_in_the_United_States.txt

What is the US state capital of Alabama?

Charles I ( 19 November 1600 – 30 January 1649 ) was monarch of the three kingdoms of England , Scotland , and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649 . Charles was the second son of King James VI of Scotland , but after his father inherited the English throne in 1603 , he moved to England , where he spent much of the rest of his life . He became heir apparent to the English , Irish and Scottish thrones on the death of his elder brother , Henry Frederick , Prince of Wales , in 1612 . An unsuccessful and unpopular attempt to marry him to the Spanish Habsburg princess Maria Anna culminated in an eight-month visit to Spain in 1623 that demonstrated the futility of the marriage negotiations . Two years later , he married the Bourbon princess Henrietta Maria of France instead . After his succession , Charles quarrelled with the Parliament of England , which sought to curb his royal prerogative . Charles believed in the divine right of kings and thought he could govern according to his own conscience . Many of his subjects opposed his policies , in particular the levying of taxes without parliamentary consent , and perceived his actions as those of a tyrannical absolute monarch . His religious policies , coupled with his marriage to a Roman Catholic , generated the antipathy and mistrust of reformed groups such as the Puritans and Calvinists , who thought his views too Catholic . He supported high church ecclesiastics , such as Richard Montagu and William Laud , and failed to aid Protestant forces successfully during the Thirty Years ' War . His attempts to force the Church of Scotland to adopt high Anglican practices led to the Bishops ' Wars , strengthened the position of the English and Scottish parliaments and helped precipitate his own downfall . From 1642 , Charles fought the armies of the English and Scottish parliaments in the English Civil War . After his defeat in 1645 , he surrendered to a Scottish force that eventually handed him over to the English Parliament . Charles refused to accept his captors ' demands for a constitutional monarchy , and temporarily escaped captivity in November 1647 . Re-imprisoned on the Isle of Wight , Charles forged an alliance with Scotland , but by the end of 1648 Oliver Cromwell 's New Model Army had consolidated its control over England . Charles was tried , convicted , and executed for high treason in January 1649 . The monarchy was abolished and a republic called the Commonwealth of England was declared . The monarchy was restored to Charles 's son , Charles II , in 1660 . Early life The second son of King James VI of Scotland and Anne of Denmark , Charles was born in Dunfermline Palace , Fife , on 19 November 1600 . At a Protestant ceremony in the Chapel Royal at Holyrood Palace in Edinburgh on 23 December 1600 , he was baptised by David Lindsay , Bishop of Ross , and created Duke of Albany , the traditional title of the second son of the King of Scotland , with the subsidiary titles of Marquess of Ormond , Earl of Ross and Lord Ardmannoch . James VI was the first cousin twice removed of Queen Elizabeth I of England , and when she died childless in March 1603 , he became King of England as James I. Charles was a weak and sickly infant , and while his parents and older siblings left for England in April and early June that year , due to his fragile health , he remained in Scotland with his father 's friend Lord Fyvie , appointed as his guardian . By 1604 , when Charles was three and a half , he was able to walk the length of the great hall at Dunfermline Palace without assistance , and it was decided that he was strong enough to make the journey to England to be reunited with his family . In mid-July 1604 , Charles left Dunfermline for England where he was to spend most of the rest of his life . In England , Charles was placed under the charge of Elizabeth , Lady Carey , the wife of courtier Sir Robert Carey , who put him in boots made of Spanish leather and brass to help strengthen his weak ankles . His speech development was also slow , and he retained a stammer , or hesitant speech , for the rest of his life . In January 1605 , Charles was created Duke of York , as is customary in the case of the English sovereign 's second son , and made a Knight of the Bath . Thomas Murray , a Presbyterian Scot , was appointed as a tutor . Charles learnt the usual subjects of classics , languages , mathematics and religion . In 1611 , he was made a Knight of the Garter . Eventually , Charles apparently conquered his physical infirmity , which might have been caused by rickets . He became an adept horseman and marksman , and took up fencing . Even so , his public profile remained low in contrast to that of his physically stronger and taller elder brother , Henry Frederick , Prince of Wales , whom Charles adored and attempted to emulate . However , in early November 1612 , Henry died at the age of 18 of what is suspected to have been typhoid ( or possibly porphyria ) . Charles , who turned 12 two weeks later , became heir apparent . As the eldest surviving son of the sovereign , Charles automatically gained several titles ( including Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay ) . Four years later , in November 1616 , he was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester . Heir apparent In 1613 , his sister Elizabeth married Frederick V , Elector Palatine , and moved to Heidelberg . In 1617 , the Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand of Austria , a Catholic , was elected king of Bohemia . The following year , the Bohemians rebelled , defenestrating the Catholic governors . In August 1619 , the Bohemian diet chose as their monarch Frederick V , who was leader of the Protestant Union , while Ferdinand was elected Holy Roman Emperor in the imperial election . Frederick 's acceptance of the Bohemian crown in defiance of the emperor marked the beginning of the turmoil that would develop into the Thirty Years ' War . The conflict , originally confined to Bohemia , spiralled into a wider European war , which the English Parliament and public quickly grew to see as a polarised continental struggle between Catholics and Protestants . In 1620 , Charles 's brother-in-law , Frederick V , was defeated at the Battle of White Mountain near Prague and his hereditary lands in the Electoral Palatinate were invaded by a Habsburg force from the Spanish Netherlands . James , however , had been seeking marriage between the new Prince of Wales and Ferdinand 's niece , Habsburg princess Maria Anna of Spain , and began to see the Spanish match as a possible diplomatic means of achieving peace in Europe . Unfortunately for James , negotiation with Spain proved generally unpopular , both with the public and with James 's court . The English Parliament was actively hostile towards Spain and Catholicism , and thus , when called by James in 1621 , the members hoped for an enforcement of recusancy laws , a naval campaign against Spain , and a Protestant marriage for the Prince of Wales . James 's Lord Chancellor , Francis Bacon , was impeached before the House of Lords for corruption . The impeachment was the first since 1459 without the king 's official sanction in the form of a bill of attainder . The incident set an important precedent as the process of impeachment would later be used against Charles and his supporters : the Duke of Buckingham , Archbishop Laud , and the Earl of Strafford . James insisted that the House of Commons be concerned exclusively with domestic affairs , while the members protested that they had the privilege of free speech within the Commons ' walls , demanding war with Spain and a Protestant Princess of Wales . Charles , like his father , considered the discussion of his marriage in the Commons impertinent and an infringement of his father 's royal prerogative . In January 1622 , James dissolved Parliament , angry at what he perceived as the members ' impudence and intransigence . Charles and the Duke of Buckingham , James 's favourite and a man who had great influence over the prince , travelled incognito to Spain in February 1623 to try to reach agreement on the long-pending Spanish match . In the end , however , the trip was an embarrassing failure . The Infanta thought Charles was little more than an infidel , and the Spanish at first demanded that he convert to Roman Catholicism as a condition of the match . The Spanish insisted on toleration of Catholics in England and the repeal of the penal laws , which Charles knew would never be agreed by Parliament , and that the Infanta remain in Spain for a year after any wedding to ensure that England complied with all the terms of the treaty . A personal quarrel erupted between Buckingham and the Count of Olivares , the Spanish chief minister , and so Charles conducted the ultimately futile negotiations personally . When Charles returned to London in October , without a bride and to a rapturous and relieved public welcome , he and Buckingham pushed a reluctant King James to declare war on Spain . With the encouragement of his Protestant advisers , James summoned the English Parliament in 1624 so that he could request subsidies for a war . Charles and Buckingham supported the impeachment of the Lord Treasurer , Lionel Cranfield , 1st Earl of Middlesex , who opposed war on grounds of cost and who quickly fell in much the same manner as Bacon had . James told Buckingham he was a fool , and presciently warned his son that he would live to regret the revival of impeachment as a parliamentary tool . An under-funded makeshift army under Ernst von Mansfeld set off to recover the Palatinate , but it was so poorly provisioned that it never advanced beyond the Dutch coast . By 1624 , James was growing ill , and as a result was finding it difficult to control Parliament . By the time of his death in March 1625 , Charles and the Duke of Buckingham had already assumed de facto control of the kingdom . Early reign With the failure of the Spanish match , Charles and Buckingham turned their attention to France . On 1 May 1625 Charles was married by proxy to the fifteen-year-old French princess Henrietta Maria in front of the doors of the Notre Dame de Paris . Charles had seen Henrietta Maria in Paris while en route to Spain . The couple married in person on 13 June 1625 in Canterbury . Charles delayed the opening of his first Parliament until after the second ceremony , to forestall any opposition . Many members of the Commons were opposed to the king 's marriage to a Roman Catholic , fearing that Charles would lift restrictions on Catholic recusants and undermine the official establishment of the reformed Church of England . Although he told Parliament that he would not relax religious restrictions , he promised to do exactly that in a secret marriage treaty with Louis XIII of France . Moreover , the treaty placed under French command an English naval force that would be used to suppress the Protestant Huguenots at La Rochelle . Charles was crowned on 2 February 1626 at Westminster Abbey , but without his wife at his side because she refused to participate in a Protestant religious ceremony . Distrust of Charles 's religious policies increased with his support of a controversial anti-Calvinist ecclesiastic , Richard Montagu , who was in disrepute among the Puritans . In his pamphlet A New Gag for an Old Goose ( 1624 ) , a reply to the Catholic pamphlet A New Gag for the New Gospel , Montagu argued against Calvinist predestination , the doctrine that salvation and damnation were preordained by God . Anti-Calvinists – known as Arminians – believed that human beings could influence their own fate through the exercise of free will . Arminian divines had been one of the few sources of support for Charles 's proposed Spanish marriage . With the support of King James , Montagu produced another pamphlet , entitled Appello Caesarem , in 1625 shortly after the old king 's death and Charles 's accession . To protect Montagu from the stricture of Puritan members of Parliament , Charles made the cleric one of his royal chaplains , increasing many Puritans ' suspicions that Charles favoured Arminianism as a clandestine attempt to aid the resurgence of Catholicism . Rather than direct involvement in the European land war , the English Parliament preferred a relatively inexpensive naval attack on Spanish colonies in the New World , hoping for the capture of the Spanish treasure fleets . Parliament voted to grant a subsidy of £140,000 , which was an insufficient sum for Charles 's war plans . Moreover , the House of Commons limited its authorisation for royal collection of tonnage and poundage ( two varieties of customs duties ) to a period of one year , although previous sovereigns since Henry VI of England had been granted the right for life . In this manner , Parliament could delay approval of the rates until after a full-scale review of customs revenue . The bill made no progress in the House of Lords past its first reading . Although no Parliamentary Act for the levy of tonnage and poundage was obtained , Charles continued to collect the duties . A poorly conceived and executed naval expedition against Spain under the leadership of Buckingham went badly , and the House of Commons began proceedings for the impeachment of the duke . In May 1626 , Charles nominated Buckingham as Chancellor of Cambridge University in a show of support , and had two members who had spoken against Buckingham – Dudley Digges and Sir John Eliot – arrested at the door of the House . The Commons was outraged by the imprisonment of two of their members , and after about a week in custody , both were released . On 12 June 1626 , the Commons launched a direct protestation attacking Buckingham , stating , `` We protest before your Majesty and the whole world that until this great person be removed from intermeddling with the great affairs of state , we are out of hope of any good success ; and do fear that any money we shall or can give will , through his misemployment , be turned rather to the hurt and prejudice of this your kingdom than otherwise , as by lamentable experience we have found those large supplies formerly and lately given . '' Despite Parliament 's protests , however , Charles refused to dismiss his friend , dismissing Parliament instead . Meanwhile , domestic quarrels between Charles and Henrietta Maria were souring the early years of their marriage . Disputes over her jointure , appointments to her household , and the practice of her religion culminated in the king expelling the vast majority of her French attendants in August 1626 . Despite Charles 's agreement to provide the French with English ships as a condition of marrying Henrietta Maria , in 1627 he launched an attack on the French coast to defend the Huguenots at La Rochelle . The action , led by Buckingham , was ultimately unsuccessful . Buckingham 's failure to protect the Huguenots – and his retreat from Saint-Martin-de-Ré – spurred Louis XIII 's siege of La Rochelle and furthered the English Parliament 's and people 's detestation of the duke . Charles provoked further unrest by trying to raise money for the war through a `` forced loan '' : a tax levied without parliamentary consent . In November 1627 , the test case in the King 's Bench , the `` Five Knights ' Case '' , found that the king had a prerogative right to imprison without trial those who refused to pay the forced loan . Summoned again in March 1628 , on 26 May Parliament adopted a Petition of Right , calling upon the king to acknowledge that he could not levy taxes without Parliament 's consent , not impose martial law on civilians , not imprison them without due process , and not quarter troops in their homes . Charles assented to the petition on 7 June , but by the end of the month he had prorogued Parliament and re-asserted his right to collect customs duties without authorisation from Parliament . On 23 August 1628 , Buckingham was assassinated . Charles was deeply distressed . According to Edward Hyde , 1st Earl of Clarendon , he `` threw himself upon his bed , lamenting with much passion and with abundance of tears '' . He remained grieving in his room for two days . In contrast , the public rejoiced at Buckingham 's death , which accentuated the gulf between the court and the nation , and between the Crown and the Commons . Although the death of Buckingham effectively ended the war with Spain and eliminated his leadership as an issue , it did not end the conflicts between Charles and Parliament . It did , however , coincide with an improvement in Charles 's relationship with his wife , and by November 1628 their old quarrels were at an end . Perhaps Charles 's emotional ties were transferred from Buckingham to Henrietta Maria . She became pregnant for the first time , and the bond between them grew ever stronger . Together , they embodied an image of virtue and family life , and their court became a model of formality and morality . Personal rule Parliament prorogued In January 1629 , Charles opened the second session of the English Parliament , which had been prorogued in June 1628 , with a moderate speech on the tonnage and poundage issue . Members of the House of Commons began to voice opposition to Charles 's policies in light of the case of John Rolle , a Member of Parliament whose goods had been confiscated for failing to pay tonnage and poundage . Many MPs viewed the imposition of the tax as a breach of the Petition of Right . When Charles ordered a parliamentary adjournment on 2 March , members held the Speaker , Sir John Finch , down in his chair so that the ending of the session could be delayed long enough for resolutions against Catholicism , Arminianism and tonnage and poundage to be read out and acclaimed by the chamber . The provocation was too much for Charles , who dissolved Parliament and had nine parliamentary leaders , including Sir John Eliot , imprisoned over the matter , thereby turning the men into martyrs , and giving popular cause to their protest . Shortly after the prorogation , without the means in the foreseeable future to raise funds from Parliament for a European war , or the influence of Buckingham , Charles made peace with France and Spain . The following eleven years , during which Charles ruled England without a Parliament , are referred to as the personal rule or the `` eleven years ' tyranny '' . Ruling without Parliament was not exceptional , and was supported by precedent . Only Parliament , however , could legally raise taxes , and without it Charles 's capacity to acquire funds for his treasury was limited to his customary rights and prerogatives . Finances A large fiscal deficit had arisen in the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I . Notwithstanding Buckingham 's short lived campaigns against both Spain and France , there was little financial capacity for Charles to wage wars overseas . Throughout his reign Charles was obliged to rely primarily on volunteer forces for defence and on diplomatic efforts to support his sister , Elizabeth , and his foreign policy objective for the restoration of the Palatinate . England was still the least taxed country in Europe , with no official excise and no regular direct taxation . To raise revenue without reconvening Parliament , Charles resurrected an all-but-forgotten law called the `` Distraint of Knighthood '' , in abeyance for over a century , which required any man who earned £40 or more from land each year to present himself at the king 's coronation to be knighted . Relying on this old statute , Charles fined individuals who had failed to attend his coronation in 1626 . The chief tax imposed by Charles was a feudal levy known as ship money , which proved even more unpopular , and lucrative , than poundage and tonnage before it . Previously , collection of ship money had been authorised only during wars , and only on coastal regions . Charles , however , argued that there was no legal bar to collecting the tax for defence during peacetime and throughout the whole of the kingdom . Ship money , paid directly to the Treasury of the Navy , provided between £150,000 to £200,000 annually between 1634 and 1638 , after which yields declined . Opposition to ship money steadily grew , but the 12 common law judges of England declared that the tax was within the king 's prerogative , though some of them had reservations . The prosecution of John Hampden for non-payment in 1637–38 provided a platform for popular protest , and the judges only found against Hampden by the narrow margin of 7–5 . The king also derived money through the granting of monopolies , despite a statute forbidding such action , which , though inefficient , raised an estimated £100,000 a year in the late 1630s . One such monopoly was for soap , referred to as popish soap . Charles also raised funds from the Scottish nobility , at the price of considerable acrimony , by the Act of Revocation ( 1625 ) , whereby all gifts of royal or church land made to the nobility since 1540 were revoked , with continued ownership being subject to an annual rent . In addition , the boundaries of the royal forests in England were restored to their ancient limits as part of a scheme to maximise income by exploiting the land and fining land users within the reasserted boundaries for encroachment . The focus of the programme was disafforestation and sale of forest lands for conversion to pasture and arable farming , or in the case of the Forest of Dean , development for the iron industry . Disafforestation frequently caused riots and disturbances including those known as the Western Rising . The practice of granting extensive monopolies agitated the public , who were forced to pay higher prices by the monopoly holders . Against the background of this unrest , Charles faced bankruptcy in the summer of 1640 as parliament continued to refuse new taxes . The City of London , preoccupied with its own grievances further refused to make any loans to the king , and likewise he was unable to subscribe any foreign loans . In this extremity , Charles seized the money held in trust at the mint of the Exchequer in the tower of London . The royal mint held a monopoly on the exchange of foreign coin and from this the mint operated as a bank containing much capital of the merchants and goldsmiths of the city . In July , Charles seized all £130,000 of this money , and in August he followed it up by seizing all the stocks of pepper held by the East India Company , and selling it at distress prices . Religious conflicts Throughout Charles 's reign , the issue of how far the English Reformation should progress was constantly brought to the forefront of political debate . Arminian theology emphasised clerical authority and the individual 's ability to reject or accept salvation , and was consequently viewed as heretical and a potential vehicle for the reintroduction of Roman Catholicism by its Calvinist opponents . Charles 's sympathy to the teachings of Arminianism , and specifically his wish to move the Church of England away from Calvinism in a more traditional and sacramental direction , were perceived by Puritans as irreligious tendencies . In addition , Charles 's Protestant subjects followed news of the European war closely and grew increasingly dismayed by Charles 's diplomacy with Spain and his failure to support the Protestant cause abroad effectively . In 1633 , Charles appointed William Laud as Archbishop of Canterbury . Together , they began a series of anti-Calvinist reforms that attempted to ensure religious uniformity by restricting non-conformist preachers , insisting that the liturgy be celebrated as prescribed in the Book of Common Prayer , organising the internal architecture of English churches so as to emphasise the sacrament of the altar , and re-issuing King James 's Declaration of Sports , which permitted secular activities on the sabbath . The Feoffees for Impropriations , an organisation that bought benefices and advowsons so that Puritans could be appointed to them , was dissolved . To prosecute those who opposed his reforms , Laud used the two most powerful courts in the land , the Court of High Commission and the Court of Star Chamber . The courts became feared for their censorship of opposing religious views , and became unpopular among the propertied classes for inflicting degrading punishments on gentlemen . For example , in 1637 William Prynne , Henry Burton and John Bastwick were pilloried , whipped and mutilated by cropping and imprisoned indefinitely for publishing anti-episcopal pamphlets . When Charles attempted to impose his religious policies in Scotland he faced numerous difficulties . Although born in Scotland , Charles had become estranged from his northern kingdom ; his first visit since early childhood was for his Scottish coronation in 1633 . To the dismay of the Scots , who had removed many traditional rituals from their liturgical practice , Charles insisted that the coronation be conducted in the Anglican rite . In 1637 , the king ordered the use of a new prayer book in Scotland that was almost identical to the English Book of Common Prayer , without consulting either the Scottish Parliament or the Kirk . Although written , under Charles 's direction , by Scottish bishops , many Scots resisted it , seeing the new prayer book as a vehicle for introducing Anglicanism to Scotland . On 23 July , riots erupted in Edinburgh upon the first Sunday of the prayer book 's usage , and unrest spread throughout the Kirk . The public began to mobilise around a reaffirmation of the National Covenant , whose signatories pledged to uphold the reformed religion of Scotland and reject any innovations that were not authorised by Kirk and Parliament . When the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland met in November 1638 , it condemned the new prayer book , abolished episcopal church government by bishops , and adopted Presbyterian government by elders and deacons . Bishops ' Wars Charles perceived the unrest in Scotland as a rebellion against his authority , precipitating the First Bishops ' War in 1639 . Charles did not seek subsidies from the English Parliament to wage war , but instead raised an army without parliamentary aid and marched to Berwick-upon-Tweed , on the border of Scotland . Charles 's army did not engage the Covenanters as the king feared the defeat of his forces , whom he believed to be significantly outnumbered by the Scots . In the Treaty of Berwick , Charles regained custody of his Scottish fortresses and secured the dissolution of the Covenanters ' interim government , albeit at the decisive concession that both the Scottish Parliament and General Assembly of the Scottish Church were called . Charles 's military failure in the First Bishops ' War caused a financial and diplomatic crisis for Charles that deepened when his efforts to raise finance from Spain , while simultaneously continuing his support for his Palatine relatives , led to the public humiliation of the Battle of the Downs , where the Dutch destroyed a Spanish bullion fleet off the coast of Kent in sight of the impotent English navy . Charles continued peace negotiations with the Scots in a bid to gain time before launching a new military campaign . Because of his financial weakness , he was forced to call Parliament into session in an attempt to raise funds for such a venture . Both English and Irish parliaments were summoned in the early months of 1640 . In March 1640 , the Irish Parliament duly voted in a subsidy

wh_2365--Charles_I_of_England.txt

Which English king was married to Catherine of Braganza from 1662 to 1685?

A television program is a segment of content intended for broadcast on over-the-air , cable television , or Internet television , other than a commercial , trailer , or any other segment of content not serving as attraction for viewership . It may be a single production , or more commonly , a series of related productions ( also called a television series or a television show ) . A limited number of episodes of a television drama may be called a miniseries or a serial or limited series . Series without a fixed length are usually divided into seasons ( U.S. ) or series ( UK ) , yearly or semiannual sets of new episodes . While there is no defined length , U.S. industry practice has traditionally favored longer television seasons than those of other countries . A one-time broadcast may be called a `` special '' , or particularly in the UK a `` special episode '' . A television film ( `` made-for-TV movie '' or `` television movie '' ) is a film that is initially broadcast on television rather than released in theaters or direct-to-video . A program can be either recorded , as on video tape , other various electronic media forms , played with an on-demand player or viewed on live television . Formats Television programs may be fictional ( as in comedies and dramas ) , or non-fictional ( as in documentary , news , and reality television ) . It may be topical ( as in the case of a local newscast and some made-for-television movies ) , or historical ( as in the case of many documentaries and fictional series ) . They could be primarily instructional or educational , or entertaining as is the case in situation comedy and game shows . A drama program usually features a set of actors playing characters in a historical or contemporary setting . The program follows their lives and adventures . Except for soap opera-type serials , many shows especially before the 1980s , remained static without story arcs , and the main characters and premise changed little . If some change happened to the characters ' lives during the episode , it was usually undone by the end . ( Because of this , the episodes could be broadcast in any order . ) Since the 1980s , there are many series that feature progressive change to the plot , the characters , or both . For instance , Hill Street Blues and St . Elsewhere were two of the first American prime time drama television series to have this kind of dramatic structure , while the later series , Babylon 5 , is an extreme example of such production that had a predetermined story running over its intended five-season run . In 2012 , it was reported that television was growing into a larger component of major media companies ' revenues than film . Some also noted the increase in quality of some television programs . In 2012 , Academy-Award winning film director Steven Soderbergh , commenting on ambiguity and complexity of character and narrative , stated : `` I think those qualities are now being seen on television and that people who want to see stories that have those kinds of qualities are watching television . '' Genres Scripted entertainment * Animated * Award shows ( partially scripted ) * Drama , which includes : * * Action-adventure or Thriller * * Comedy-drama * * Legal drama * * Medical drama * * Police procedural * * Political drama * * Science-fiction , fantasy , horror , supernatural drama * * Serial drama * * Soap opera * * Teen drama * Miniseries and Television movies * Comedy * * Mockumentary * * Satire * * Sitcom * * Sketch comedy Unscripted entertainment * Game shows * Reality * Talk shows * Talent shows Informational * Infomercials – Paid advertising spots that are up to an hour long * News programs * Documentaries * Television news magazine – Dealing with current affairs Development United States When a person or company decides to create a new series , they develop the show 's elements , consisting of the concept , the characters , the crew , and cast . Then they offer ( `` pitch '' ) it to the various networks in an attempt to find one interested enough to order a prototype first episode of the series , known as a pilot . Eric Coleman , an animation executive at Disney , told an interviewer , `` One misconception is that it ’ s very difficult to get in and pitch your show , when the truth is that development executives at networks want very much to hear ideas . They want very much to get the word out on what types of shows they ’ re looking for . '' To create the pilot , the structure and team of the whole series must be put together . If the network likes the pilot , they pick up the show to air it the next season ( usually Fall ) . Sometimes they save it for mid-season , or request rewrites and further review ( known in the industry as development hell ) . Other times , they pass entirely , forcing the show 's creator to `` shop it around '' to other networks . Many shows never make it past the pilot stage . The show hires a stable of writers , who usually work in parallel : the first writer works on the first episode , the second on the second episode , etc . When all the writers have been used , episode assignment starts again with the first writer . On other shows , however , the writers work as a team . Sometimes they develop story ideas individually , and pitch them to the show 's creator , who folds them together into a script and rewrites them . If the show is picked up , the network orders a `` run '' of episodes—usually only six or 13 episodes at first , though a season typically consists of at least 22 episodes . ( The midseason seven and last nine episodes are sometimes called the `` mid-seven '' and `` back nine '' —borrowing the colloquial terms from bowling and golf ) . United Kingdom In contrast to the U.S. model illustrated above , the UK procedure is operated on a sometimes similar , but much smaller scale . The method of `` team writing '' is employed on some longer dramatic series ( usually running up to a maximum of around 13 episodes ) . The idea for such a program may be generated `` in-house '' by one of the networks ; it could originate from an independent production company ( sometimes a product of both ) . For example , the BBC 's long-running soap opera EastEnders is wholly a BBC production , whereas its popular drama Life on Mars was developed by Kudos in association with the broadcaster . However , there are still a significant number of programs ( usually sitcoms ) that are built around just one or two writers and a small , close-knit production team . These are `` pitched '' in the traditional way , but since the creator ( s ) handle all the writing requirements , there is a run of six or seven episodes per series once approval has been given . Many of the most popular British comedies have been made this way , including Monty Python 's Flying Circus ( albeit with an exclusive team of six writer-performers ) , Fawlty Towers , Blackadder and The Office . Production At the production company , which is often separate from the broadcaster , the executive producer , often the show 's creator , is in charge of running the show . They pick the crew and help cast the actors , approve and sometimes write series plots ( some even write or direct major episodes ) . Various other producers help to ensure that the show runs smoothly . As with filmmaking or other electronic media production , producing of an individual episode can be divided into three parts . These are : Pre-production Pre-production begins when a script is approved . A director is chosen to plan the episode 's final look . Pre-production tasks include storyboarding , construction of sets , props , and costumes , casting guest stars , budgeting , acquiring resources like lighting , special effects , stunts , etc . Once the show is planned , it must then be scheduled ; scenes are often filmed out of sequence , guest actors or even regulars may only be available at certain times . Sometimes the principal photography of different episodes must be done at the same time , complicating the schedule ( a guest star might shoot scenes from two episodes on the same afternoon ) . Complex scenes are translated from storyboard to animatics to further clarify the action . Scripts are adjusted to meet altering requirements . Some shows have a small stable of directors , but also usually rely on outside directors . Given the time constraints of broadcasting , a single show might have two or three episodes in pre-production , one or two episodes in principal photography , and a few more in various stages of post-production . The task of directing is complex enough that a single director can usually not work on more than one episode or show at a time , hence the need for multiple directors . Principal photography Principal photography is the actual filming of the episode . Director , actors and crew gather at a television studio or on location for filming or videoing a scene . A scene is further divided into shots , which should be planned during pre-production . Depending on scheduling , a scene may be shot in non-sequential order of the story . Conversations may be filmed twice from different camera angles , often using stand-ins , so one actor might perform all their lines in one set of shots , and then the other side of the conversation is filmed from the opposite perspective . To complete a production on time , a second unit may be filming a different scene on another set or location at the same time , using a different set of actors , an assistant director , and a second unit crew . A director of photography supervises the lighting of each shot to ensure consistency . Post production Once principal photography is complete , producers coordinate tasks to begin the video editing . Visual and digital video effects are added to the film ; this is often outsourced to companies specializing in these areas . Often music is performed with the conductor using the film as a time reference ( other musical elements may be previously recorded ) . An editor cuts the various pieces of film together , adds the musical score and effects , determines scene transitions , and assembles the completed show . Budgets and revenues Most television networks throughout the world are 'commercial ' , dependent on selling advertising time or acquiring sponsors . Broadcasting executives ' main concern over their programming is on audience size . Once the number of 'free to air ' stations was restricted by the availability of channel frequencies , but cable TV ( outside the United States , satellite television ) technology has allowed an expansion in the number of channels available to viewers ( sometimes at premium rates ) in a much more competitive environment . In the United States , the average broadcast network drama costs $ 3 million an episode to produce , while cable dramas cost $ 2 million on average . The pilot episode may be more expensive than a regular episode . In 2004 , Lost 's two-hour pilot cost $ 10– $ 14 million , in 2008 Fringe 's two-hour pilot cost $ 10 million , and in 2010 , Boardwalk Empire was $ 18 million for the first episode . In 2011 , Game of Thrones was $ 5– $ 10 million , Pan Am cost an estimated $ 10 million , while Terra Nova 's two-hour pilot was between $ 10 to $ 20 million . Many scripted network television shows in the United States are financed through Deficit financing : a studio finances the production cost of a show and a network pays a license fee to the studio for the right to air the show . This license fee does not cover the show 's production costs , leading to the deficit . Although the studio does not make its money back in the original airing of the show , it retains ownership of the show . This ownership retention allows the studio to make its money back and earn a profit through syndication and DVD and Blu-ray disc sales . This system places most of the financial risk on the studios , however a show that is a hit in the syndication and home video markets can more than make up for the misses . Although the deficit financing system places minimal financial risk on the networks , they lose out on the future profits of big hits , since they are only licensing the shows . Costs are recouped mainly by advertising revenues for broadcast networks and some cable channels , while other cable channels depend on subscription revenues . In general , advertisers , and consequently networks that depend on advertising revenues , are more interested in the number of viewers within the 18–49 age range than the total number of viewers . Advertisers are willing to pay more to advertise on shows successful with young adults because they watch less television and are harder to reach than older adults . According to Advertising Age , during the 2007–08 season , Grey 's Anatomy was able to charge $ 419,000 per commercial , compared to only $ 248,000 for a commercial during CSI , despite CSI having almost five million more viewers on average . Due to its strength in young demos , Friends was able to charge almost three times as much for a commercial as Murder , She Wrote , even though the two series had similar total viewer numbers during the seasons they were on the air together . Glee and The Office drew fewer total viewers than NCIS during the 2009–10 season , but earned an average of $ 272,694 and $ 213,617 respectively , compared to $ 150,708 for NCIS . Distribution After production , the show is turned over to the television network , which sends it out to its affiliate stations , which broadcast it in the specified broadcast programming time slot . If the Nielsen ratings are good , the show is kept alive as long as possible . If not , the show is usually canceled . The show 's creators are then left to shop around remaining episodes , and the possibility of future episodes , to other networks . On especially successful series , the producers sometimes call a halt to a series on their own like Seinfeld , The Cosby Show , Corner Gas , and M * A * S * H and end it with a concluding episode , which sometimes is a big series finale . On rare occasions , a series that has not attracted particularly high ratings and has been canceled can be given a reprieve if DVD sales have been particularly strong . This has happened in the cases of Family Guy in the U.S. and Peep Show in the UK . If the show is popular or lucrative , and a number of episodes ( usually 100 episodes or more ) are made , it goes into broadcast syndication ( in the United States ) where rights to broadcast the program are then resold . Seasons/series The terminology used to define a set of episodes produced by a television series varies from country to country . North American usage In North American television , a series is a connected set of television program episodes that run under the same title , possibly spanning many seasons . Since the late 1960s , this broadcast programming schedule typically includes between 20 and 26 episodes . ( Before then , a regular television season could average out to at least 30 episodes . ) Up until the 1980s , most ( but certainly not all ) new programs for the broadcast networks debuted in the `` Fall Season '' , which ran from September through March and nominally contained from 24 to 26 episodes . These episodes were rebroadcast during the Spring ( or Summer ) Season , from April through August . Because of cable television and the Nielsen sweeps , the `` fall '' season now normally extends to May . Thus , a `` full season '' on a broadcast network now usually runs from September through May for at least 22 episodes . A full season is sometimes split into two separate units with a hiatus around the end of the calendar year , such as the first season of Jericho on CBS . When this split occurs , the last half of the episodes sometimes are referred to with the letter B as in `` The last nine episodes ( of The Sopranos ) will be part of what is being called either `` Season 6 , Part 2 '' or `` Season 6B '' , or in `` Futurama is splitting its seasons similar to how South Park does , doing half a season at a time , so this is season 6B for them . '' Since the 1990s , these shorter seasons also have been referred to as `` .5 '' or half seasons , where the run of shows between September and December is labeled `` Season X '' , and the second run between January and May labeled `` Season X.5 '' . Examples of this include the 2004 incarnation of Battlestar Galactica , ABC 's FlashForward , and ABC Family 's Make It or Break It . Nowadays , a new series is often ordered ( funded ) for just the first 10 to 13 episodes , to gauge the audience interest . If it is `` picked up '' , the season is completed to the regular 20 to 26 episodes . A midseason replacement is an inexpensive short-run ( 10–13 episode ) show designed to take the place of an original series that failed to garner an audience and has not been picked up . A `` series finale '' is the last show of the series before the show is no longer produced . ( In the UK , it means the end of a season , what is known in the United States as a `` season finale '' ) . UK and Australia usage In the United Kingdom and other countries , these sets of episodes are referred to as a `` series '' . In Australia , the broadcasting may be different from North American usage ; however , the terms series and season are both used and are the same . For example , Battlestar Galactica has an original series as well as a remake , both are considered different series with their own number of individual seasons . Australian television does not follow `` seasons '' in the way that U.S. television does ; for example , there is no `` fall season '' or `` fall schedule '' . For many years , popular night-time dramas in Australia would run for much of the year , and would only go into recess during the summer period ( December–February , as Australia is in the Southern Hemisphere ) , when ratings are not taken . Therefore , popular dramas would usually run from February through November each year . This schedule was used in the 1970s for popular dramas including Number 96 . Many drama series , such as McLeod 's Daughters , have received in the majority of between 22 and 32 episodes per season . Typically , a soap opera such as Home and Away would begin a new season in late January and the season finale would air in late November , with 220–230 episodes per season . However , during the Olympics , Home and Away would often go on hiatus , which is referred to as an `` Olympic cliffhanger '' . Therefore , the number of episodes would decrease . This is no longer the case , as the Olympics no longer broadcast in winter on the Seven Network as of 2012 . Australian situation comedy series ' seasons are approximately 13 episodes long and premiere any time in between February and November . British shows have tended toward shorter series in recent years . For example , the first series of long-running science fiction show Doctor Who in 1963 featured forty-two 25‑minute episodes , this dropped to 25 by 1970 to accommodate changes in production and continued to 1984 . For 1985 fewer but longer episodes were shown , but even after a return to shorter episodes in 1986 , lack of support within the BBC meant fewer episodes were commissioned leading to only fourteen 25‑minute episodes up to those in 1989 after which it was cancelled . The revival of Doctor Who from 2005 has comprised thirteen 45‑minute installments . However , there are some series in the UK that have a larger number of episodes , for example Waterloo Road started with 8 to 12 episodes , but from series three onward it increased to 20 episodes , and series seven will contain 30 episodes . Recently , American non-cable networks have also begun to experiment with shorter series for some programs , particularly reality shows , such as Survivor . However , they often air two series per year , resulting in roughly the same number of episodes per year as a drama . This is a reduction from the 1950s , in which many American shows ( e.g . Gunsmoke ) had between 29 and 39 episodes per season . Actual storytelling time within a commercial television hour has also gradually reduced over the years , from 50 minutes out of every 60 to the current 44 ( and even less on some networks ) , beginning in the early 21st century . The usage of `` season '' and `` series '' differ for DVD and Blu-ray releases in both in Australia and UK . In Australia , many locally produced shows are termed differently on home video releases . For example , a set of the television drama series Packed to the Rafters or Wentworth is referred to as `` season '' ( `` The Complete First Season '' , etc . ) , whereas drama series such as Tangle are known as a `` series '' ( `` Series 1 '' , etc . ) . However , British-produced shows such as Mrs. Brown 's Boys are referred to as `` season '' in Australia for the DVD and Blu-ray releases . In the UK , most British-produced shows are referred to as `` series '' for DVD and Blu-ray , except for shows such as the drama series Hex and Echo Beach , which are known as `` season '' . `` Season '' is only used for releases of American , Australian , and international shows . Although , in the past when an American series was released , it was referred to as `` series '' , for example , Friends : Series 1 . However , any subsequent re-release are now known as `` season '' . In the United States , dramas produced for hour-long time slots typically are 39 to 42 minutes in length ( excluding advertisements ) , while sitcoms produced for 30-minute time slots typically are 18 to 21 minutes long . There are exceptions as subscription-based TV channels ( like Showtime ) have episodes with 45 to 48 minutes of program , similar to Britain . In Britain dramas run from about 45 to 48 minutes , with 57 to 59 minutes on BBC1 . Sitcoms vary greatly and are between 22 and 27 minutes generally and 27 to 29 minutes on BBC1 . The longer duration on the national television channels ( BBC1 and BBC2 ) is due to the lack of advertising , requiring time only for bridging commentary and trailers in each program slot . Program Guides by Country * Australia * India

jp_755--Television_program.txt

"""Torchwood"" was a spin-off of what popular TV show?"

Caroline Amelia Elizabeth of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel ( 17 May 1768 – 7 August 1821 ) , best known as Caroline of Brunswick , was Queen of the United Kingdom as the wife of King George IV from 29 January 1820 until her death in 1821 . She was the Princess of Wales from 1795 to 1820 . Her father was the ruler of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel in Germany , and her mother , Princess Augusta , was the sister of George III . In 1794 , she was engaged to her first-cousin and George III 's eldest son and heir George , Prince of Wales , despite they had never met and George was already married illegally to Maria Fitzherbert . George and Caroline married the following year , and nine months later Caroline had a child , Princess Charlotte of Wales . Shortly after Charlotte 's birth , George and Caroline separated . By 1806 , rumours that Caroline had taken lovers and had an illegitimate child led to an investigation into her private life . The dignitaries who led the investigation concluded that there was `` no foundation '' to the rumours , but Caroline 's access to her daughter was restricted . In 1814 , Caroline moved to Italy , where she employed Bartolomeo Pergami as a servant . Pergami soon became Caroline 's closest companion , and it was widely assumed that they were lovers . In 1817 , Caroline was devastated when her daughter Charlotte died in childbirth ; she heard the news from a passing courier as George had refused to write and tell her . He was determined to divorce Caroline , and set up a second investigation to collect evidence of her adultery . In 1820 , George became king of the United Kingdom and Hanover . George hated her , vowed she would never be the queen , and insisted on a divorce , which she refused . A legal divorce was possible but difficult to obtain . Caroline returned to Britain to assert her position as queen . She was wildly popular with the British populace , who sympathized with her and who despised the new king for his immoral behaviour . On the basis of the loose evidence collected against her , George attempted to divorce her by introducing the Pains and Penalties Bill to Parliament , but George and the bill were so unpopular , and Caroline so popular with the masses , that it was withdrawn by the Tory government . In July 1821 , Caroline was barred from the coronation on the orders of her husband . She fell ill in London and died three weeks later ; her funeral procession passed through London on its way to her native Brunswick , where she was buried . Early life Caroline was born as Princess of Brunswick , with the courtesy title of Duchess of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel on 17 May 1768 at Braunschweig ( known in English as Brunswick ) in Germany . She was the daughter of Charles William , Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel , and his wife Princess Augusta of Great Britain , eldest sister of George III . Caroline was brought up in a difficult family situation . Her mother resented her father 's open adultery with Louise Hertefeld , whom he had installed as his official mistress in 1777 , and Caroline was later to confide to Lady Charlotte Campbell , that she was often tired of becoming `` shuttlecock '' between her parents , as whenever she was civil to one of them , she was scolded by the other . She was educated by governesses , but the only subject in which she was given a high education was music . From 1783 until 1791 Countess Eleonore von Münster was her governess , and won her affection , but never managed to teach her to spell correctly , as Caroline preferred to dictate to a secretary . Caroline could understand English and French , but her father admitted that she was lacking in education . According to Caroline 's mother , who was British , all German princesses learned English in the hope that they would be chosen to marry George , Prince of Wales , George III 's eldest son and heir apparent and Caroline 's first cousin . John Stanley , later Lord Stanley of Alderley , saw her in 1781 , and noted that she was an attractive girl with curly , fair hair . In 1784 , she was described as a beauty , and two years later , Mirabeau described her as `` most amiable , lively , playful , witty and handsome . `` Fraser , Flora : The Unruly Queen : The Life of Queen Caroline Caroline was brought up with an extreme degree of seclusion from contact with the opposite sex even for her own time . She was reportedly constantly supervised by her governess and elder ladies , restricted to her room when the family was entertaining guests and ordered to keep away from the windows . She was normally refused permission to attend balls and court functions , and when allowed , she was forbidden to dance . Abbé Baron commented during the winter of 1789–90 : `` She is supervised with the greatest severity , as they claim she is already aware of what she is missing . I doubt if the torches of hymen will illuminate for her . Although always attired with style and elegance , she is never allowed to dance '' , and that as soon as the first dance begun , she was forced to sit down at the whist table with three old ladies . A rare occasion was the wedding of her elder brother Charles , when she was finally allowed to dance , though only with her brother , the groom , and her new brother-in-law , the Prince of Orange – she was , however , still forbidden to dine alone with her brother . Her secluded isolation tormented her , which was demonstrated when she was again banned from attending a ball . She simulated an illness so severe that her parents left the ball to see her . When they arrived , she claimed to be in labor and forced them to send for a midwife . When the midwife arrived , she stopped her simulation and asked her mother : `` Now , Madam , will you keep me another time from a ball ? '' Her mother early favored a match between one of her children and a member of her English family , and when her nephew Prince Frederick visited Brunswick in June 1781 , she lamented the fact that Caroline , because of her age , could not be present very often . Caroline was given a number of proposals from 1782 onward . Marriage with the Prince of Orange , Prince George of Hesse-Darmstadt , Charles , Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz , and the second son of the Margrave of Baden were all suggested , while her mother and father supported an English and a Prussian Prince respectively , but none came to fruition . Caroline was later to state that her father had forbidden her to marry a man she had fallen in love with because of his low status . The identity of this man is not clear , but contemporaries point out an officer who was referred to at the time as the `` Handsome Irishman '' who lived in Brunswick , and with whom Caroline was said to have been in love . There was also a rumor , that Caroline had given birth at the age of fifteen . Though she was not allowed to socialize with men , she was allowed to ride , and during riding , she visited the cottages of the peasantry . She had done this already as a child , during which she had met children to play with , and as an adult , one of these visits allegedly led to a pregnancy . There is no confirmation of this rumor , but it was well-known during her life , and referred to as a reason for why she married at an older age than was usual , despite being regarded as good-looking and having been given so many proposals . Engagement In 1794 , Caroline and the Prince of Wales were engaged . They had never met—George had agreed to marry her because he was heavily in debt , and if he contracted a marriage with an eligible princess , Parliament would increase his allowance . Caroline seemed eminently suitable : she was a Protestant of royal birth , and the marriage would ally Brunswick and Britain . Although Brunswick was only a small country , Britain was at war with revolutionary France so eager to obtain allies on the European mainland . Brunswick was ruled by Caroline 's father , the esteemed soldier Charles William Ferdinand , Duke of Brunswick , who himself had married Princess Augusta , the sister of George III . On 20 November 1794 , Lord Malmesbury arrived at Brunswick to escort Caroline to her new life in Britain . In his diary , Malmesbury recorded his reservations about Caroline 's suitability as a bride for the prince : she lacked judgement , decorum and tact , spoke her mind too readily , acted indiscreetly , and often neglected to wash , or change her dirty clothes . He went on to say that she had `` some natural but no acquired morality , and no strong innate notions of its value and necessity . '' However , Malmesbury was impressed by her bravery ; on the journey to England , the party heard cannon fire , as they were not far from the French lines . While Caroline 's mother , who was accompanying them to the coast as chaperone , was concerned for their safety , Caroline was unfazed . On 28 March 1795 , Caroline and Malmesbury left Cuxhaven in the Jupiter . Delayed by poor weather , they landed a week later , on Easter Sunday , 5 April , at Greenwich . There , she met Frances Villiers , Countess of Jersey , George 's mistress , who had been appointed Caroline 's Lady of the Bedchamber . Smith concludes that : She was chosen as the intended bride of George , prince of Wales partly because her mother was a favourite sister of George III , partly through the favourable reports of her given by the dukes of York and Clarence when they visited Germany , and partly for lack of a suitable alternative German protestant princess . On meeting his future wife for the first time , George called for a glass of brandy . He was evidently disappointed . Similarly , Caroline told Malmesbury , `` [ the Prince is ] very fat and he 's nothing like as handsome as his portrait . '' At dinner that evening , the Prince was appalled by Caroline 's garrulous nature and her jibes at the expense of Lady Jersey . She was upset and disappointed by George 's obvious partiality for Lady Jersey over her . Troubled marriage Caroline and George were married on 8 April 1795 at the Chapel Royal , St. James 's Palace , in London . At the ceremony , George was drunk . He regarded Caroline as unattractive and unhygienic , and told Malmesbury that he suspected that she was not a virgin when they married . He , of course , was not . He had himself already secretly married Maria Fitzherbert ; however , his marriage to Fitzherbert violated the Royal Marriages Act 1772 and thus was not legally valid . In a letter to a friend , the prince claimed that the couple only had sexual intercourse three times : twice the first night of the marriage , and once the second night . He wrote , `` it required no small [ effort ] to conquer my aversion and overcome the disgust of her person . '' Caroline claimed George was so drunk that he `` passed the greatest part of his bridal night under the grate , where he fell , and where I left him '' . Nine months after the wedding , Caroline gave birth to Princess Charlotte Augusta , George 's only legitimate child , at Carlton House on 7 January 1796 . Charlotte was second in the line of succession to the British throne after her father . Just three days after Charlotte 's birth , George made out a new will . He left all his property to `` Maria Fitzherbert , my wife '' , while to Caroline he left one shilling . Gossip about Caroline and George 's troubled marriage was already circulating . The newspapers claimed that Lady Jersey opened , read and distributed the contents of Caroline 's private letters . She despised Lady Jersey and could not visit or travel anywhere without George 's permission . The press vilified George for his extravagance and luxury at a time of war and portrayed Caroline as a wronged wife . She was cheered in public and gained plaudits for her `` winning familiarity '' and easy , open nature . George was dismayed at her popularity and his own unpopularity , and felt trapped in a loveless marriage with a woman he loathed . He wanted a separation . In April 1796 , George wrote to Caroline , `` We have unfortunately been oblig 'd to acknowledge to each other that we can not find happiness in our union . ... Let me therefore beg you to make the best of a situation unfortunate for us both . '' In June , Lady Jersey resigned as Caroline 's Lady of the Bedchamber . George and Caroline were already living separately , and in August 1797 Caroline moved to a private residence : The Vicarage or Old Rectory in Charlton , London . Later , she moved to Montagu House in Blackheath . No longer constrained by her husband , or , according to rumour , her marital vows , she entertained whomever she pleased . She flirted with Admiral Sir Sidney Smith and Captain Thomas Manby , and may have had a fling with the politician George Canning . Her daughter Charlotte was placed in the care of a governess , in a mansion near Montagu House in the summers , and Caroline visited her often . It seems that a single daughter was not sufficient to sate Caroline 's maternal instincts , and she adopted eight or nine poor children who were fostered out to people in the district . In 1802 , she adopted a three-month-old boy , William Austin , and took him into her home . By 1805 , Caroline had fallen out with her near neighbours , Sir John and Lady Douglas , who claimed that Caroline had sent them obscene and harassing letters . Lady Douglas accused Caroline of infidelity , and alleged that William Austin was Caroline 's illegitimate son . Delicate Investigation In 1806 , a secret commission was set up , known as the `` Delicate Investigation '' , to examine Lady Douglas 's claims . The commission comprised four of the most eminent men in the country : Prime Minister Lord Grenville , the Lord Chancellor Lord Erskine , the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales Lord Ellenborough and the Home Secretary Lord Spencer . Lady Douglas testified that Caroline herself had admitted to her in 1802 that she was pregnant , and that Austin was her son . She further alleged that Caroline had been rude about the royal family , touched her in an inappropriately sexual way , and had admitted that any woman friendly with a man was sure to become his lover . In addition to Smith , Manby and Canning , artist Thomas Lawrence and Henry Hood ( the son of Lord Hood ) were also mentioned as potential paramours . Caroline 's servants could or would not confirm that these gentlemen were her lovers , nor that she had been pregnant , and said that the child had been brought to Caroline 's house by his true mother , Sophia Austin . Sophia was summoned before the commissioners , and testified that the child was hers . The commissioners decided that there was `` no foundation '' for the allegations , but despite being a supposedly secret investigation , it proved impossible to prevent gossip from spreading , and news of the investigation leaked to the press . Caroline 's conduct with her gentlemen friends was considered improper , but there was no direct proof that she had been guilty of anything more than flirtation . Perhaps Caroline had told Lady Douglas that she was pregnant out of frustrated maternal desire , or as part of a foolish prank that , unfortunately for her , backfired . Later in the year , Caroline received further bad news as Brunswick was overrun by the French , and her father was killed in the battle of Jena-Auerstadt . Her mother and brother , Frederick William , Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel , fled to England . Caroline had wanted to return to Brunswick and leave Britain behind her , but with much of Europe controlled by the French she had no safe haven to run to . During the Delicate Investigation , Caroline was not permitted to see her daughter , and afterwards her visits were essentially restricted to once a week and only in the presence of Caroline 's own mother , the Dowager Duchess of Brunswick . Meetings took place at either Blackheath or an apartment in Kensington Palace designated for Caroline 's use . Social isolation By the end of 1811 , King George III had become permanently insane , and the Prince of Wales was appointed as Regent . He restricted Caroline 's access to Princess Charlotte further , and Caroline became more socially isolated as members of high society chose to patronise George 's extravagant parties rather than hers . She moved her London residence to Connaught House in Bayswater . Caroline needed a powerful ally to help her oppose George 's increasing ability to prevent her from seeing her daughter . In league with Henry Brougham , an ambitious Whig politician who favoured reform , she began a propaganda campaign against George . George countered by leaking Lady Douglas 's testimony from the `` Delicate Investigation '' , which Brougham repudiated by leaking the testimonies of the servants and Mrs Austin . Charlotte favoured her mother 's point of view , as did most of the public . Jane Austen wrote of Caroline : `` Poor woman , I shall support her as long as I can , because she is a Woman and because I hate her Husband . '' In 1814 , after Napoleon 's defeat , nobility from throughout Europe attended celebrations in London , but Caroline was excluded . George 's relationship with his daughter was also deteriorating , as Charlotte sought greater freedom from her father 's strictures . On 12 July , he informed Charlotte that she would henceforth be confined at Cranbourne Lodge , Windsor , that her household would be replaced , and that she could have no visitors except her grandmother , Queen Charlotte , once a week . Horrified , Charlotte ran away to her mother 's house in Bayswater . After an anxious night , Charlotte was eventually persuaded to return to her father by Brougham , since legally she could be placed in her father 's care and there was a danger of public disorder against George , which might prejudice Charlotte 's position if she continued to disobey him . Caroline , unhappy at her situation and treatment in Britain , negotiated a deal with the Foreign Secretary , Lord Castlereagh . She agreed to leave the country in exchange for an annual allowance of £35,000 . Both Brougham and Charlotte were dismayed by Caroline 's decision , as they both realised that Caroline 's absence would strengthen George 's power and weaken theirs . On 8 August 1814 , Caroline left Britain . Exile After a two-week visit to Brunswick , Caroline headed for Italy through Switzerland . Along the way , possibly in Milan , she hired Bartolomeo Pergami as a servant . Pergami soon rose to the head of Caroline 's household , and managed to get his sister , Angelica , Countess of Oldi , appointed as Caroline 's lady-in-waiting . In mid-1815 , Caroline bought a house , Villa d'Este , on the shores of Lake Como , even though her finances were stretched . From early 1816 , she and Pergami went on a cruise around the Mediterranean , visiting Napoleon 's former palace on Elba , and Sicily , where Pergami obtained the Order of Malta and a barony . By this time , Caroline and Pergami were eating their meals together openly , and it was widely rumoured that they were lovers . They visited Tunis , Malta , Milos , Athens , Corinth , Constantinople , and Nazareth . Caroline entered Jerusalem riding on a donkey in a convoy of camels . Pergami was made a Knight of the Order of Jerusalem . Caroline instituted the Order of St Caroline , nominating Pergami its Grand Master . In August , they returned to Italy , stopping at Rome to visit the Pope . By this time , gossip about Caroline was everywhere . Lord Byron wrote to his publisher that Caroline and Pergami were lovers , and Baron Friedrich Ompteda , a Hanoverian spy , bribed one of Caroline 's servants so that he could search her bedroom for proof of adultery . He found none . By August 1817 , Caroline 's debts were growing , so she sold Villa d'Este and moved to the smaller Villa Caprile near Pesaro . Pergami 's mother , brother and daughter , but not his wife , joined Caroline 's household . The previous year , Caroline 's daughter , Princess Charlotte , had married Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld , and the future of the British monarchy looked bright . Then tragedy struck : in November 1817 , Charlotte died after giving birth to her only child , a stillborn son . For the most part , Charlotte had been immensely popular with the public , and her death was a blow to the country . George refused to write to Caroline to inform her , leaving it for their son-in-law Leopold to do , but Leopold was deep in grief and delayed writing . George did , however , write to the pope of the tragedy , and by chance the courier carrying the letter passed by Pesaro , and so it was that Caroline heard the devastating news . Caroline had lost her daughter , but she had also lost any chance of regaining position through the succession of her daughter to the throne . George was determined to press ahead with a divorce and set up a commission chaired by the Vice-Chancellor John Leach to gather evidence of Caroline 's adultery . Leach sent three commissioners to Milan to interrogate Caroline 's former servants , including Theodore Majocchi and Caroline 's maid , Louise Demont . In London , Brougham was still acting as Caroline 's agent . Concerned that the `` Milan commission '' might threaten Caroline , he sent his brother James to Caroline 's villa in the hope of establishing whether George had any grounds for divorce . James wrote back to his brother of Caroline and Pergami , `` they are to all appearances man and wife , never was anything so obvious . '' The Milan commission was assembling more and more evidence , and by 1819 Caroline was worried . She informed James Brougham that she would agree to a divorce in exchange for money . However , at this time in England divorce by mutual consent was illegal ; it was only possible to divorce if one of the partners admitted or was found guilty of adultery . Caroline said it was `` impossible '' for her to admit that , so the Broughams advised that only formal separation was possible . Both keen to avoid publicity , the Broughams and the Government discussed a deal where Caroline would be called by a lesser title , such as `` Duchess of Cornwall '' rather than `` Princess of Wales '' . As the negotiations continued at the end of 1819 , Caroline travelled to France , which gave rise to speculation that she was on her way back to England . In January 1820 , however , she made plans to return to Italy , but then on 29 January 1820 King George III died . Caroline 's husband became king and , at least nominally , she was queen of the United Kingdom . Queen consort Instead of being treated like a queen , Caroline found that her estranged husband 's accession paradoxically made her position worse . On visiting Rome , the pope refused her an audience , and the pope 's minister Cardinal Consalvi insisted that she be greeted only as a duchess of Brunswick , and not as a queen . In an attempt to assert her rights , she made plans to return to Britain . The King demanded that his ministers get rid of her . He successfully persuaded them to remove her name from the liturgy of the Church of England , but they would not agree to a divorce because they feared the effect of a public trial . The government was weak and unpopular , and a trial detailing salacious details of both Caroline 's and George 's separate love lives was certain to destabilise it further . Rather than run the risk , the government entered into negotiations with Caroline , and offered her an increased annuity of £50,000 if she stayed abroad . By the beginning of June , Caroline had travelled north from Italy , and was at St Omer near Calais . Acting on the advice of Alderman Matthew Wood and her lady-in-waiting Lady Anne Hamilton , she rejected the government 's offer . She bid farewell to Pergami , and embarked for England . When she arrived on 5 June , riots broke out in support of her . Caroline was a figurehead for the growing Radical movement that demanded political reform and opposed the unpopular king . Nevertheless , the King still adamantly desired a divorce , and the following day , he submitted the evidence gathered by the Milan commission to Parliament in two green bags . On 15 June , the Guards in the King 's Mews mutinied . The mutiny was contained , but the government was fearful of further unrest . Examination of the bags of evidence was delayed as Parliament debated the form of the investigation , but eventually , on 27 June , they were opened and examined in secret by 15 peers . The peers considered the contents scandalous , and a week later , after their report to the House , the government introduced a bill in Parliament , the Pains and Penalties Bill 1820 , to strip Caroline of the title of queen consort and dissolve her marriage . It was claimed that Caroline had committed adultery with a low-born man : Bartolomeo Pergami . Various witnesses , such as Theodore Majocchi , were called during the reading of the bill , which was effectively a public trial of the Queen . The trial caused a sensation , as details of Caroline 's familiarity with Pergami were revealed . Witnesses said the couple had slept in the same room , kissed , and been seen together in a state of undress . The bill passed the House of Lords , but was not submitted to the House of Commons as there was little prospect that the Commons would pass it . To her friends , Caroline joked that she had indeed committed adultery once—with the husband of Mrs. Fitzherbert , the King . Even during the trial , the Queen remained immensely popular , as witnessed by over 800 petitions and nearly a million signatures that favoured her cause . As a figurehead of the opposition movement demanding reform , many revolutionary pronouncements were made in Caroline 's name . But with the end of the trial her alliance with the radicals came to an end . The government again extended the offer of £50,000 a year , this time without preconditions , and Caroline accepted . Death Despite the King 's best attempts , Caroline retained a strong popularity amongst the masses , and pressed ahead with plans to attend the coronation service on 19 July 1821 as queen . Lord Liverpool told Caroline that she should not go to the service , but she turned up anyway . George had Caroline turned

wh_847--Caroline_of_Brunswick.txt

Caroline of Brunswick was the queen consort of which British King?

In botany , a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants ( also known as angiosperms ) formed from the ovary after flowering . Fruits are the means by which angiosperms disseminate seeds . Edible fruits , in particular , have propagated with the movements of humans and animals in a symbiotic relationship as a means for seed dispersal and nutrition ; in fact , humans and many animals have become dependent on fruits as a source of food . Accordingly , fruits account for a substantial fraction of the world 's agricultural output , and some ( such as the apple and the pomegranate ) have acquired extensive cultural and symbolic meanings . In common language usage , `` fruit '' normally means the fleshy seed-associated structures of a plant that are sweet or sour , and edible in the raw state , such as apples , bananas , grapes , lemons , oranges , and strawberries . On the other hand , in botanical usage , `` fruit '' includes many structures that are not commonly called `` fruits '' , such as bean pods , corn kernels , tomatoes , and wheat grains . The section of a fungus that produces spores is also called a fruiting body . Botanic fruit and culinary fruit Many common terms for seeds and fruit do not correspond to the botanical classifications . In culinary terminology , a fruit is usually any sweet-tasting plant part , especially a botanical fruit ; a nut is any hard , oily , and shelled plant product ; and a vegetable is any savory or less sweet plant product . However , in botany , a fruit is the ripened ovary or carpel that contains seeds , a nut is a type of fruit and not a seed , and a seed is a ripened ovule . Examples of culinary `` vegetables '' and nuts that are botanically fruit include corn , cucurbits ( e.g. , cucumber , pumpkin , and squash ) , eggplant , legumes ( beans , peanuts , and peas ) , sweet pepper , and tomato . In addition , some spices , such as allspice and chili pepper , are fruits , botanically speaking . In contrast , rhubarb is often referred to as a fruit , because it is used to make sweet desserts such as pies , though only the petiole ( leaf stalk ) of the rhubarb plant is edible , and edible gymnosperm seeds are often given fruit names , e.g. , ginkgo nuts and pine nuts . Botanically , a cereal grain , such as corn , rice , or wheat , is also a kind of fruit , termed a caryopsis . However , the fruit wall is very thin and is fused to the seed coat , so almost all of the edible grain is actually a seed . Fruit structure The outer , often edible layer , is the pericarp , formed from the ovary and surrounding the seeds , although in some species other tissues contribute to or form the edible portion . The pericarp may be described in three layers from outer to inner , the epicarp , mesocarp and endocarp . Fruit that bears a prominent pointed terminal projection is said to be beaked . Fruit development A fruit results from maturation of one or more flowers , and the gynoecium of the flower ( s ) forms all or part of the fruit . Inside the ovary/ovaries are one or more ovules where the megagametophyte contains the egg cell . After double fertilization , these ovules will become seeds . The ovules are fertilized in a process that starts with pollination , which involves the movement of pollen from the stamens to the stigma of flowers . After pollination , a tube grows from the pollen through the stigma into the ovary to the ovule and two sperm are transferred from the pollen to the megagametophyte . Within the megagametophyte one of the two sperm unites with the egg , forming a zygote , and the second sperm enters the central cell forming the endosperm mother cell , which completes the double fertilization process . Later the zygote will give rise to the embryo of the seed , and the endosperm mother cell will give rise to endosperm , a nutritive tissue used by the embryo . As the ovules develop into seeds , the ovary begins to ripen and the ovary wall , the pericarp , may become fleshy ( as in berries or drupes ) , or form a hard outer covering ( as in nuts ) . In some multiseeded fruits , the extent to which the flesh develops is proportional to the number of fertilized ovules . The pericarp is often differentiated into two or three distinct layers called the exocarp ( outer layer , also called epicarp ) , mesocarp ( middle layer ) , and endocarp ( inner layer ) . In some fruits , especially simple fruits derived from an inferior ovary , other parts of the flower ( such as the floral tube , including the petals , sepals , and stamens ) , fuse with the ovary and ripen with it . In other cases , the sepals , petals and/or stamens and style of the flower fall off . When such other floral parts are a significant part of the fruit , it is called an accessory fruit . Since other parts of the flower may contribute to the structure of the fruit , it is important to study flower structure to understand how a particular fruit forms . There are three general modes of fruit development : * Apocarpous fruits develop from a single flower having one or more separate carpels , and they are the simplest fruits . * Syncarpous fruits develop from a single gynoecium having two or more carpels fused together . * Multiple fruits form from many different flowers . Plant scientists have grouped fruits into three main groups , simple fruits , aggregate fruits , and composite or multiple fruits . The groupings are not evolutionarily relevant , since many diverse plant taxa may be in the same group , but reflect how the flower organs are arranged and how the fruits develop . Simple fruit Simple fruits can be either dry or fleshy , and result from the ripening of a simple or compound ovary in a flower with only one pistil . Dry fruits may be either dehiscent ( they open to discharge seeds ) , or indehiscent ( they do not open to discharge seeds ) . Types of dry , simple fruits , and examples of each , include : * achene – Most commonly seen in aggregate fruits ( e.g. , strawberry ) * capsule – ( e.g. , Brazil nut ) * caryopsis – ( e.g. , wheat ) * cypsela – an achene-like fruit derived from the individual florets in a capitulum ( e.g. , dandelion ) . * fibrous drupe – ( e.g. , coconut , walnut ) * follicle – is formed from a single carpel , opens by one suture ( e.g. , milkweed ) , commonly seen in aggregate fruits ( e.g. , magnolia ) * legume – ( e.g. , bean , pea , peanut ) * loment – a type of indehiscent legume * nut – ( e.g. , beech , hazelnut , oak acorn ) * samara – ( e.g. , ash , elm , maple key ) * schizocarp – ( e.g. , carrot seed ) * silique – ( e.g. , radish seed ) * silicle – ( e.g. , shepherd 's purse ) * utricle – ( e.g. , beet ) Fruits in which part or all of the pericarp ( fruit wall ) is fleshy at maturity are simple fleshy fruits . Types of simple , fleshy , fruits ( with examples ) include : * berry – ( e.g. , cranberry , gooseberry , redcurrant , tomato ) * stone fruit or drupe ( e.g. , apricot , cherry , olive , peach , plum ) An aggregate fruit , or etaerio , develops from a single flower with numerous simple pistils . * Magnolia and peony , collection of follicles developing from one flower . * Sweet gum , collection of capsules . * Sycamore , collection of achenes . * Teasel , collection of cypsellas * Tuliptree , collection of samaras . The pome fruits of the family Rosaceae , ( including apples , pears , rosehips , and saskatoon berry ) are a syncarpous fleshy fruit , a simple fruit , developing from a half-inferior ovary . Schizocarp fruits form from a syncarpous ovary and do not really dehisce , but rather split into segments with one or more seeds ; they include a number of different forms from a wide range of families . Carrot seed is an example . Aggregate fruit Aggregate fruits form from single flowers that have multiple carpels which are not joined together , i.e . each pistil contains one carpel . Each pistil forms a fruitlet , and collectively the fruitlets are called an etaerio . Four types of aggregate fruits include etaerios of achenes , follicles , drupelets , and berries . Ranunculaceae species , including Clematis and Ranunculus have an etaerio of achenes , Calotropis has an etaerio of follicles , and Rubus species like raspberry , have an etaerio of drupelets . Annona have an etaerio of berries . The raspberry , whose pistils are termed drupelets because each is like a small drupe attached to the receptacle . In some bramble fruits ( such as blackberry ) the receptacle is elongated and part of the ripe fruit , making the blackberry an aggregate-accessory fruit . The strawberry is also an aggregate-accessory fruit , only one in which the seeds are contained in achenes . In all these examples , the fruit develops from a single flower with numerous pistils . Multiple fruits A multiple fruit is one formed from a cluster of flowers ( called an inflorescence ) . Each flower produces a fruit , but these mature into a single mass . Examples are the pineapple , fig , mulberry , osage-orange , and breadfruit . In the photograph on the right , stages of flowering and fruit development in the noni or Indian mulberry ( Morinda citrifolia ) can be observed on a single branch . First an inflorescence of white flowers called a head is produced . After fertilization , each flower develops into a drupe , and as the drupes expand , they become connate ( merge ) into a multiple fleshy fruit called a syncarp . Berries Berries are another type of fleshy fruit ; they are simple fruit created from a single ovary . The ovary may be compound , with several carpels . Types include ( examples follow in the table below ) : * Pepo – berries whose skin is hardened , cucurbits * Hesperidium – berries with a rind and a juicy interior , like most citrus fruit Accessory fruit Some or all of the edible part of accessory fruit is not generated by the ovary . Accessory fruit can be simple , aggregate , or multiple , i.e. , they can include one or more pistils and other parts from the same flower , or the pistils and other parts of many flowers . Table of fruit examples Seedless fruits Seedlessness is an important feature of some fruits of commerce . Commercial cultivars of bananas and pineapples are examples of seedless fruits . Some cultivars of citrus fruits ( especially grapefruit , mandarin oranges , navel oranges ) , satsumas , table grapes , and watermelons are valued for their seedlessness . In some species , seedlessness is the result of parthenocarpy , where fruits set without fertilization . Parthenocarpic fruit set may or may not require pollination , but most seedless citrus fruits require a stimulus from pollination to produce fruit . Seedless bananas and grapes are triploids , and seedlessness results from the abortion of the embryonic plant that is produced by fertilization , a phenomenon known as stenospermocarpy , which requires normal pollination and fertilization . Seed dissemination Variations in fruit structures largely depend on their seeds ' mode of dispersal . This dispersal can be achieved by animals , explosive dehiscence , water , or wind . Some fruits have coats covered with spikes or hooked burrs , either to prevent themselves from being eaten by animals , or to stick to the feathers , hairs , or legs of animals , using them as dispersal agents . Examples include cocklebur and unicorn plant . The sweet flesh of many fruits is `` deliberately '' appealing to animals , so that the seeds held within are eaten and `` unwittingly '' carried away and deposited ( i.e. , defecated ) at a distance from the parent . Likewise , the nutritious , oily kernels of nuts are appealing to rodents ( such as squirrels ) , which hoard them in the soil to avoid starving during the winter , thus giving those seeds that remain uneaten the chance to germinate and grow into a new plant away from their parent . Other fruits are elongated and flattened out naturally , and so become thin , like wings or helicopter blades , e.g. , elm , maple , and tuliptree . This is an evolutionary mechanism to increase dispersal distance away from the parent , via wind . Other wind-dispersed fruit have tiny `` parachutes '' , e.g. , dandelion , milkweed , salsify . Coconut fruits can float thousands of miles in the ocean to spread seeds . Some other fruits that can disperse via water are nipa palm and screw pine . Some fruits fling seeds substantial distances ( up to 100 m in sandbox tree ) via explosive dehiscence or other mechanisms , e.g. , impatiens and squirting cucumber . Uses Many hundreds of fruits , including fleshy fruits ( like apple , kiwifruit , mango , peach , pear , and watermelon ) are commercially valuable as human food , eaten both fresh and as jams , marmalade and other preserves . Fruits are also used in manufactured foods ( e.g. , cakes , cookies , ice cream , muffins , or yogurt ) or beverages , such as fruit juices ( e.g. , apple juice , grape juice , or orange juice ) or alcoholic beverages ( e.g. , brandy , fruit beer , or wine ) , Fruits are also used for gift giving , e.g. , in the form of Fruit Baskets and Fruit Bouquets . Many `` vegetables '' in culinary parlance are botanical fruits , including bell pepper , cucumber , eggplant , green bean , okra , pumpkin , squash , tomato , and zucchini . Olive fruit is pressed for olive oil . Spices like allspice , black pepper , paprika , and vanilla are derived from berries . Nutritional value Fresh fruits are generally high in fiber , vitamin C , and water . Regular consumption of fruit is generally associated with reduced risks of several diseases and functional declines associated with aging . Nonfood uses Because fruits have been such a major part of the human diet , various cultures have developed many different uses for fruits they do not depend on for food . For example : * Bayberry fruits provide a wax often used to make candles ; * Many dry fruits are used as decorations or in dried flower arrangements ( e.g. , annual honesty , cotoneaster , lotus , milkweed , unicorn plant , and wheat ) . Ornamental trees and shrubs are often cultivated for their colorful fruits , including beautyberry , cotoneaster , holly , pyracantha , skimmia , and viburnum . * Fruits of opium poppy are the source of opium , which contains the drugs codeine and morphine , as well as the biologically inactive chemical theabaine from which the drug oxycodone is synthesized . * Osage orange fruits are used to repel cockroaches . * Many fruits provide natural dyes ( e.g. , cherry , mulberry , sumac , and walnut . * Dried gourds are used as bird houses , cups , decorations , dishes , musical instruments , and water jugs . * Pumpkins are carved into Jack-o'-lanterns for Halloween . * The spiny fruit of burdock or cocklebur inspired the invention of Velcro . * Coir fiber from coconut shells is used for brushes , doormats , floor tiles , insulation , mattresses , sacking , and as a growing medium for container plants . The shell of the coconut fruit is used to make bird houses , bowls , cups , musical instruments , and souvenir heads . * Fruit is often a subject of still life paintings . Safety For food safety , the CDC recommends proper fruit handling and preparation to reduce the risk of food contamination and foodborne illness . Fresh fruits and vegetables should be carefully selected ; at the store , they should not be damaged or bruised ; and pre-cut pieces should be refrigerated or surrounded by ice . All fruits and vegetables should be rinsed before eating . This recommendation also applies to produce with rinds or skins that are not eaten . It should be done just before preparing or eating to avoid premature spoilage . Fruits and vegetables should be kept separate from raw foods like meat , poultry , and seafood , as well as from utensils that have come in contact with raw foods . Fruits and vegetables that are not going to be cooked should be thrown away if they have touched raw meat , poultry , seafood , or eggs . All cut , peeled , or cooked fruits and vegetables should be refrigerated within two hours . After a certain time , harmful bacteria may grow on them and increase the risk of foodborne illness . Allergies Fruit allergies make up about 10 percent of all food related allergies Storage All fruits benefit from proper post harvest care , and in many fruits , the plant hormone ethylene causes ripening . Therefore , maintaining most fruits in an efficient cold chain is optimal for post harvest storage , with the aim of extending and ensuring shelf life.Why Cold Chain for Fruits :

sfq_19023--Fruit.txt

What is the fruit of a tree of the genus 'Malus'?

A British comic is a periodical published in the United Kingdom that contains comic strips . It is generally referred to as a comic or a comic magazine , and historically as a comic paper . British comics are usually comics anthologies which are typically aimed at children , and are published weekly , although some are also published on a fortnightly or monthly schedule . The top three longest-running comics in the world , The Dandy , The Beano , and Comic Cuts , are all British , although in modern times British comics have been largely superseded by American comic books and Japanese manga . Overview The description comics derived from the names of popular titles such as Comic Cuts , and from the fact that in the beginning all the titles presented only comic ( humorous ) content . British comics typically differ from the American comic book . Although historically they shared the same format size , based on a sheet of imperial paper folded in half , British comics have moved away from this size , adopting a standard magazine size . Until that point , the British comic was also usually printed on newsprint , with black or a dark red used as the dark colour and the four colour process used on the cover . The Beano and The Dandy both switched to an all-colour format in 1993 . Originally aimed at the semi-literate working class , the comic eventually came to be seen as childish , and hence was marketed towards children . Historically , strips were of one or two pages in length , with a single issue of a comic containing upwards of a dozen separate strips , featuring different characters , although strips now last longer and tend to continue over a number of issues and period of time . Whilst some comics contained only strips , other publications have had a slightly different focus , providing readers with articles about , and photographs of , pop stars and television/film actors , plus more general articles about teenage life , whilst throwing in a few comic strips for good measure . In British comics history , there are some extremely long-running publications such as The Beano and The Dandy published by D. C. Thomson & Co. , a newspaper company based in Dundee , Scotland . The Dandy began in 1937 and The Beano in 1938 . The Beano is still going today while The Dandy ceased print publication in 2012 . The Boys ' Own Paper lasted from 1879 to 1967 . There has been a continuous tradition of black and white comics , published in a smaller page size format , many of them war titles like Air Ace inspiring youngsters with tales of the exploits of the army , navy and Royal Air Force mainly in the two world wars , also some romance titles and some westerns in this format . On March 19 , 2012 , the British postal service , the Royal Mail , released a set of stamps depicting British comic-book characters and series . The collection featured The Beano , The Dandy , Eagle , The Topper , Roy of the Rovers , Bunty , Buster , Valiant , Twinkle and 2000 AD . History 19th century In the 19th century , story papers ( containing illustrated text stories ) , known as `` penny dreadfuls '' from their cover price , served as entertainment for British children . Full of close-printed text with few illustrations , they were essentially no different from a book , except that they were somewhat shorter and that typically the story was serialised over many weekly issues in order to maintain sales . These serial stories could run to hundreds of instalments if they were popular . And to pad out a successful series , writers would insert quite extraneous material such as the geography of the country in which the action was occurring , so that the story would extend into more issues . Plagiarism was rife , with magazines profiting from competitors ' successes under a few cosmetic name changes . Apart from action and historical stories , there was also a fashion for horror and the supernatural , with epics like Varney the Vampire running for years . Horror , in particular , contributed to the epithet `` penny dreadful '' . Stories featuring criminals such as 'Spring-Heeled Jack ' , pirates , highwaymen ( especially Dick Turpin ) , and detectives ( including Sexton Blake ) dominated decades of the Victorian and early 20th-century weeklies . Comic strips—stories told primarily in strip cartoon form , rather than as a written narrative with illustrations—emerged only slowly . Ally Sloper 's Half Holiday ( 1884 ) is regarded to be the first comic strip magazine to feature a recurring character ( Ally Sloper ) . This strip cost one penny and was designed for adults . Ally , the recurring character , was a working class fellow who got up to various forms of mischief and often suffered for it . In 1890 two more comic magazines debuted before the British public , Comic Cuts and Illustrated Chips , both published by Amalgamated Press . These magazines notoriously reprinted British and American material , previously published in newspapers and magazines , without permission . The success of these comics was such that Amalgamated 's owner , Alfred Harmsworth , was able to launch The Daily Mirror and The Daily Mail newspapers on the profits . 20th century Over the next thirty years or so , comic publishers saw the juvenile market as the most profitable , and thus geared their publications accordingly , so that by 1914 most comics were aimed at eight- to twelve-year-olds . The period between the two wars is notable mainly for the publication of annuals by Amalgamated Press , and also the emergence of DC Thomson , launching both The Beano and The Dandy in the late 1930s , which thrived during the Second World War . Their successful mix of irreverence and slapstick led to many similar titles , notably Buster , Topper and Beezer . However the originators of this format have outlasted all rivals , and are still published today . In the early 1950s , `` lurid American 'crime ' and 'horror comics ' reached Britain '' , prompting what in retrospect has been characterised as a moral panic . Copies of Tales from the Crypt and The Vault of Horror , which arrived as ballast in ships from the United States , were first only available in the `` environs of the great ports of Liverpool , Manchester , Belfast and London '' , but by `` using blocks made from imported American matrices '' , British versions of Tales from the Crypt and The Vault of Horror were printed in London and Leicester and sold in `` small back-street newsagents . '' The ensuing outcry was heard in Parliament , and at the urging of the Most Reverend Geoffrey Fisher , the Archbishop of Canterbury , Major Gwilym Lloyd George , the Home Secretary and Minister of Welsh Affairs , and the National Union of Teachers , Parliament passed the Children and Young Persons ( Harmful Publications ) Act 1955 ; it prohibited `` any book , magazine or other like work which is of a kind likely to fall into the hands of children or young persons and consists wholly or mainly of stories told in pictures ( with or without the addition of written matter ) , being stories portraying ( a ) the commission of crimes ; or ( b ) acts of violence or cruelty ; or ( c ) incidents of a repulsive or horrible nature ; in such a way that the work as a whole would tend to corrupt a child or young person into whose hands it might fall . '' Although the act had a sunset clause , in 1969 the Act was made permanent , and continues to be in force today , represented , for example , in the Royal Mail prohibition against mailing horror comics and the matrices used to print them . During the 1950s and 1960s the most popular comic magazine for older age-group boys was the Eagle published by Hulton Press . The Eagle was published in a more expensive format , and was a gravure-printed weekly . This format was one used originally by Mickey Mouse Weekly during the 1930s . The Eagle 's success saw a number of comics launched in a similar format , TV Century 21 , Look and Learn and TV Comic being notable examples . Comics published in this format were known in the trade as `` slicks '' . At the end of the 1960s these comics moved away from gravure printing , preferring offset litho due to cost considerations arising from decreasing readership . However , the boys adventure comic was still popular , and titles such as Valiant and Tiger published by IPC saw new adventure heroes become stars , including Roy of the Rovers who would eventually gain his own title . Odhams Press was a company which mainly printed new material that was adventure oriented , although it also reprinted American Marvel Comics material in its Power Comics titles including Smash ! and Fantastic . By 1970 the British comics market was in a long-term decline , as comics lost popularity in the face of the rise of other popular pastimes for children . Initially the challenge was the rising popularity of television , a trend which the introduction of colour television to Britain during 1969 set in stone . In an effort to counter the trend , many publishers switched the focus of their comics towards television-related characters . The television shows of Gerry Anderson such as Thunderbirds and Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons had begun this in 1966 with the launch of tie-in comics such as TV21 and Lady Penelope that included only strips related to Anderson 's TV shows . Polystyle Publications already published a TV-related comic for young children called TV Comic , and in 1971 moved into the older market with Countdown ( later retitled TV Action ) . The teenage market saw Look-In magazine feature strips solely based on popular television programmes . Another strand of the reaction to television was the launch of comics focused entirely on football ( soccer being as popular as television amongst boys ) , with titles such as Shoot and Scorcher and Score . Those comics which did n't address the issue of television began to close , merging with the few survivors . In the 1970s very few boys ' comics in the `` slick '' format were launched , although Countdown was one exception , launching in 1971 with content similar to TV 21 ( which had closed by then ) and TV Comic . Vulcan , a reprint title , was another , in 1976 . Girls ' titles which had launched in the `` slick '' format in the 1960s continued in that format into the 1970s ; and others , such as Diana and Judy , changed to become slicks . They found themselves in the same market as teenage titles for girls such as Boyfriend and Blue Jeans , which had changed their content and were featuring mainly product-related articles and photo-strips . In 1972 , Marvel set up a publishing arm in the UK , Marvel UK , reprinting American superhero strips . These proved extremely popular , and a range of weekly titles were being published by 1975 . So much so that in 1976 the parent company briefly published a minimal amount of new material specifically for the UK market in Captain Britain . The American reprint material proved to be more successful , and continued to appear into the 1980s , at which stage Marvel UK also began diversifying into home produced original material , both UK originated strips featuring American created characters such as Captain Britain , the Hulk and the Black Knight , and wholly original strips like Night Raven . They also began producing television-based material , initially with Dr Who Weekly , launched in 1979 . In the late 1960s and into the 1970s , the underground comics movement inspired two new comics in the UK : Oz and Nasty Tales were launched with the Underground premise of counter-culture rebellion . Oz notoriously featured the children 's character Rupert the Bear performing sexual acts . Both magazines were tried at the Old Bailey under the Obscene Publications Act because of their content . The Oz defendants were convicted , although the conviction was overturned on appeal . The Nasty Tales defendants were cautioned . However , both these comics ceased publication soon after their trial , as much due to the social changes at the end of the counter-culture movement as any effect of the court cases . These were always adult magazines , not titles aimed at the mainstream children 's market . In the mid-1970s , comics became more action oriented . The first such title to be launched was Warlord in 1974 . Published by DC Thomson , it proved to be a success , and led to its then rival , IPC Magazines Ltd , producing Battle Picture Weekly , a comic notably grimmer in style than its competitor . Battle 's success led to IPC launching another , similarly styled title , Action , which became a success too , but also became controversial , due to its content . Complaints about its tone eventually led to questions being asked in the House of Commons . Although an extremely popular title , IPC decided nonetheless to change the content , which neutered the comic 's appeal , whereupon the title quickly declined and merged with Battle . Action 's position as the most popular title was taken over by 2000 AD , launched in 1977 by IPC . Created as a comic for older boys and girls , it also held appeal for teenage and even adult readers . In the 1960s IPC began to source comic art from Spain , mainly for financial reasons . This trend was continued through to the launch of 2000AD . Carlos Ezquerra is the most notable Spanish artist to have worked in British comics , having worked on both Battle and 2000 AD , and is credited with the creation of the look of Judge Dredd . Judge Dredd and other 2000 AD titles have been published in a tabloid form known as a `` programme '' , or `` prog '' for short . The Star Wars magazine lasted into the late 1980s . In 1982 The Eagle was relaunched , this time including photo-strips , but still with Dan Dare as the lead story . The comic moved him from the front page to the centre pages to allow a more magazine-style cover . Dez Skinn launched Warrior , possibly the most notable comic of the period , as it contained both the Marvelman and V for Vendetta strips , by Alan Moore . Warrior was a British equivalent of Heavy Metal magazine . Marvelman was a Captain Marvel clone that Skinn acquired , although the legality of that acquisition has been questioned . In Moore 's hands the strip became an `` adult '' style superhero , and was later reprinted , with the story continued , in an American full-colour comic , with the name changed from `` Marvelman '' to `` Miracleman '' to avoid any lawsuits that Marvel Comics may have considered . Adult comics also witnessed a slight resurgence with psst ! , an attempt to market a French style monthly bande dessinée , and Escape Magazine , published by Paul Gravett , former psst ! promotions man . Escape is the other notable comic from this period , featuring early work from Eddie Campbell and Paul Grist , amongst others . Neither comic managed to survive in the vagaries of the comics market , Warrior beset by copyright issues and Escape by lack of publisher interest . During this period a number of smaller publishers were formed to provide inventive publications appealing to niche markets . Congress Press was one of these companies , providing titles such as Birthrite , Heaven & Hell and a graphic novel , Spookhouse . Most of the surviving titles published by IPC , Fleetway and DC Thomson were merged into each other in the late 1980s and early 1990s , as the popularity of comics waned further in response to a surge in the popularity of television and of video games . Although new titles were launched in this period , none seemed to find any sustainable audience . Notable comics from this period included Deadline , Toxic ! , Crisis , and Revolver . Deadline was conceived by Steve Dillon and Brett Ewins , and mixed original strips with reprints of U.S. strips , notably Love & Rockets , and articles and interviews on the British independent music scene of the time . Tank Girl was its most notable strip . Crisis was published by Fleetway Publications , a company formed from IPC 's comics holdings . It was aimed at readers who had outgrown 2000 AD , and featured first works by Garth Ennis and Sean Phillips amongst others . One publication of that period did find an audience . Viz began life in 1979 as a fanzine style publication , before , in 1989 , becoming the biggest selling magazine in the country . Based upon bad taste , crude language , crude sexual innuendo , and the parodying of strips from The Dandy ( among them Black Bag – the Faithful Border Bin Liner , a parody of The Dandy 's Black Bob series about a Border Collie ) , the popularity of Viz depended entirely upon a variant of Sixties counter-culture ; and it promptly inspired similarly themed titles , including Smut , Spit ! , Talking Turkey , Elephant Parts , Gas , Brain Damage , Poot ! , UT and Zit , all of which failed to achieve Vizs longevity and folded , while Viz remained one of the United Kingdom 's top selling magazines . 21st century Beginning in 2000 , the British market arrested its long decline . However , there is no sign of any great growth in circulation for the few remaining titles , and no sign of any new launches from mainstream publishers into the comics arena . An ever-increasing number of small press and fanzine titles are being produced , such as Solar Wind or FutureQuake , aided by the cheapness and increasingly professional appearance of desktop publishing programs . It is from this scene that the UK 's new talents now tend to emerge ( e.g . Al Ewing , Henry Flint or Simon Spurrier ) . After they were purchased by Rebellion , both 2000 AD and the Judge Dredd Megazine have seen the release of more adaptations and trade paperbacks , including complete reprint collections of the entire runs of Judge Dredd , Strontium Dog and Nemesis the Warlock . Starting in 2006 the Megazine began a regular small press section which usually features an article on a title by Matthew Badham or David Baillie and a small press story . While British companies and creators have helped create the market for collected volumes there have , with a few exceptions like Raymond Briggs , been very few British original graphic novels published . [ http : //www.iht.com/articles/2007/08/21/arts/gnovel.php More than words : Britain embraces the graphic novel ] , International Herald Tribune , August 22 , 2007 Briggs himself has said `` On the Continent , graphic novels have been as accepted as films or books for many years , but England has had a snobby attitude towards them . They 've always been seen as something just for children '' . However , thanks to the strong sales for Briggs ' Ethel and Ernest , and Jimmy Corrigan winning The Guardians best first novel award , publishers have started expanding into this area . Random House UK 's imprint Jonathan Cape has tripled its graphic novel output and Random House has also established Tanoshimi to publish manga . Other publishers have also been increasing their output , which , as well as producing original works like Alice in Sunderland , have also been included adaptations of works of literature . There are a number of new publishers who are specifically targeting this area , including Insomnia Publications , Classical Comics and Self Made Hero , the latter having an imprint focused on manga adaptations of the works of Shakespeare . This highlights another recent change , as there has been an increase in British original English-language manga . Self Made Hero 's 'Manga Shakespeare ' imprint draws on talent discovered in Tokyopop 's UK/Irish version of Rising Stars of Manga , including members of the UK collective Sweatdrop Studios , who have also contributed to other British-based efforts like ILYA 's Mammoth Book of Best New Manga and MangaQuake . Released at the start of the 21st century was Toxic , a comic which mixed comic strips alongside game reviews and other articles . This comic proved very successful and began in 2002 and is still running . Its influence can be felt on other comics as well most notably when The Dandy , Britain 's longest running comic , became the Dandy Xtreme in August 2007 it borrowed many of the features prevalent in Toxic mixing articles alongside comic strips . However The Dandy eventually moved away with this Toxic strategy in October 2010 when the comic was revamped . The BeanoMAX ( which also started in 2007 ) also borrowed some of Toxic 's features . That title was then replaced by The 100 % Official Dennis the Menace and Gnasher Megazine , which was later renamed Epic . The DFC launched at the end of May 2008 drawing together creators from the small press and manga , as well as figures from mainstream British comics and other fields , [ http : //entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/books/children/article3896701.ece Interview with David Fickling , saviour of the great British comic ] , The Times , May 10 , 2008 including author Philip Pullman . As it transpired , it did n't make it to its first birthday , ending with issue 43 . However a new comic The Phoenix began in January 2012 which is a successor to The DFC . Reprint market The comics reading public in the UK were not always able to get reliable supplies of American comic books and yet have always enjoyed the different approach to comics writing from the other side of the Atlantic . So the lack of reliable supplies was supplemented by a variety of black and white reprints of Marvel 's 1950s monster comics , Fawcett 's Captain Marvel , and some other characters such as Sheena , Mandrake the Magician , The Phantom etc . Several reprint companies were involved in repackaging American material for the British market , notably the importer and distributor Thorpe & Porter . Thorpe & Porter published similar formatted titles under various names . They were also re-publishing Dell 's Four Color series and Classics Illustrated in the UK . Their material also included some work never before published in the US . Thorpe & Porter published many black & white reprints of American comics in the 1950s . Thorpe & Porter/Stratos published a long-running Marvel series , Kid Colt Outlaw , which contained black-and-white reprints from both Atlas and DC . They also published Two-Gun Kid and Rawhide Kid in a smaller black-and-white format , though these were usually the entire contents of various American issues reprinted . When Captain Marvel ceased publication in the United States because of a lawsuit , the British reprint company , L. Miller & Son , copied the entire Captain Marvel idea in every detail , and began publishing their own knock-off under the names Marvelman and Young Marvelman , taking advantage of different copyright laws . These clone versions continued for a few years and , as seen above , were revived years later in Warrior . L. Miller also reprinted many other American series including the early 1950s Eerie and Black Magic in black and white format . These usually contain the American stories which relate to the cover but also contain other additional gems toward the back of the comic to fill-up the 64 pages . Sheena , Queen of the Jungle , a female version of Tarzan ( with an element of H. Rider Haggard 's `` She who must be obeyed '' – She ... Na ! ) , was licensed from Will Eisner 's Eisner-Iger studio for a British and Australasian tabloid , Wags , in 1937 . The success of this character led to the Wags artwork being repackaged for publication by Fiction House magazines in the United States , thus exporting the character back to her country of origin . The reprint market really took off in the 1980s with Titan Books releasing collections of British material , as well as signing deals with DC Comics to release American comic books in the UK . Igor Goldkind was Titan 's , and Forbidden Planet 's , marketing consultant at the time and helped popularise the term `` graphic novel '' for the softcover trade paperbacks they were releasing , which generated a lot of attention from the mainstream press . As well as Marvel UK reprints , Panini Comics reprint many of Marvel 's titles . These include Ultimate Spider-Man ( originally holding two issues of either Ultimate Spider-Man or Ultimate Marvel Team-Up , now existing as a double feature with Ultimate X-Men ) and also produce a Collector 's Edition line of comics , featuring a cardboard cover , three stories and a letters page on the inside back cover . Titles printed include many Marvel comics , including Astonishing Spider-Man , Essential X-Men and Mighty World of Marvel which reprints a variety of Marvel Comics . They also printed one DC comic , Batman Legends , reprinting various Batman adventures ( e.g . two parts of a multi-title crossover and an issue of Batman : Year One ) , though currently this title is published by Titan Magazines Since 2005 , a small selection of American translations of the most popular Japanese comics have been reprinted in the UK by major publishers such as Random House , through their Tanoshimi imprint , and the Orion Publishing Group . Both no longer publish Japanese comics in British versions , for Orion , the reprints they were handling have been switched to having the original American versions imported , however all Japanese comic publishings by Random House were abandoned in early 2009 . Simultaneously , the very small press Fanfare has published a few UK-exclusive English-language editions of alternative Japanese manga and French bande dessinée , both sublicensed from the Spanish publisher Ponent Mon . Thorpe & Porter and American comics In the 1950s and 1960s American comics typically arrived in the UK as ballast on ships . In 1959 , Thorpe & Porter ( widely known as 'T & P ' ) became the sole UK distributor of Marvel comics . These were printed on Marvel 's American printing presses , along with a special cover giving the British price instead of the price in cents , and shipped across the Atlantic . Inside the front cover , with the indicia , a sentence mentioned Thorpe & Porter as sole distributor in the UK market . Thus it was that brand new American-printed copies of Fantastic Four # 1 , Amazing Fantasy # 15 , The Amazing Spider-Man # 1 , and countless others , appeared in the UK . Thorpe & Porter was purchased by the distribution arm of DC Comics , then known as IND. , in 1964 , going on to publish an official Superman/Batman reprint book , DC Special . List of British comics There have been hundreds of comics in the UK over the years , including :

qb_2774--British_comics.txt

The first issue of which British children’s comic was published in April 1950?

Are You Being Served ? is a British sitcom created and written by Jeremy Lloyd and David Croft ( Croft also co-directed ) , with contributions from Michael Knowles and John Chapman , for the BBC . Set in London , the show follows the misadventures and mishaps of the staff of the retail ladies ' and gentlemen 's clothing departments , in the flagship department store of a fictional chain called Grace Brothers . Broadcast between 1972 and 1985 on BBC1 , the sitcom itself spanned ten series totaling 69 parts — five of which are Christmas specials . Are You Being Served ? was a great success in the UK and was also popular in New Zealand , Canada , Israel and Australia . In the United States , it gained a loyal and enthusiastic following when PBS television stations began airing reruns of it in the late 1980s , along with other popular classic `` Britcoms '' . In 2004 , the sitcom was ranked 20th in the countdown of Britain 's Best Sitcom . It is regularly repeated worldwide ( PBS and BBC America in the United States ; and BBC UKTV in Australia and New Zealand ) . From 7 October 2013 to 17 March 2014 , 61 episodes of the series were repeated in the UK on BBC Two as part of Daytime Classics . A further season of repeats were shown on BBC2 during the spring and summer of 2015 . A one off special with a revamped cast will be broadcast in 2016 . History The idea for the show came from Lloyd 's brief period in the early 1950s working at Simpsons of Piccadilly , a clothing store which traded for over 60 years until 1999 . The inspiration for the store has also been credited to Rossiters of Paignton department store from the time Lloyd and Croft spent there , and the former Clements of Watford . The pilot episode was created as part of the Comedy Playhouse series , although the BBC had originally chosen not to broadcast the programme . The pilot was used as a filler during the 1972 Summer Olympics when the coverage of the Olympiad was interrupted by the Munich massacre on 8 September 1972 , leading to a full series being produced . This first episode was repeated at the beginning of the first series on 14 March 1973 . Although the first series was aired in the same timeslot as Coronation Street on ITV , consequently receiving relatively little attention , the repeats shown later in the year were much more successful . The show became a ratings hit , and after a successful 13-year run , Are You Being Served ? came to an end on 1 April 1985 . Of the original cast , only Frank Thornton , Mollie Sugden , John Inman , Wendy Richard and Nicholas Smith appeared in all 69 parts of the programme 's 13-year run ; these five later featured in the sequel sitcom , Grace & Favour ( also known as Are You Being Served ? Again ! ) . The cast performed in character for a stage sketch on the BBC1 programme Variety on 19 June 1976 . Following the death of the last remaining original cast member , Nicholas Smith , on 6 December 2015 , the only surviving cast members are Mike Berry , Candy Davis ( both of whom joined the show in the 1980s ) , Penny Irving , who played Mr Grace 's secretary Miss Bakewell between 1976 and 1979 , and Vivienne Johnson , who played both Young and Old Mr Grace 's nurse from 1977 to 1981 . Although the pilot was produced in colour , the videotape was wiped in the 1970s leaving only a 16mm black-and-white film telerecording . In 2009 , the pilot episode was restored to colour using the colour recovery technique previously used for the Dad 's Army episode `` Room at the Bottom '' . The restored colour version was first shown on BBC2 on 1 January 2010 as part of a special Are You Being Served ? night . Critical reception The series gained much of its popularity with TV viewers by `` pushing the envelope '' through its deliberate-yet-subtle use of risqué visual gags , innuendo-infused dialogue and cleverly-disguised sophomoric humor . These comical devices also attracted some mild criticism , in part for relying on sexual stereotypes and double entendres - e.g . Mrs Slocombe discussing her cat : `` Animals are very psychic ... the least sign of danger and my pussy 's hair stands on end '' . John Inman 's portrayal of Humphries ' over-the-top antics and sharp-tongued , witty responses , along with his trademark catch-phrase `` I 'm free ! `` , were enthusiastically embraced by many audience members , and the character evolved into a gay icon in popular culture . Despite this , Inman pointed out that Mr Humphries ' true sexual orientation was never explicitly stated in the series , and David Croft said in an interview that the character was not homosexual , but `` just a mother 's boy '' . In an episode of the spin-off Grace & Favour , the character is further described as neither a `` woman 's man '' nor a `` man 's man '' and as being `` in limbo '' . The characters ( Mr Humphries especially ) sometimes broke the fourth wall for comical effect . International broadcasts The series was shown in the United States on PBS stations and on BBC America , as well as in many Commonwealth nations around the world . PBS first began airing it ( on 24 stations ) in 1987 , and viewership steadily climbed as more stations carried it . By the early 1990s , it had gained such a loyal following that American viewers of the show formed fan clubs and were in large attendance wherever cast members made guest appearances . Are You Being Served ? aired in Canada late night on YTV . It also became available to Canadian viewers on PBS station WNED ( Buffalo ) . The show aired on Saturday evening prime time from the mid 1980s to late 1990s . The series was also extremely popular in Australia . It started on ABC Television in 1974 and was repeated by ABC in Australia several times . By 1978 it had been acquired by the commercial Seven Network who successfully screened repeats of the program to audiences larger than those who viewed it on the ABC . Are You Being Served ? was ranked as the top rated show on Australian television for 1978 , being watched by 2,255,000 people in five cities . The Best of Are You Being Served ? ( 1992 ) Buoyed by the huge success of the series in the USA , BBC America commissioned a special straight-to-VHS compilation in 1992 . Running at 78 minutes , The Best of Are You Being Served featured newly-shot scenes of Mr Humphries reminiscing with his elderly mother , Annie , about his time working at Grace Brothers . Both roles were played by John Inman . The additional sequences were filmed in America , and directed by Don Hopfer . 2016 reboot On 15 February 2016 the BBC announced that a reboot of the sitcom will be produced . Featuring an all-star-cast , based on a script written by Derren Litten with the following casting of Mrs Slocombe ( Sherrie Hewson ) , Miss Brahms ( Niky Wardley ) , Mr Humphries ( Jason Watkins ) , Captain Peacock ( John Challis ) , Mr Grainger ( Roy Barraclough ) , Mr Harman ( Arthur C. Smith ) and Mr Rumbold ( Justin Edwards ) will also star in the remake . The pilot episode will be recorded at MediaCityUK on 5 March 2016 . Are You Being Served ? is due to be screened later in the year joining other classic sitcoms , which are also being remade as part of the BBC 's Landmark Comedy Season to mark the 60th Anniversary of Galton and Simpson ’ s sitcom Hancock 's Half Hour which started on BBC Television . Episodes Spin-offs In 1992 , most of the original cast reunited for a spin-off show , titled Grace & Favour in Britain and Australia , and Are You Being Served Again ! in the United States and Canada . It ran for two series . Film version In 1977 , as for many other popular British sitcoms of the time , including On the Buses , a feature film was produced : the Are You Being Served ? film had the same characters and cast . It was set in the fictional resort of Costa Plonka , in Spain . The film was an adaptation of the very successful stage version of the show , which played at the Winter Gardens Theatre , Blackpool over the summer of 1976 . Adaptations in other countries A US adaptation pilot episode called Beane 's of Boston aired on 5 May 1979 on CBS , but it did not make it to series . An Australian spin-off , also called Are You Being Served ? , ran for sixteen episodes from 1980 to 1981 on Network Ten . It starred John Inman as Mr Humphries , June Bronhill as a character similar to Mrs Slocombe , Reg Evans , Christine Amor and Shane Bourne . The show takes place in the fictional Bone Brothers store , as `` Grace Bros. '' was the name of an actual department store chain in Australia . While most episodes were somewhat direct re-films of old scripts ( with minor changes like names ) , the first episode features a new start showing Mr Humphries joining from Grace Bros , and a series 2 episode is completely original , dealing with Mr Humphries ' Visa running out . The Singaporean MediaCorp sitcom Can I Help You ? had a similar title and premise , and was described by former cast member Vernetta Lopez as `` Are You Being Served , minus the wonderfully filthy jokes '' . Revival It was announced that a revived series would be broadcast in the summer of 2016 . It will be set in 1988 , and still had the original characters . The cast were announced on 22 February 2016 . Captain Peacock will be played by John Challis ; Mrs Slocombe by former Coronation Street actress Sherrie Hewson ; Mr Humphries by Jason Watkins ; Miss Brahms by Niky Wardley ; Mr Grainger by Roy Barraclough ; Mr Harmon by Arthur Smith , Mr Rumbold by Justin Edwards and Matthew Horne as Young Mr Grace 's grandson . New characters will include Miss Croft - named as a tribute to series creator David Croft - who will be played by Hollyoaks actress Jorgie Porter , and Mr Conway , played by Kayode Ewumi . The series will be written by Benidorm writer Derren Litten . The BBC say : `` It 's 1988 and Young Mr Grace is determined to drag Grace Brothers into , well 1988 , but he has a problem on his hands . Mr Humphries , Captain Peacock , Mr Rumbold and Mrs Slocombe all seem to be stuck in another era . A new member of staff , Mr Conway , joins the team but will he help shake things up or will he just put a pussy amongst the pigeons ? '' Comedy commissioner Shane Allen says : `` The Are You Being Served ? special is a riot of a script from Derren and has attracted a real comedy pedigree cast to pay homage to this glorious and much-loved show . '' Derren Litten adds : `` Writing a new episode of Are You Being Served ? has been the most fun I have ever had as a professional writer . We have an amazing cast , a brilliant producer and a great director , it was just too exciting an opportunity to pass up ; and I am unanimous in that . '' Characters Are You Being Served ? featured humour based on sexual innuendo , misunderstandings , mistaken identity , farce and occasional slapstick . In addition , there were sight gags generated by outrageous costumes which the characters were sometimes required to wear for store promotions , and gaudy store displays frequently featuring malfunctioning robotic mannequins . The show is remembered for its prolific use of double entendres . The main humorous base of the series was a merciless parody of the British class system . This permeated almost every interaction and was especially evident in the conversations between the maintenance men and the ostensibly higher-class store personnel . The episodes rarely left the store , and to parody the stereotype of the British class system , characters rarely addressed each other by their first names , even after work , instead using their formal titled names ( `` Mr '' , `` Mrs '' , `` Miss '' , or even `` Captain '' ) . When they did address each other by their first names , it was usually either as an aside , or often for comic effect ( e.g . an underling addressing a superior ) . Main characters * Mrs Betty Slocombe ( Mollie Sugden ) , a senior sales assistant and head of the ladies ' department . She is known for her changing hair colour and conversations about her cat , which she always refers to as her `` pussy '' . * Mr Wilberforce Claybourne Humphries ( John Inman ) , a sales assistant in gents ' ; a campy-acting man who lives with his mother . * `` Captain '' Stephen Peacock ( Frank Thornton ) , the haughty floorwalker who purportedly fought in the North Africa Campaign of World War II but was actually in the Service Corps and never saw combat . * Miss Shirley Brahms ( Wendy Richard ) , a young , attractive , working-class , cockney-speaking junior sales assistant to Mrs Slocombe . * Mr Ernest Grainger ( Arthur Brough ) , a 40-year veteran of Grace Brothers , a senior sales assistant and head of the gents ' department , who often falls asleep on the job , is usually grumpy , and wears a measuring tape over his shoulders . Mr Grainger 's last appearance was in `` It Pays To Advertise '' - the final episode of Season 6 . Arthur Brough died before the filming of Season 7 . * Mr Cuthbert `` Jug Ears '' Rumbold ( Nicholas Smith ) , the autocratic , obsequious ( to `` Young '' Mr Grace ) , yet bumbling and incompetent floor manager . * Mr James `` Dick '' Lucas ( Trevor Bannister ) , the young , penniless , womanising junior salesman ; a source of irritation to the female sales staff . Always referred to as the department 'junior ' , but Bannister was in fact one year older than Inman . The character left the series in 1979 . * `` Young '' Mr Grace ( Harold Bennett ) , the very old , rich but stingy store owner , surrounded by attractive young women . The character 's final appearance was in 1981 following Bennett 's death . The character was killed off in the first episode of the spin off series Grace & Favour . * `` Old '' Mr Grace ( Kenneth Waller ) , `` Young '' Mr Grace 's even-older brother - eventually replaced him at the store when he retired . * Mr Mash ( Larry Martyn ) ( Seasons 1 through 3 ) and Mr Beverly Harman ( Arthur English ) ( Seasons 4–10 ) , the maintenance men who installed mechanised display units in store and were both often scolded by Captain Peacock for being on the floor during opening hours . * Mr Percival Tebbs ( James Hayter ) , Mr Grainger 's replacement . He retired after only one year in the men 's department . * Mr Harry Goldberg ( Alfie Bass ) , Mr Tebbs 's replacement . Originally the junior salesman , he was quickly promoted to senior after proving to be a master salesman . Like Tebbs , Goldberg lasted only one year . * Mr Grossman ( Milo Sperber ) , an expert shoe salesman , joined the gents ' department , when some of the floor space was given over to shoes . He lasted only four episodes . * Mr Abraham Klein ( Benny Lee ) , joined the gents ' department to help out with upcoming sales in the store . Klein lasted only four episodes . * Mr Bert Spooner ( Mike Berry ) , eventually replaced Mr Lucas as gents ' junior sales assistant and was similar to him in many ways . * Miss Belfridge ( Candy Davis ) , the last and longest-running of Mr Rumbold 's secretaries . She was admired by all male staff , including Mr Humphries and especially Captain Peacock , who dined her at The Ritz . * Diana Yardswick ( Doremy Vernon ) , the manageress of Grace Brothers ' canteen at which the staff had their lunch . Known for serving grossly unappetizing food , and for her ill temper and sarcasm , as well as for enforcing strict social order , which dictated that management , sales staff and the maintenance crew and lift operators all dine separately . Theme song The theme song , written by the show 's co-writer David Croft and composer Ronnie Hazlehurst , consists of a lift girl ( whose voice was provided by Stephanie Gathercole ) announcing each floor over the musique concrète sounds of a cash register ( which basically serves as the only percussion instrument ) and a simple musical accompaniment . The 1977 Are You Being Served ? motion picture has a different version of the theme song which is longer , in a different key , and without the floor announcements . A remix of the theme was released in 1996 by a dance act calling itself `` Grace Brothers '' , and featured samples of John Inman and Frank Thornton . There is a homage to the theme song in the Ladytron song `` Paco ! '' from the album 604 , and New Zealand band Minuit 's `` I hate guns '' . A lugubrious version of the theme song is featured on the album The Ape of Naples by the experimental music group Coil . The theme song has also been covered by Australian band Regurgitator on their 1999 album ... Art . Pop singer Jamelia 's song `` Window Shopping '' ( from her 2006 album Walk with Me ) begins with a sample of the familiar cash register sound effect as well as Mrs Slocombe 's voice inquiring , `` Good morning , Mr Grainger ; are you free ? '' Merchandise Seven early episodes were novelised for a book , written by Jeremy Lloyd , called Are You Being Served ? – Camping in and other Fiascos . This was written in 1976 , and republished in 1997 by KQED Books . The seven episodes featured are Camping In , Up Captain Peacock , Wedding Bells , His and Hers , Coffee Morning , The Hand of Fate and The Clock . In 1995 , KQED Books published Are You Being Served – The Inside Story by Adrian Rigelsford , Anthony Brown , and Geoff Tibbals , with a foreword by Jeremy Lloyd , and sub-titled : `` The Inside Story of Britain 's Funniest – and Public Television 's Favorite – Comedy Series '' . In 212 pages , the book 's six chapters cover : The Cast of Characters , Behind the Scenes , The Episodes , The Spin-offs , Trivia Quiz , and Glossary . ISBN 0-912333-04-9 . In 1999 , I 'm Free ! The Complete Are You Being Served ? , a guide to the series , was published by Orion Books . It was written by Richard Webber , with contributions from David Croft and Jeremy Lloyd . A board game was also produced in the 1970s . Players moved round a board resembling the shop floor to purchase one item from each of the four counters and leave the store , before their opponents and without going over budget . DVD releases All ten series , including a black & white version of the pilot episode , and all five Christmas specials from those years , are now available on DVD in the UK ( Region 2 ) . Are You Being Served ? : the Movie was released in 2002 . A colour-restored version of the original pilot episode has yet to be released commercially . All ten series , as well as both series of Grace & Favour ( in packaging titled Are You Being Served ? Again ! ) and the film are available on DVD in Region 1 ( North America ) . All ten series , as well as both series of Grace & Favour ( in correctly titled packaging ) and the film have been released in Australia ( Region 4 ) . A DVD titled Are You Being Served ? – Best of The Early Years and Are You Being Served ? Christmas Specials have also been released .

dpql_5615--Are_You_Being_Served?.txt

Which character was played by John Inman in “Are you being served”?

Edwin ( ; c. 586 – 12 October 632/633 ) , also known as Eadwine or Æduinus , was the King of Deira and Bernicia – which later became known as Northumbria – from about 616 until his death . He converted to Christianity and was baptised in 627 ; after he fell at the Battle of Hatfield Chase , he was venerated as a saint . Edwin was the son of Ælle king of Deira and seems to have had ( at least ) two siblings . His sister Acha was married to Æthelfrith , king of neighbouring Bernicia . An otherwise unknown sibling fathered Hereric , who in turn fathered Abbess Hilda of Whitby and Hereswith , wife to Æthelric , the brother of king Anna of East Anglia . Early life and exile The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle reported that on Ælle 's death a certain `` Æthelric '' assumed power . The exact identity of Æthelric is uncertain . He may have been a brother of Ælle , an elder brother of Edwin , an otherwise unknown Deiran noble , or the father of Æthelfrith . Æthelfrith himself appears to have been king of `` Northumbria '' —both Deira and Bernicia—by no later than 604 . During the reign of Æthelfrith , Edwin was an exile . The location of his early exile as a child is not known , but late traditions , reported by Reginald of Durham and Geoffrey of Monmouth , place Edwin in the kingdom of Gwynedd , fostered by king Cadfan ap Iago , so allowing biblical parallels to be drawn from the struggle between Edwin and his supposed foster-brother Cadwallon . By the 610s he was certainly in Mercia under the protection of king Cearl , whose daughter Cwenburg he married . By around 616 , Edwin was in East Anglia under the protection of king Raedwald . Bede reports that Æthelfrith tried to have Raedwald murder his unwanted rival , and that Raedwald intended to do so until his wife persuaded him otherwise with Divine prompting . Æthelfrith faced Raedwald in battle by the River Idle in 616 , and Æthelfrith was defeated ; Raedwald installed Edwin as king of Northumbria . Raedwald 's son Raegenhere may have been killed at this battle , but the exact date or manner of Raedwald 's death are not known . He likely died between the years 616–627 , and the efficacy of Edwin ’ s kingship ostensibly depended greatly on his fealty to Raedwald . Edwin was installed as king of Northumbria , effectively confirming Raedwald as bretwalda : Æthelfrith 's sons went into exile in Irish Dál Riata and Pictland . That Edwin was able to take power not only in his native Deira but also in Bernicia may have been due to his support from Raedwald , to whom he may have remained subject during the early part of his reign . Edwin 's reign marks an interruption of the otherwise consistent domination of Northumbria by the Bernicians and has been seen as `` contrary to the prevailing tendency '' . Edwin as king With the death of Æthelfrith , and of the powerful Æthelberht of Kent the same year , Raedwald and his client Edwin were well placed to dominate England , and indeed Raedwald did so until his death a decade later . Edwin expelled Ceretic from the minor British kingdom of Elmet in either 616 or 626 . Elmet had probably been subject to Mercia and then to Edwin . The larger kingdom of Lindsey appears to have been taken over c. 625 , after the death of king Raedwald . Edwin and Eadbald of Kent were allies at this time , and Edwin arranged to marry Eadbald 's sister Æthelburg . Bede notes that Eadbald would agree to marry his sister to Edwin only if he converted to Christianity . The marriage of Eadbald 's Merovingian mother Bertha had resulted in the conversion of Kent and Æthelburg 's would do the same in Northumbria . Edwin 's expansion to the west may have begun early in his reign . There is firm evidence of a war waged in the early 620s between Edwin and Fiachnae mac Báetáin of the Dál nAraidi , king of the Ulaid in Ireland . A lost poem is known to have existed recounting Fiachnae 's campaigns against the Saxons , and the Irish annals report the siege , or the storming , of Bamburgh in Bernicia in 623–624 . This should presumably be placed in the context of Edwin 's designs on the Isle of Man , a target of Ulaid ambitions . Fiachnae 's death in 626 , at the hands of his namesake , Fiachnae mac Demmáin of the Dál Fiatach , and the second Fiachnae 's death a year later in battle against the Dál Riata probably eased the way for Edwin 's conquests in the Irish sea province . The routine of kingship in Edwin 's time involved regular , probably annual , wars with neighbours to obtain tribute , submission , and slaves . By Edwin 's death , it is likely that these annual wars , unreported in the main , had extended the Northumbrian kingdoms from the Humber and the Mersey north to the Southern Uplands and the Cheviots . The royal household moved regularly from one royal vill to the next , consuming the food renders given in tribute and the produce of the royal estates , dispensing justice , and ensuring that royal authority remained visible throughout the land . The royal sites in Edwin 's time included Yeavering in Bernicia , where traces of a timber amphitheatre have been found . This `` Roman '' feature makes Bede 's claim that Edwin was preceded by a standard-bearer carrying a `` tufa '' ( OE thuuf , this may have been a winged globe ) appear to be more than antiquarian curiosity , although whether the model for this practice was Roman or Frankish is unknown . Other royal sites included Campodunum in Elmet ( perhaps Barwick ) , Sancton in Deira , and Goodmanham , the site where the pagan high priest Coifi destroyed the idols according to Bede . Edwin 's realm included the former Roman cities of York and Carlisle , and both appear to have been of some importance in the 7th century , although it is not clear whether urban life continued in this period . Edwin 's conversion to Christianity The account of Edwin 's conversion offered by Bede turns on two events . The first , during Edwin 's exile , tells how Edwin 's life was saved by Paulinus of York . The second , following his marriage to Æthelburg , was the attempted assassination at York , at Easter 626 , by an agent of Cwichelm of Wessex . Edwin 's decision to allow the baptism of his daughter Eanfled and his subsequent promise to adopt Christianity if his campaign against Cwichelm proved successful . Apart from these events , the general character of Bede 's account is one of an indecisive king , unwilling to take risks , unable to decide whether to convert or not . Along with these events , the influence of Edwin 's half-Merovingian Queen can not be ignored , and the letters which Bede reproduces , sent by Pope Boniface V to Edwin and Athelburg , are unlikely to have been unique . Given that Kent was under Frankish influence , while Bede sees the mission as being `` Roman '' in origin , the Franks were equally interested in converting their fellow Germans and in extending their power and influence . Bede recounts Edwin 's baptism , and that of his chief men , on 12 April 627 . Edwin 's zeal , so Bede says , led to Raedwald 's son Eorpwald also converting . Bede 's account of the conversion is oft-cited . After Paulinus explains the tenets of Christianity , the king asks his counselors what they think of the new doctrine . Edwin 's priest Coifi responds that they may be worthwhile ; after all , he says , no one has been more respectful of and devoted to their gods than he , and he has seen no benefits from his dedication to them . Then , an unnamed counselor stands up and addresses the king , also seeing the benefit of the new faith . Coifi speaks again and announces that they should destroy the idols and temples they had hitherto worshiped . King Edwin agrees and embraces Christianity ; Coifi himself will set fire to the idols . declaring `` I will do this myself , for now that the true God has granted me knowledge , who more suitably than I can set a public example , and destroy the idols that I worshipped in ignorance ? ” Bede goes on to describe the scene as Cofi `` formally renounces his superstitions , and asked the king to give him arms and a stallion . '' Armed with both a sword and spear , Cofi rides Edwin ’ s horse towards the idols , all within view of the crowd gathered to witness Edwin ’ s conversion . Upon reaching the temple , Cofi `` cast a spear into it and profaned it . '' In an article titled `` How Cofi Pierced Christ ’ s Side '' , Julia Barrow examines Bede ’ s Latinate text and pays particular attention to the passage concerning Cofi ’ s attack upon the temple . Barrow notes that Bede 's use of lancea was `` not the word medieval writers normally used for spear '' , while “ hasta was the usual choice . '' Barrow goes on to claim that lancea was likely used by Bede as a reference to the details of the crucifixion of Christ provided in the vulgate book of John , thus Cofi ’ s desecration of the shrine is to be understood `` as an inversion of the piercing of the temple of Christ ’ s body . '' All of these details support an understanding that Bede had great `` warmth and admiration '' for Edwin . The brief speech by the unnamed counselor , a nobleman , has attracted much attention ; suggesting the `` wisdom and hopefulness of the Christian message '' , it has inspired poets such as William Wordsworth and was called `` the most poetic simile in Bede '' : The present life man , O king , seems to me , in comparison with that time which is unknown to us , like to the swift flight of a sparrow through the room wherein you sit at supper in winter amid your officers and ministers , with a good fire in the midst whilst the storms of rain and snow prevail abroad ; the sparrow , I say , flying in at one door and immediately out another , whilst he is within is safe from the wintry but after a short space of fair weather he immediately vanishes out of your sight into the dark winter from which he has emerged . So this life of man appears for a short space but of what went before or what is to follow we are ignorant . If , therefore , this new doctrine contains something more certain , it seems justly to deserve to be followed . Noteworthy is Bede ’ s summation of the nature of Edwin ’ s reign as King of Northumbria : “ It is told that at the time there was so much peace in Britannia , that whenever King Edwin ’ s power extended , as is said proverbially right up to today , even if a woman with a recently born child wanted to walk across the whole island , from sea to sea , she could do so without anyone harming her . ” Kershaw indicates that “ Bede ’ s decision to couch Edwin ’ s peace in proverbial terms offers ... a chilling insight into the levels of lawlessness accepted in eighth-century England ” . Furthermore , a definition of “ peace ” is to be understood as “ freedom from robbery , rape , or violence ; security to travel at will and to literally ‘ go in peace . ’ ” Edwin 's conversion and Eorpwald 's were reversed by their successors , and in the case of Northumbria the Roman Paulinus appears to have had very little impact . Indeed , by expelling British clergy from Elmet and elsewhere in Edwin 's realm , Paulinus may have weakened the Church rather than strengthening it . Very few Roman clergy were present in Paulinus 's time , only James the Deacon being known , so that the `` conversion '' can have been only superficial , extending little beyond the royal court . Paulinus 's decision to flee Northumbria at Edwin 's death , unlike his acolyte James who remained in Northumbria for many years afterwards until his death , suggests that the conversion was not popular , and the senior Italian cleric unloved . Edwin as overlord The first challenge to Edwin came soon after his marriage-alliance with Kent , concluded at Canterbury in the summer of 625 . By offering his protection to lesser kings , such as the king of Wight , Edwin thwarted the ambitions of Cwichelm of Wessex . Cwichelm 's response was to send an assassin , as noted already . Edwin did not immediately respond to this insult , suggesting either that he felt unable to do so , or that Bede 's portrayal of him as a rather indecisive ruler is accurate . Following the failed assassination , as noted , Edwin committed himself to Christianity provided only that he was victorious against Cwichelm . From about 627 onwards , Edwin was the most powerful king among the Anglo-Saxons , ruling Bernicia , Deira and much of eastern Mercia , the Isle of Man , and Anglesey . His alliance with Kent , the subjection of Wessex , and his recent successes added to his power and authority . The imperium , as Bede calls it , that Edwin possessed was later equated with the idea of a Bretwalda , a later concept invented by West Saxon kings in the 9th century . Put simply , success confirmed Edwin 's overlordship , and failure would diminish it . Edwin 's supposed foster-brother Cadwallon ap Cadfan enters the record circa 629 , but Cadwallon was defeated and either submitted to Edwin 's authority or went into exile . With the defeat of Cadwallon , Edwin 's authority appears to have been unchallenged for a number of years , until Penda of Mercia and Cadwallon rose against him in 632–633 . Edwin faced Penda and Cadwallon at the Battle of Hatfield in the autumn of 632 or 633 and was defeated and killed . For a time his body was ( allegedly ) hidden in Sherwood Forest at a location that became the village of Edwinstowe ( trans . Edwin 's resting place ) , his head being eventually buried at York and the rest of his body at Whitby . Of his two grown sons by Cwenburh of Mercia , Osfrith died at Hatfield , and Eadfrith was captured by Penda and killed some time afterwards . After his death , Edwin 's Queen Æthelburg , along with Paulinus , returned to Kent , taking her son Uscfrea , daughter Eanfled , and Osfrith 's son Yffi into exile with her . Uscfrea and Yffi were sent to the court of Æthelburg 's kinsman Dagobert I , king of the Franks , but died soon afterwards . Eanfled , however , lived to marry her first cousin king Oswiu , son of Acha and Æthelfrith . Death and legacy Edwin 's realm was divided at his death . He was succeeded by Osric , son of Edwin 's paternal uncle Ælfric , in Deira , and by Eanfrith , son of Æthelfrith and Edwin 's sister Acha , in Bernicia . Both reverted to paganism , and both were killed by Cadwallon ; eventually Eanfrith 's brother Oswald defeated and killed Cadwallon and united Northumbria once more . Thereafter , with the exception of Oswine son of Osric , power in Northumbria was in the hands of the Idings , the descendants of Ida of Bernicia , until the middle of the 8th century . After his death , Edwin came to be venerated as a saint by some , although his cult was eventually overshadowed by the ultimately more successful cult of Oswald , who was killed in 642 . They met their deaths in battle against similar foes , the pagan Mercians and the British , thus allowing both of them to be perceived as martyrs ; however , Bede 's treatment of Oswald clearly demonstrates that he regarded him as an unambiguously saintly figure , a status that he did not accord to Edwin . Edwin 's renown comes largely from his treatment at some length by Bede , writing from an uncompromisingly English and Christian perspective , and rests on his belated conversion to Christianity . His united kingdom in the north did not outlast him , and his conversion to Christianity was renounced by his successors . When his kingship is compared with his pagan brother-in-law Æthelfrith , or to Æthelfrith 's sons Oswald and Oswiu , or to the resolutely pagan Penda of Mercia , Edwin appears to be something less than a key figure in Britain during the first half of the 7th century . Perhaps the most significant legacies of Edwin 's reign lay in his failures : the rise of Penda and of Mercia , and the return from Irish exile of the sons of Æthelfrith , which tied the kingdom of Northumbria into the Irish sea world for generations .

qw_6561--Edwin_of_Northumbria.txt

What part of the world has been ruled by Aelle, Ceawlin, Ethelberht, Rdwald, Edwin, Oswald, Oswy, Wulfhere, Ethelred, Ethelbald, Offa, Cnwulf and Egbert?

Dominoes ( or dominos ) is a game played with rectangular `` domino '' tiles . The domino gaming pieces make up a domino set , sometimes called a deck or pack . The traditional Sino-European domino set consists of 28 dominoes , colloquially nicknamed bones , cards , tiles , tickets , stones , or spinners . Each domino is a rectangular tile with a line dividing its face into two square ends . Each end is marked with a number of spots ( also called pips , nips , or dobs ) or is blank . The backs of the dominoes in a set are indistinguishable , either blank or having some common design . A domino set is a generic gaming device , similar to playing cards or dice , in that a variety of games can be played with a set . The earliest mention of dominoes is from Song dynasty China , found in the text Former Events in Wulin . Dominoes first appeared in Italy during the 18th century , and although it is unknown how Chinese dominoes developed into the modern game , it is speculated that Italian missionaries in China may have brought the game to Europe . The name `` domino '' is from the resemblance to a kind of hood worn during the Venice carnival . Construction and composition of domino sets European-style dominoes are traditionally made of bone such as ivory , or a dark hardwood such as ebony , with contrasting black or white pips ( inlaid or painted ) . Alternatively , domino sets have been made from many different natural materials : stone ( e.g. , marble , granite or soapstone ) ; other hardwoods ( e.g. , ash , oak , redwood and cedar ) ; metals ( e.g. , brass or pewter ) ; ceramic clay , or even frosted glass or crystal . These sets have a more novel look , and the often heavier weight makes them feel more substantial ; also , such materials and the resulting products are usually much more expensive than polymer materials . Modern commercial domino sets are usually made of synthetic materials , such as ABS or polystyrene plastics , or Bakelite and other phenolic resins ; many sets approximate the look and feel of ivory while others use colored or even translucent plastics to achieve a more contemporary look . Modern sets also commonly use a different color for the dots of each different end value ( one-spots might have black pips while two-spots might be green , three red , etc . ) to facilitate finding matching ends . Occasionally , one may find a domino set made of card stock like that for playing cards . Such sets are lightweight , compact and inexpensive , and like cards are more susceptible to minor disturbances such as a sudden breeze . Sometimes dominoes have a metal pin ( called a spinner or pivot ) in the middle . The traditional set of dominoes contains one unique piece for each possible combination of two ends with zero to six spots , and is known as a double-six set because the highest-value piece has six pips on each end ( the `` double six '' ) . The spots from one to six are generally arranged as they are on six-sided dice , but because there are also blank ends having no spots there are seven possible faces , allowing 28 unique pieces in a double-six set . However , this is a relatively small number especially when playing with more than four people , so many domino sets are `` extended '' by introducing ends with greater numbers of spots , which increases the number of unique combinations of ends and thus of pieces . Each progressively larger set increases the maximum number of pips on an end by three , so the common extended sets are double-nine , double-twelve , double-fifteen and double-eighteen . Larger sets such as double-twenty-one can theoretically exist but are rarely seen in retail stores , as identifying the number of pips on each domino becomes difficult , and a double-twenty-one set would have 253 pieces , far more than is normally necessary for most domino games even with eight players . History The oldest confirmed written mention of dominoes in China comes from the Former Events in Wulin ( i.e . the capital Hangzhou ) written by the Yuan Dynasty ( 1271–1368 ) author Zhou Mi ( 1232–1298 ) , who listed `` pupai '' ( gambling plaques or dominoes ) as well as dice as items sold by peddlers during the reign of Emperor Xiaozong of Song ( r. 1162–1189 ) . Andrew Lo asserts that Zhou Mi meant dominoes when referring to pupai , since the Ming author Lu Rong ( 1436–1494 ) explicitly defined pupai as dominoes ( in regards to a story of a suitor who won a maiden 's hand by drawing out four winning pupai from a set ) . The earliest known manual written about dominoes is the ( Manual of the Xuanhe Period ) written by Qu You ( 1341–1437 ) . But some Chinese scholars believe this manual is a forgery from a later time . In the Encyclopedia of a Myriad of Treasures , Zhang Pu ( 1602–1641 ) described the game of laying out dominoes as pupai , although the character for pu had changed , yet retained the same pronunciation . Traditional Chinese domino games include Tien Gow , Pai Gow , Che Deng , and others . The thirty-two-piece Chinese domino set , made to represent each possible face of two thrown dice and thus have no blank faces , differs from the twenty-eight-piece domino set found in the West during the mid 18th century . Chinese dominoes with blank faces were known during the 17th century . Many different domino sets have been used for centuries in various parts of the world to play a variety of domino games . Each domino originally represented one of the 21 results of throwing two 6-sided dice ( 2d6 ) . One half of each domino is set with the pips from one die and the other half contains the pips from the second die . Chinese sets also introduce duplicates of some throws and divide the dominoes into two classes : military and civil . Chinese dominoes are also longer than typical European dominoes . The early 18th century witnessed dominoes making their way to Europe , making their first appearance in Italy . The game changed somewhat in the translation from Chinese to the European culture . European domino sets contain neither class distinctions nor the duplicates that went with them . Instead , European sets contain seven additional dominoes , with six of these representing the values that result from throwing a single die with the other half of the tile left blank , and the seventh domino representing the blank-blank ( 0–0 ) combination . Ivory Dominoes were routinely used in 19th century rural England in the settling of disputes over traditional grazing boundaries , and were commonly referred to as `` bonesticks '' ( see Hartley , Land Law in West Lancashire in the mid- 19th Century , Farm Gazette , March 1984 ) . Tiles and suits Domino tiles , also known as bones , are twice as long as they are wide and usually have a line in the middle dividing them into two squares . The value of either side is the number of spots or pips . In the most common variant ( Double Six ) the values range from blank or 0 ( no pips ) to 6 .. Republished 1994 by Wordsworth Editions . The sum of the two values , i.e . the total number of pips , may be referred to as the rank or weight of a tile , and a tile with more pips may be called heavier than a lighter tile with fewer pips . Tiles are generally named after their two values ; e.g . 2–5 or 5–2 are alternative ways of describing the tile with the values 2 and 5 . Tiles that have the same value on both ends are called doubles , and are typically referred to as double-zero , double-one etc . Tiles with two different values are called singles . Every tile belongs to the two suits of its two values , e.g . 0–3 belongs both to the blank suit ( or 0 suit ) and to the 3 suit . Naturally the doubles form an exception in that each double belongs to only one suit . In 42 , the doubles are treated as an additional suit of doubles , so that , e.g. , the double-six 6–6 belongs both to the 6 suit and the suit of doubles . The most common domino sets commercially available are Double Six ( with 28 tiles ) and Double Nine ( with 55 tiles ) . Larger sets exist and are popular for games involving several players or for players looking for long domino games . The number of tiles in a set has the formula for a double-n set . Rules The most popular type of play are layout games , which fall into two main categories , blocking games and scoring games . * Most domino games are blocking games , i.e . the objective is to empty one 's hand while blocking the opponent 's . In the end , a score may be determined by counting the pips in the losing players ' hands . * In scoring games the scoring is different and happens mostly during game play , making it the principal objective . * A popular version played predominantly in Singapore , referenced as 'Hector 's Rules ' , allows for playing double tiles on opponents ' hands and awards a bonus play of an additional tile immediately after playing a double tile . Blocking game The most basic domino variant is for two players and requires a double six set . The 28 tiles are shuffled face down and form the stock or boneyard . Each player draws seven tiles ; the remainder are not used . Once the players begin drawing tiles , they are typically placed on-edge before the players , so that each player can see his own tiles , but none can see the value of other players ' tiles . Every player can thus see how many tiles remain in the other players ' hands at all times during gameplay . One player begins by downing ( playing the first tile ) one of their tiles . This tile starts the line of play , a series of tiles in which adjacent tiles touch with matching , i.e . equal , values . The players alternately extend the line of play with one tile at one of its two ends . The game ends when one player wins by playing their last tile , or when the game is blocked because neither player can play . If that occurs , whoever caused the block gets all of the remaining player points not counting their own . Scoring game Players accrue points during game play for certain configurations , moves , or emptying one 's hand . Most scoring games use variations of the draw game . If a player does not call `` domino '' before the tile is laid on the table , and another player says 'domino ' after the tile is laid , the first player must pick up an extra domino . Draw game In a draw game ( blocking or scoring ) , players are additionally allowed to draw as many tiles as desired from the stock before playing a tile , and they are not allowed to pass before the stock is ( nearly ) empty . The score of a game is the number of pips in the losing player 's hand plus the number of pips in the stock . Most rules prescribe that two tiles need to remain in the stock . The Draw game is often referred to as simply `` dominoes '' . Adaptations of both games can accommodate more than two players , who may play individually or in teams . Line of play The line of play is the configuration of played tiles on the table . It starts with a single tile and typically grows in two opposite directions when players add matching tiles . In practice , players often play tiles at right angles when the line of play gets too close to the edge of the table . The rules for the line of play often differ from one variant to another . In many rules , the doubles serve as spinners , i.e. , they can be played on all four sides , causing the line of play to branch . Sometimes the first tile is required to be a double , which serves as the only spinner . In some games such as Chicken Foot , all sides of a spinner must be occupied before anybody is allowed to play elsewhere . Matador has unusual rules for matching . Bendomino uses curved tiles , so that one side of the line of play ( or both ) may be blocked for geometrical reasons . In Mexican Train and other train games , the game starts with a spinner from which various trains branch off . Most trains are owned by a player and in most situations players are allowed to extend only their own train . Scoring In blocking games , scoring happens at the end of the game . After a player has emptied his hand , thereby winning the game for their team , the score consists of the total pip count of the losing teams ' hands . In some rules , the pip count of the remaining stock is added . If a game is blocked because no player can move , the winner is often determined by adding the pips in players ' hands . In scoring games , each individual can potentially add to the score . For example , in Bergen , players score 2 points whenever they cause a configuration in which both open ends have the same value and 3 points if additionally one open end is formed by a double . In Muggins , players score by ensuring the total pip count of the open ends is a multiple of a certain number . In variants of Muggins , the line of play may branch due to spinners . In British public houses and social clubs , a scoring version of `` 5s-and-3s '' is used . The game is normally played in pairs ( two against two ) and is played as a series of `` ends '' . In each `` end '' , the objective is for players to attach a domino from their hand to one end of those already played so that the sum of the end dominoes is divisible by 5 or 3 . One point is scored for each time 5 or 3 can be divided into the sum of the two dominoes i.e . four at one end and 5 at the other makes 9 , which is divisible by 3 three times , resulting in 3 points . Double 5 at one end and 5 at the other makes 15 which is divisible by 3 five times ( 5 points ) and divisible by 5 three times ( 3 points ) for a total of 8 points . An `` end '' stops when one of the players is out , i.e. , has played all of his dominoes . In the event no player is able to empty his hand , then the player with the lowest domino left in hand is deemed to be 'out ' and scores one point . A game consists of any number of `` ends '' with points scored in the `` ends '' accumulating towards a total . The game ends when one of the pairs ' total score exceeds a set number of points . A running total score is often kept on a cribbage board . 5s-and-3s is played in a number of competitive leagues in the British Isles . Variations and game play For 40 years the game has been played by four people , with the winner being the first player to score 150 points , in multiple of 5 , by using 27 bones , using mathematical strategic defenses and explosive offense . At times it has been played with pairs of partners . The Double Six Set is the preferred deck with the lowest denomination of game pieces , with 28 Dominoes ( tiles or bones ) . In many versions of the game , the player with the highest double-leads with that double , for example `` double-six '' . If no one has it , the next-highest double is called : `` double-five ? `` , then `` double-four ? `` , etc . until the highest double in any of the players hands is played . If no player has an `` opening '' double , the next heaviest domino in the highest suit is called - `` six-five ? `` , `` six-four ? `` . In some variants , players take turns picking dominoes from the stock until an opening double is picked and played . In other variants , the hand is reshuffled and each player picks seven dominoes . After the first hand , the winner ( or winning team ) of the previous hand is allowed to pick first and begins by playing any domino in his or her hand . Playing the first bone of a hand is sometimes called setting , leading , downing , or posing the first bone . Dominoes aficionados often call this procedure smacking down the bone . After each hand , bones are shuffled and each player draws the number of bones required , normally seven . Play proceeds clockwise . Players in turn must play a bone with an end that matches one of the open ends of the layouts . In some versions of the games , the pips or points on the end , and the section to be played next to it must add up to a given number . For example , in a double six set the `` sum '' would be six , requiring a `` blank '' to be played next to a `` 6 , '' a `` 1 '' next to a `` 5 '' , a `` 2 '' next to a `` 4 '' , etc . The stock of bones left behind , if any , is called the bone yard , and the bones therein are said to be sleeping . In draw games , players take part in the bone selection , typically drawing from the bone yard when they do n't have a `` match '' in their hand . If a player inadvertently picks up and sees one or more extra dominoes , those dominoes become part of his or her hand . A player who can play a tile may be allowed to pass anyway . Passing can be signalled by tapping twice on the table or by saying `` go '' or `` pass '' . Play continues until one of the players has played all the dominoes in his or her hand , calls `` Out ! `` , `` I win '' , or `` Domino ! '' and wins the hand , or until all players are blocked and no legal plays remain . This is sometimes referred to as lock down or `` sewed up '' . In a common version of the game , the next player after the block picks up all the dominoes in the bone yard as if trying to find a ( non-existent ) match . If all the players are blocked , or locked out the player with the lowest hand ( pip count ) wins . In team play , the team with the lowest individual hand wins . In the case of a tie , the first of tied players or the first team in the play rotation wins . In games where points accrue , the winning player scores a point for each pip on each bone still held by each opponent or the opposing team . If no player went out , the win is determined by the lightest hand , sometimes only the excess points held by opponents . A game is generally played to 100 points , the tally being kept with paper and pencil . In more common games , mainly urban rules , games are played to 150 , 200 , or 250 points . In some games the tally is kept by creating houses , where the beginning of the house ( the first ten points ) is a large + , the next ten points are O , and scoring with a 5 is a / , and are placed in the four 'corners ' of the house . One house is equal to 50 points . In some versions , if a lock down occurs , the first person to call a lock-down gains the other players bones and adds the amount of the pips to their house . If a person who calls rocks after a call of 'lock-down ' or 'domino ' finds the number of pips a player called is incorrect , those points become his . Bogus play When a player plays out of turn or draws another domino or knocks when they could have played and someone calls bogus play the other person is awarded 50 points . Card games using domino sets Apart from the usual blocking and scoring games , there are also domino games of a very different character , such as solitaire or trick-taking games . Most of these are adaptations of card games and were once popular in certain areas to circumvent religious proscriptions against playing cards . A very simple example is a Concentration variant played with a double-six set ; two tiles are considered to match if their total pip count is 12 . A popular domino game in Texas is 42 . The game is similar to the card game spades . It is played with four players paired into teams . Each player draws seven dominoes , and the dominoes are played into tricks . Each trick counts as 1 point , and any domino with a multiple of 5 dots counts toward the total of the hand . 35 points of `` five count '' + 7 tricks = 42 points , hence the name . Competitive play Dominoes is played at a professional level , similar to poker . Numerous organisations and clubs of amateur domino players exist around the world . Some organizations , including the Fédération Internationale de Domino ( FIDO ) [ http : //domino-fid.org/ ] , organize international competitions . The 2008 and 2009 Double FIDO domino world champion from the UK is Darren Elhindi . Other uses of dominoes Besides playing games , another use of dominoes is the domino show , which involves standing them on end in long lines so that when the first tile is toppled , it topples the second , which topples the third , etc. , resulting in all of the tiles falling . By analogy , the phenomenon of small events causing similar events leading to eventual catastrophe is called the domino effect . Arrangements of millions of tiles have been made that have taken many minutes , even hours to fall . For large and elaborate arrangements , special blockages ( also known as firebreaks ) are employed at regular distances to prevent a premature toppling from undoing more than a section of the dominoes while still being able to be removed without damage . The phenomenon also has some theoretical relevance ( amplifier , digital signal , information processing ) , [ http : //everything2.com/index.pl ? node_id 1764437 Domino computer ] and this amounts to the theoretical possibility of building domino computers . [ http : //www.pinkandaint.com/oldhome/comp/dominoes/index.html Domino computers ] , a detailed description written by [ http : //www.pinkandaint.com/ David Johnston ] Dominoes are also commonly used as components in Rube Goldberg machines . The Netherlands has hosted an annual domino-toppling exhibition called Domino Day since 1986 . The event held on 18 November 2005 knocked over 4 million dominoes by a team from Weijers Domino Productions . On Domino Day 2008 ( 14 November 2008 ) , the Weijers Domino Productions team attempted to set 10 records : # Longest domino spiral ( 200 m ) # Highest domino climb ( 12 m ) # Smallest domino tile ( 7 mm ) # Largest domino tile ( 4.8 m ) # Longest domino wall ( 16 m ) # Largest domino structure ( 25,000 tiles ) # Fastest topple of 30 metres of domino tiles ( 4.21 sec , time by Churandy Martina : 3.81 sec ) # Largest number of domino tiles resting on a single domino ( 1002 tiles ) for more than 1 hour # Largest rectangular level domino field ( 1 million tiles ) # A new record of 4,345,027 tiles This record attempt was held in the WTC Expo hall in Leeuwarden . The artist who toppled the first stone was the Finnish acrobat Salima Peippo . At one time , Pressman Toys manufactured a product called Domino Rally that contained tiles and mechanical devices for setting up toppling exhibits . In Berlin on 9 November 2009 , giant dominoes were toppled in a 20th anniversary commemoration of the fall of the Berlin Wall . Former Polish president and Solidarity leader Lech Wałęsa set the toppling in motion . Dominoes in Unicode Since April 2008 , the character encoding standard Unicode includes characters that represent the double-six domino tiles in various orientations . All combinations of 0 through 6 pips on the left or right provides 7x7 or 49 glyphs , the same combinations vertically for another 49 , and also a horizontal and a vertical `` back '' for a total of 100 glyphs . In this arrangement , both orientations are present : horizontally both tiles [ 1|6 ] and [ 6|1 ] exist , while a regular game set only has one such tile . The Unicode range for dominoes is U+1F030–U+1F09F . The naming pattern in Unicode is , by example , . Few fonts are known to support these glyphs . While the complete domino set has only 28 tiles , for printing layout reasons the Unicode set needs both horizontal and vertical forms for each tile , plus the 01-03 ( plain ) 03-01 ( reversed ) pairs , and generic backsides . Historic domino competitions * Col. Henry T. Titus vs. Capt . Clark Rice for the naming of Titusville , Florida

wh_645--Dominoes.txt

How many dominoes are there in a double six set?

Dame Laura Knight , ( 4 August 1877 – 7 July 1970 ) was an English artist who worked in oils , watercolours , etching , engraving and drypoint . Knight was a painter in the figurative , realist tradition who embraced English Impressionism . In her long career Knight was among the most successful and popular painters in Britain . In 1929 she was created a Dame , and in 1936 became the first woman elected to the Royal Academy since its foundation in 1768 . Her large retrospective exhibition at the Royal Academy in 1965 was another first for a woman . Although Knight was known for painting amidst the world of the theatre and ballet in London , and for being a war artist during the Second World War , she was also greatly interested in , and inspired by , marginalised communities and individuals , including Gypsies and circus performers . Her success in the male-dominated British art establishment paved the way for greater status and recognition for women artists . Biography Early life Laura Johnson was born in Long Eaton , Derbyshire , the youngest of the three daughters of Charles and Charlotte Johnson . Her father died not long after her birth , and Laura grew up in a family that struggled with financial problems . In 1889 she was sent to France with the intention that she would eventually study art at a Parisian atelier . After a short time in French schools , she returned to England . Charlotte Johnson taught part-time at the Nottingham School of Art , and managed to have Laura Johnson enrolled as an 'artisan student ' there , paying no fees , aged thirteen . At the age of fifteen , Laura Johnson took over her mother 's teaching duties when Charlotte became seriously ill. Later she won a modest scholarship and the gold medal in the national student competition held by the then South Kensington Museum . She continued to give private lessons after she left the Art School , as both her and her sister Evangeline Agnes , known as Sissie , had been left to live together on very little money , after the deaths of their mother , their sister Nellie and both their grandmothers . At school , Laura met one of the most promising students , Harold Knight , then aged 17 , and determined that the best method of learning was to copy Harold 's technique . They became friends , and married in 1903 . Staithes and Laren In 1894 Harold Knight and Laura Johnson visited Staithes , a fishing village on the Yorkshire coast , for a holiday and soon returned , accompanied by Sissie , to live and work there . In Staithes Laura Johnson drew the people of the fishing village and the surrounding farms , showing the hardship and poverty of their lives . She made studies , paintings and watercolours , often painting in muted , shadowy tones . Lack of money for expensive materials meant she produced few oil paintings at this time . Local children would sit for her , for pennies , giving her the opportunity to develop her figure painting technique . Less successful at this time were her landscape and thematic works . Although she painted on the moors , high inland from Staithes , she did not consider herself successful at resolving these studies into finished pieces . Later she recalled : Laura Johnson and Harold Knight married in 1903 and made their first trip to the Netherlands in 1904 . They spent six weeks there that year and six months there in 1905 . They visited the artists colony at Laren , a group of followers of the Hague School of artists who had been painting in remote rural communities since the 1850s . The Knights made a third trip to Laren in 1906 before spending that winter in Yorkshire . Cornwall In late 1907 the Knights moved to Cornwall , staying first in Newlyn , before moving to Lamorna . Here , alongside Lamorna Birch , Alfred Munnings and Aleister Crowley , they became central figures in the Newlyn artists colony . By March 1908 both had work exhibited at the Newlyn Art Gallery . By this time Harold Knight was an established professional portrait painter , while Laura Knight was still developing her art . Around Newlyn the Knights found themselves among a group of sociable and energetic artists , which appears to have allowed the more vivid and dynamic aspects of Laura 's personality to come to the fore . Laura Knight spent the summer of 1908 working on the beach at Newlyn making studies for her large painting of children in bright sunlight . The Beach was shown at the Royal Academy in 1909 , and was considered a great success , showing Laura painting in a more Impressionist style than she had displayed previously . About this time Knight began painting compositions of women in the open air , often on the rocks at Lamorna . Knight would sometimes use models from London who were prepared to pose nude . Although there was some resentment locally about this , the landowner was fully supportive and allowed Knight and the other artists a free rein . Another work from this time is The Green Feather , which was painted , and reworked due to a change in the weather , outdoors in a single day and shows the model Dolly Snell in an emerald evening dress with a hat and large feather . Knight sent the painting to the international exhibition held at the Carnegie Institute in Pittsburgh and it was purchased by the National Gallery of Canada for £400 . Self Portrait with Nude In 1913 Knight made a painting that was a first for a woman artist , Self Portrait with Nude , showing herself painting a nude model , the artist Ella Naper . The painting is a complex , formal composition in a studio setting . Using mirrors , Knight painted herself and Naper as seen by someone entering the studio behind them both . As an art student Knight had not been permitted to directly paint nude models but , like all female art students at the time , was restricted to working from casts and copying existing drawings . Knight deeply resented this , and Self Portrait with Nude is a clear challenge , and reaction , to those rules . The painting was first shown in 1913 at the Passmore Edwards Art Gallery in Newlyn , and was well received by both the local press and other artists . Although the Royal Academy rejected the painting for exhibition , it was shown at the International Society of Sculptors , Painters and Gravers in London , as The Model . The Daily Telegraph critic called the painting `` vulgar '' , and suggested that it `` might quite appropriately have stayed in the artist 's studio '' . Despite this reaction , Knight continued to exhibit the painting throughout her career , and it continued to receive press criticism . After Knight 's death the picture , now known simply as Self Portrait ( 1913 ) , was purchased by the National Portrait Gallery , and is now considered both a key work in the story of female self-portraiture and as symbolic of wider female emancipation . In 2015 Simon Schama described the painting as a `` masterpiece '' and `` incomparably , her greatest work , all at once conceptually complex , heroically independent , formally ingenious and lovingly sensual . '' World War One and later With the imposition of conscription in 1916 during World War One Harold Knight registered as a conscientious objector , and was eventually required to work as a farm labourer . Wartime censorship included restrictions on painting around the British coastline , which caused problems for Laura Knight , particularly when painting Spring , which was shown at the Royal Academy in 1916 but which Knight later reworked . Also in 1916 Knight received a £300 commission to paint a canvas for the Canadian Government War Records office on the theme of Physical Training in a Camp , and produced a series of paintings of boxing matches at Witley , Surrey . Knight worked with Ella Naper , who was experienced in the technique , to produce a set of small enamel pieces featuring several ballet dancers , which were shown at the Fine Art Society in London in 1915 . Special permits available after 1915 allowed Knight to continue her paintings of cliff-top landscapes . Several of these were completed from studies in the Knights ' first London studio after they moved to the capital in 1919 . During 1920 and 1921 Laura met and painted backstage some of the most famous ballet dancers of the day from Sergei Diaghilev 's Ballets Russes . Subjects included Lydia Lopokova , Anna Pavlova and the dance teacher Enrico Cecchetti . Knight also painted backstage , and in the dressing rooms , at Birmingham Repertory Theatre productions . In the early 1920s Knight bought Sir George Clausen 's printing press and began etching . She produced ninety prints between 1923 and 1925 , including a railway poster advertising travel to Twickenham . In 1922 Knight made her first trip to America , where she served on the jury at the Pittsburgh International Exhibition of Pictures . Baltimore 1926 In 1926 Harold Knight spent several months at the Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore , in America , painting portrait commissions of surgeons . Laura joined him there and was given permission to paint at the Baltimore Children 's Hospital and in the racially segregated wards of the Johns Hopkins Hospital . Whilst in Baltimore Knight painted a nurse , Pearl Johnson , who took her to meetings and concerts of the early American civil rights movement . Knight also hired a mother and child model to pose for the composition originally known as the Madonna of the Cotton Fields . Knight took these paintings back to London with her and they feature in the Pathé newsreel produced to mark her election as an Associate of the Royal Academy in 1927 . Another portrait of Johnson , Irene and Pearl , shows two women against a backdrop of skyscrapers and was one of a number of portraits Knight painted in the late 1920s that appear strikingly modern . Miss Ealand , shown at the Royal Academy in 1928 , depicts a woman with cropped hair wearing a jacket and holding a gun . The same year Knight 's portrait of a women saxophone player was displayed at the National Gallery of Art in Washington DC . Circus folk In the early 1920s Laura Knight visited the Bertram Mills Circus at Olympia in West London . Mills ' circus was a highly polished show with internationally renowned performers . Knight painted some of these performers , such as the clown Whimsical Wilson , several times . Charivari or The Grand Parade , exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1929 , depicts practically the entire circus cast of performers and animals . Throughout 1929 and 1930 Knight went on a tour of British towns with the combined Bertram Mills and Great Carmo 's Circus . Painting within a working circus forced Knight to paint at great speed , as the performers rarely had much time to pose . Knight responded by painting directly onto the canvas without any preliminary drawing . Whilst this led to some of her circus scenes appearing 'flat ' , her paintings of small groups of clowns , such as The Three Clowns ( 1930 ) and Old Time Clowns ( 1957 ) , were much more successful . Knight 's Circus Folk exhibition , at the Alpine Club in 1930 , was heavily criticised in art journals , but her paintings of more mundane subjects , such as domestic interiors and London streets , were highly praised . Notable works from this period include Susie and the Wash-basin ( 1927 ) , Blue and Gold ( 1927 ) , A Cottage Bedroom ( 1929 ) and Spring in St. John 's Wood ( 1933 ) . In 1934 Knight developed a series of circus designs for the Modern Art for the Table tableware range produced by Clarice Cliff . Recognition At the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam Laura Knight won the Silver Medal in Painting with the painting Boxer ( 1917 ) , one of the series she had painted at Witley in 1916 . In 1929 Knight was made a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire , and in June 1931 she received an honorary degree from St. Andrews University . In 1936 she became the first woman since 1769 elected to the Royal Academy . The same year Knight published her first autobiography , Oil Paint and Grease Paint , which became a best-seller , with four hardback editions followed in 1941 by a Penguin paperback printing . From 1933 the Knights became regular visitors to Malvern , making an annual visit to the Malvern Festival , which had been established by their friend Barry Jackson . During one such visit Knight met George Bernard Shaw and painted his portrait . A blue plaque at the Mount Pleasant Hotel on Belle Vue Terrace , Great Malvern , commemorates the time the Knights spent in the area . They found much inspiration for their work in the Malvern Hills and in the surrounding countryside and by the start of World War Two the couple were living at Colwall , Herefordshire . Gypsies In the mid-1930s Knight befriended and painted groups of Gypsies at the Epsom and Ascot racecourses . Knight frequently returned to the racecourses and painted from the back of an antique Rolls-Royce car , which was large enough to accommodate her easel . Often pairs of Gypsy women would pose at the open door of the Rolls-Royce , with the race-day crowds in the background . From Epsom Knight was invited to the Gypsy settlement at Iver , Buckinghamshire . Knight visited the Iver settlement , normally closed to outsiders , every day for several months in the late 1930s ; the visits resulted in a series of portraits of great intensity . Two women , in particular , sat a number of times for Knight , Lilo Smith , the subject of Old Gypsy Women ( 1938 ) and Gypsy Splendour ( 1939 ) , and her daughter-in-law , Beulah . Gypsy Splendour was shown at the Royal Academy in 1939 , the year Lilo Smith died . World War Two In September 1939 Knight was asked to produce a recruitment poster for the Women 's Land Army . Knight hired two Suffolk Punch horses and a plough from a farmer and painted them outdoors in a cherry orchard on the Averills ' farm in Worcestershire . Her original design for the WLA poster was rejected for placing too much emphasis on the horses rather than the women working . A new design , with a single woman , was accepted . Knight painted her 1940 Royal Academy entry , January 1940 , showing a similar scene at the same time . During the Second World War , Knight was an official war artist , contracted by the War Artists ' Advisory Committee on short-term commissions . Among the works Knight produced for these commissions were : * Corporal J.D.M Pearson , GC , WAAF ( 1940 ) – shows the first woman to receive the Empire Gallantry Medal , Women 's Auxiliary Air Force , Corporal Daphne Pearson . Although Pearson , at Knight 's insistence , sat for the portrait holding a rifle , the finished painting shows her holding a respirator , as the WAAF were not allowed to carry arms on duty . * Corporal J.M . Robbins ( 1940 ) – Robbins was awarded the Military Medal for the courage she showed in assisting the wounded when a shelter was directly hit by a bomb during an attack on RAF Andover . WAAC had requested that Knight paint Robbins as part of a group of medal-winning women , but Knight refused . * In For Repairs ( 1941 ) – showing a partly inflated barrage balloon being repaired by members of the WAAF at Wythall , near Birmingham . The painting was shown at the Royal Academy in 1941 . * Corporal Elspeth Henderson and Sergeant Helen Turner ( 1941 ) – both women were awarded the Military Medal for staying at their post when the building they were in received a direct hit from a bomb during an air raid on RAF Biggin Hill . Although painted in Knight 's studio in Malvern , the painting shows the two women on duty at their airfield . * A Balloon Site , Coventry ( 1942 ) – shows a team of women hoisting a barrage balloon into position with the chimneys of industrial Coventry in the background surrounding the spire of Coventry Cathedral . WAAC commissioned the work as a propaganda tool to recruit women for Balloon Command , and Knight 's composition succeeds in making the work appear both heroic and glamorous . * Ruby Loftus Screwing a Breech Ring ( 1943 ) – in the autumn of 1942 the WAAC commissioned Knight to paint a portrait to bolster female recruitment to the ordnance factories , as the Ministry of Supply were concerned at the level of disaffection and absenteeism among women in the factories . The resulting painting is one of the largest oil paintings in the entire WAAC collection , and the largest single figure portrait it acquired throughout the war . The painting was first shown on 30 April 1943 at the Royal Academy and the next day was reproduced in eight British newspapers . The painting , along with Knight and Loftus , also featured in a British Paramount News short film shown in cinemas , and was reproduced in a poster version by WAAC . The success of the painting led to further industrial commissions for Knight throughout the 1940s . In 1945 she painted Switch Works at Ellison Switchgear in Birmingham . This was followed by paintings of operations at the Dow Mac concrete railway-sleeper works and at the Skefko ball bearing factory . * Take Off ( 1944 ) – a large and complex group portrait of the four-man crew of a Short Stirling bomber , deep in concentration , preparing for take off , which Knight painted over several months at RAF Mildenhall . Knight lived in the WAAF Officers ' Mess while on the base , and the RAF gave her the use of an obsolete Stirling to work in while preparing the painting . When Knight learned that the navigator in the picture , Raymond Frankish Escreet , had been killed in action , she arranged that his family received a photograph of the painting . In total , Knight had seventeen completed paintings , together with numerous studies , accepted by the WAAC , most of which were exhibited in the National Gallery during WWII . Throughout the war Knight also continued taking private commissions , usually for individual or family portraits . The most notable war-time example of these is the composition , Betty and William Jacklin showing a mother and child , along with their pet rabbit and the Malvern countryside in background , which was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1942 , beside In for Repairs . Nuremberg 1946 In the aftermath of war Knight proposed to the War Artists ' Advisory Committee the Nuremberg war crimes trials as a subject . The Committee agreed , and Knight went to Germany in January 1946 and spent three months observing the main trial from inside the courtroom . The result was the large oil painting , The Nuremberg Trial . This painting departs from the realism of her wartime paintings , in that , whilst realistically depicting the Nazi war criminals sitting in the dock , the rear and side walls of the courtroom are missing , to reveal a ruined city , partially in flames . Knight explained this choice of composition in a letter to the War Artists ' Advisory Committee , `` In that ruined city death and destruction are ever present . They had to come into the picture ; without them , it would not be the Nuremberg as it now is during the trial , when the death of millions and utter devastation are the sole topics of conversation wherever one goes – whatever one is doing '' The painting was coolly received at the subsequent Royal Academy Summer Exhibition , but was greatly praised by those who had witnessed the trials . Later life After the War Knight returned to her previous themes of the ballet , the circus and Gypsies , and continued to divide her time between London and Malvern . In 1948 Knight painted backstage at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre , mostly observing the work of the wardrobe department , still working under austerity restrictions . The same year she painted a large group portrait of Princess Elizabeth and several civic dignitaries opening the new Broadgate Centre in Coventry . A period of illness affected her work on this commission , and , despite Knight repainting large parts of the canvas , the finished painting was not well received . A major exhibition of over eighty works by Knight was held at the Ian Nicol Gallery in Glasgow , in 1952 . The following year Knight returned to the theatre , painting and producing crayon studies , backstage at the Old Vic in London during the Birmingham Repertory Theatre 's production of Henry IV , Part 1 & Part 2 . Throughout this period Knight continued to exhibit at the Royal Academy each year , most notably with a portrait of Jean Rhodes , a professional strong woman known as 'The Mighty Mannequin ' , which when shown in 1955 led to further portrait commissions for Knight . In 1956 Knight worked backstage at the Royal Opera House during performances and rehearsals by the Bolshoi Ballet . In 1961 Harold Knight died at Colwall ; the couple had been married fifty-eight years . Knight 's second autobiography , The Magic of a Line was published in 1965 , to coincide with a major retrospective of her work at the Royal Academy . The exhibition , the first such for a woman at the Academy , contained over 250 works , and was followed in 1968 and 1969 by further retrospective exhibitions at the Upper Grosvenor Galleries . Laura Knight died on 7 July 1970 , aged 92 , three days before a large exhibition of her work was due to open at the Nottingham Castle Art Gallery and Museum . Bibliography * 1921 : Twenty-one Drawings of the Russian Ballet * 1923 : Laura Knight : A Book of Drawings , with introduction by Charles Marriott * 1936 : Oil Paint and Grease Paint * 1962 : A Proper Circus Omie * 1965 : The Magic of a Line Membership Knight was a member of or affiliated with the following organisations : * 1909 : Elected associate of the Royal Watercolour Society , * 1925 : Elected member of Royal Society of Painter-Etchers and Engravers , * 1927 : Elected associate of the Royal Academy , * 1928 : Elected full member of the Royal Watercolour Society , * 1932 : Elected full member of Royal Society of Painter-Etchers and Engravers , * 1932 : President of Society of Women Artists , * 1932 : Elected Fellow of Royal Society of Painter-Etchers and Engravers , * 1936 : Elected full member of the Royal Academy . Exhibitions Exhibitions of her work held during Knight 's life included : * 1901 : Exhibits at the Royal Institute of Oil Painters , * 1903 : Royal Academy Summer Exhibition , also in 1906 and then regularly from 1909 , * 1906 : Dutch Life and Landscape , Ernst Brown & Phillip 's Leicester Galleries , * 1907 : Life and Landscape , Ernst Brown & Phillip 's Leicester Galleries , * 1910 : Venice Biennale , and again in 1914 and 1924 , * 1912 : Leicester Galleries , also 1926 , 1928 , 1932 , 1934 and 1939 , * 1912 : Carnegie International , Pittsburg , and in 1914 and 1922 , * 1915 : Fine Art Society , with Ella Naper and Lamorna Birch , * 1918 : Camp Life and Other Paintings , Leicester Galleries , * 1920 : Pictures of the Russian Ballet , Leicester Galleries , * 1920 : Pictures of Modern Artists , Manchester City Art Gallery , * 1922 : Alpine Club Galleries , * 1930 : Circus Folk , Alpine Club Galleries , * 1931 : Usher Gallery , Lincoln , * 1931 : Art Gallery of Ontario , Toronto , * 1933 : Laing Art Gallery , Newcastle upon Tyne , * 1934 : Nottingham Castle Museum , * 1963 : Upper Grosvenor Galleries , and also in 1968 and 1969 , * 1965 : Diploma Galleries , Royal Academy , Posthumous exhibitions : * 1970 : Nottingham Castle Museum , * 1983 : Edition Graphique Gallery , London , * 1985 : Painting in Newlyn 1900–1930 , Newlyn Art Gallery , * 1985 : Painting in Newlyn 1880–1930 , Barbican Art Gallery , * 1988 : David Messum Fine Art , * 1989 : Nottingham Castle Museum , * 1991 : David Messum Fine Art , * 1996 : Women Artists in Cornwall 1880–1940 , Falmouth Art Gallery , * 2005 : Painting at the Edge , Penlee House Gallery , * 2006 : From Victorian to Modern ... , Djanogly Art Gallery and on tour , * 2008 : Laura Knight at the Theatre , The Lowry and on tour , * 2008 : The Magic of a Line : Drawings by Dame Laura Knight , R.A. , Library Print Room , Royal Academy of Arts , London * 2008 : The Magic of a Line , Penlee House Gallery , * 2012 : Laura Knight : In the Open Air , Penlee House Gallery and on tour , * 2013 : Laura Knight Portraits , National Portrait Gallery , London . * 2013–14 : Laura Knight Portraits , Laing Art Gallery , Newcastle , * 2014 : Laura Knight Portraits , Plymouth City Museum and Art Gallery ,

bt_1670--Laura_Knight.txt

What type of scenes was Dame Laura Knight noted for painting

Sir Francis Drake , vice admiral ( – 27 January 1596 ) was an English sea captain , privateer , navigator , slaver , and politician of the Elizabethan era . Drake carried out the second circumnavigation of the world in a single expedition , from 1577 to 1580 , and was the first to complete the voyage as captain while leading the expedition throughout the entire circumnavigation . With his incursion into the Pacific he inaugurated an era of privateering and piracy in the western coast of the Americasan area that had previously been free of piracy . Elizabeth I of England awarded Drake a knighthood in 1581 . He was second-in-command of the English fleet against the Spanish Armada in 1588 . He died of dysentery in January of 1596 after unsuccessfully attacking San Juan , Puerto Rico . His exploits made him a hero to the English but a pirate to the Spaniards to whom he was known as El Draque . King Philip II was said to have offered a reward of 20,000 ducats , about £4 million ( US $ 6.5m ) by modern standards , for his life . Birth and early years Francis Drake was born in Tavistock , Devon , England . Although his birth is not formally recorded , it is known that he was born while the Six Articles were in force . `` Drake was two and twenty when he obtained the command of the Judith '' ( 1566 ) . This would date his birth to 1544 . A date of c.1540 is suggested from two portraits : one a miniature painted by Nicholas Hilliard in 1581 when he was allegedly 42 , the other painted in 1594 when he was said to be 53.1921/22 edition of the Dictionary of National Biography , which quotes Barrow 's Life of Drake ( 1843 ) p. 5 . He was the eldest of the twelve sons of Edmund Drake ( 1518–1585 ) , a Protestant farmer , and his wife Mary Mylwaye . The first son was alleged to have been named after his godfather Francis Russell , 2nd Earl of Bedford.Froude , James Anthony , English Seamen in the Sixteenth Century , London , 1896 . Quote : `` He told Camden that he was of mean extraction . He meant merely that he was proud of his parents and made no idle pretensions to noble birth . His father was a tenant of the Earl of Bedford , and must have stood well with him , for Francis Russell , the heir of the earldom , was the boy 's godfather . '' Because of religious persecution during the Prayer Book Rebellion in 1549 , the Drake family fled from Devonshire into Kent . There the father obtained an appointment to minister the men in the King 's Navy . He was ordained deacon and was made vicar of Upnor Church on the Medway.Southey , Robert . ( 1897 ) . English Seamen — Howard Clifford Hawkins Drake Cavendish , Methuen and Co. 36 Essex Street WC London Drake 's father apprenticed Francis to his neighbour , the master of a barque used for coastal trade transporting merchandise to France . The ship master was so satisfied with the young Drake 's conduct that , being unmarried and childless at his death , he bequeathed the barque to Drake . Marriage and family Francis Drake married Mary Newman in 1569 . She died 12 years later , in 1581 . In 1585 , Drake married Elizabeth Sydenham—born circa 1562 , the only child of Sir George Sydenham , of Combe Sydenham , who was the High Sheriff of Somerset . After Drake 's death , the widow Elizabeth eventually married Sir William Courtenay of Powderham . Sailing career At age 23 , Drake made his first voyage to the Americas , sailing with his second cousin , Sir John Hawkins , on one of a fleet of ships owned by his relatives , the Hawkins family of Plymouth . In 1568 Drake was again with the Hawkins fleet when it was trapped by the Spaniards in the Mexican port of San Juan de Ulúa . He escaped along with Hawkins . Following the defeat at San Juan de Ulúa , Drake vowed revenge . He made two voyages to the West Indies , in 1570 and 1571 , of which little is known . In 1572 , he embarked on his first major independent enterprise . He planned an attack on the Isthmus of Panama , known to the Spanish as Tierra Firme and the English as the Spanish Main . This was the point at which the silver and gold treasure of Peru had to be landed and sent overland to the Caribbean Sea , where galleons from Spain would pick it up at the town of Nombre de Dios . Drake left Plymouth on 24 May 1572 , with a crew of 73 men in two small vessels , the Pascha ( 70 tons ) and the Swan ( 25 tons ) , to capture Nombre de Dios . His first raid was late in July 1572 . Drake and his men captured the town and its treasure . When his men noticed that Drake was bleeding profusely from a wound , they insisted on withdrawing to save his life and left the treasure . Drake stayed in the area for almost a year , raiding Spanish shipping and attempting to capture a treasure shipment . In 1573 , he joined Guillaume Le Testu , a French buccaneer , in an attack on a richly laden mule train . Drake and his party found that they had captured around 20 tons of silver and gold . They buried much of the treasure , as it was too much for their party to carry . ( An account of this may have given rise to subsequent stories of pirates and buried treasure . ) Wounded , Le Testu was captured and later beheaded . The small band of adventurers dragged as much gold and silver as they could carry back across some 18 miles of jungle-covered mountains to where they had left the raiding boats . When they got to the coast , the boats were gone . Drake and his men , downhearted , exhausted and hungry , had nowhere to go and the Spanish were not far behind . At this point Drake rallied his men , buried the treasure on the beach , and built a raft to sail with two volunteers ten miles along the surf-lashed coast to where they had left the flagship . When Drake finally reached its deck , his men were alarmed at his bedraggled appearance . Fearing the worst , they asked him how the raid had gone . Drake could not resist a joke and teased them by looking downhearted . Then he laughed , pulled a necklace of Spanish gold from around his neck and said `` Our voyage is made , lads ! '' By 9 August 1573 , he had returned to Plymouth . Circumnavigation of the earth ( 1577–1580 ) With the success of the Panama isthmus raid , in 1577 Elizabeth I of England sent Drake to start an expedition against the Spanish along the Pacific coast of the Americas . Drake used the Plans that Sir Richard Grenville had received the Patent for in 1574 from Elizabeth , which was rescinded a year later after protests from Philip of Spain . He set out from Plymouth on 15 November 1577 , but bad weather threatened him and his fleet . They were forced to take refuge in Falmouth , Cornwall , from where they returned to Plymouth for repair . After this major setback , he set sail again on 13 December , aboard Pelican , with four other ships and 164 men . He soon added a sixth ship , Mary ( formerly Santa Maria ) , a Portuguese merchant ship that had been captured off the coast of Africa near the Cape Verde Islands . He also added its captain , Nuno da Silva , a man with considerable experience navigating in South American waters . Drake 's fleet suffered great attrition ; he scuttled both Christopher and the flyboat Swan due to loss of men on the Atlantic crossing . He made landfall at the gloomy bay of San Julian , in what is now Argentina . Ferdinand Magellan had called here half a century earlier , where he put to death some mutineers . Drake 's men saw weathered and bleached skeletons on the grim Spanish gibbets . They discovered that Mary had rotting timbers , so they burned the ship . Following Magellan 's example , Drake tried and executed his own 'mutineer ' Thomas Doughty . Drake decided to remain the winter in San Julian before attempting the Strait of Magellan . Entering the Pacific ( 1578 ) The three remaining ships of his convoy departed for the Magellan Strait at the southern tip of South America . A few weeks later ( September 1578 ) Drake made it to the Pacific , but violent storms destroyed one of the three ships , the Marigold ( captained by John Thomas ) in the strait and caused another , the Elizabeth captained by John Wynter , to return to England , leaving only the Pelican . After this passage , the Pelican was pushed south and discovered an island which Drake called Elizabeth Island . Drake , like navigators before him , probably reached a latitude of 55°S ( according to astronomical data quoted in Hakluyt 's The Principall Navigations , Voiages and Discoveries of the English Nation of 1589 ) along the Chilean coast.Wagner , Henry R. , Sir Francis Drake 's Voyage Around the World : Its Aims and Achievements , Kessinger Publishing , LLC , 2006 , ISBN 1-4286-2255-1 . In the Magellan Strait Francis and his men engaged in skirmish with local indigenous people becoming the first Europeans to kill indigenous peoples in southern Patagonia . During Francis stay in the strait crew members discovered that an infusion made of the bark of Drimys winteri could be used as remedy against scurvy . Captain Winter ordered the collection of great amounts of bark – hence the scientific name . Despite popular lore , it seems unlikely that he reached Cape Horn or the eponymous Drake Passage , because his descriptions do not fit the first and his shipmates denied having seen an open sea . The first report of his discovery of an open channel south of Tierra del Fuego was written after the 1618 publication of the voyage of Willem Schouten and Jacob le Maire around Cape Horn in 1616.Kelsey , Harry , Sir Francis Drake ; The Queen 's Pirate , Yale University Press , New Haven , 1998 , ISBN 0-300-07182-5 . He pushed onwards in his lone flagship , now renamed the Golden Hind in honour of Sir Christopher Hatton ( after his coat of arms ) . The Golden Hind sailed north along the Pacific coast of South America , attacking Spanish ports and pillaging towns . Some Spanish ships were captured , and Drake used their more accurate charts . Before reaching the coast of Peru , Drake visited Mocha Island , where he was seriously injured by hostile Mapuche . Later he sacked the port of Valparaíso further north in Chile where he also captured a ship full of Chilean wine . Capture of Spanish treasure ships Near Lima , Drake captured a Spanish ship laden with 25,000 pesos of Peruvian gold , amounting in value to 37,000 ducats of Spanish money ( about £7m by modern standards ) . Drake also discovered news of another ship , Nuestra Señora de la Concepción , which was sailing west towards Manila . It would come to be called the Cacafuego . Drake gave chase and eventually captured the treasure ship , which proved his most profitable capture . Aboard Nuestra Señora de la Concepción , Drake found 80 lb of gold , a golden crucifix , jewels , 13 chests full of royals of plate and 26 tons of silver . Drake was naturally pleased at his good luck in capturing the galleon and he showed it by dining with the captured ship 's officers and gentleman passengers . He offloaded his captives a short time later , and gave each one gifts appropriate to their rank , as well as a letter of safe conduct . Coast of California : Nova Albion ( 1579 ) After looting the Cacafuego , Drake turned north , hoping to meet another Spanish treasure ship coming south on its return from Manila to Acapulco . Although he failed to find a treasure ship , Drake reputedly sailed as far north as the 38th parallel , landing on the coast of California on 17 June 1579 . He found a good port , landed , repaired and restocked his vessels , then stayed for a time , keeping friendly relations with the Coast Miwok natives . He claimed the land in the name of the Holy Trinity for the English Crown , called Nova Albion—Latin for `` New Britain '' . Assertions that he left some of his men behind as an embryo `` colony '' are founded on the reduced number who were with him in the Moluccas . The precise location of the port was carefully guarded to keep it secret from the Spaniards , and several of Drake 's maps may have been altered to this end . All first-hand records from the voyage , including logs , paintings and charts , were lost when Whitehall Palace burned in 1698 . A bronze plaque inscribed with Drake 's claim to the new lands – Drake 's Plate of Brass – fitting the description in his account , was discovered in Marin County , California but was later declared a hoax . Now a National Historic Landmark , the officially recognised location of Drake 's New Albion is Drakes Bay , California . Across the Pacific and around Africa Drake left the Pacific coast , heading southwest to catch the winds that would carry his ship across the Pacific , and a few months later reached the Moluccas , a group of islands in the western Pacific , in eastern modern-day Indonesia . While there , Golden Hind became caught on a reef and was almost lost . After the sailors waited three days for expedient tides and dumped cargo , they freed the barque . Befriending a sultan king of the Moluccas , Drake and his men became involved in some intrigues with the Portuguese there . He made multiple stops on his way toward the tip of Africa , eventually rounded the Cape of Good Hope , and reached Sierra Leone by 22 July 1580 . Return to Plymouth ( 1580 ) On 26 September , Golden Hind sailed into Plymouth with Drake and 59 remaining crew aboard , along with a rich cargo of spices and captured Spanish treasures . The Queen 's half-share of the cargo surpassed the rest of the crown 's income for that entire year . Drake was hailed as the first Englishman to circumnavigate the Earth ( and the second such voyage arriving with at least one ship intact , after Elcano 's in 1520 ) . The Queen declared that all written accounts of Drake 's voyages were to become the Queen 's secrets of the Realm , and Drake and the other participants of his voyages on the pain of death sworn to their secrecy ; she intended to keep Drake 's activities away from the eyes of rival Spain . Drake presented the Queen with a jewel token commemorating the circumnavigation . Taken as a prize off the Pacific coast of Mexico , it was made of enamelled gold and bore an African diamond and a ship with an ebony hull . For her part , the Queen gave Drake a jewel with her portrait , an unusual gift to bestow upon a commoner , and one that Drake sported proudly in his 1591 portrait by Marcus Gheeraerts now at the National Maritime Museum , Greenwich . On one side is a state portrait of Elizabeth by the miniaturist Nicholas Hilliard , on the other a sardonyx cameo of double portrait busts , a regal woman and an African male . The `` Drake Jewel '' , as it is known today , is a rare documented survivor among sixteenth-century jewels ; it is conserved at the Victoria and Albert Museum , London . Award of knighthood Queen Elizabeth awarded Drake a knighthood aboard Golden Hind in Deptford on 4 April 1581 ; the dubbing being performed by a French diplomat , Monsieur de Marchaumont , who was negotiating for Elizabeth to marry the King of France 's brother , Francis , Duke of Anjou . By getting the French diplomat involved in the knighting , Elizabeth was gaining the implicit political support of the French for Drake 's actions . During the Victorian era , in a spirit of nationalism , the story was promoted that Elizabeth I had done the knighting.Coote , Stephen , Drake : The Life and Legend of an Elizabethan Hero , Saint Martin 's Press , New York , 2003 . ISBN 0-312-34165-2 . Award of arms After receiving his knighthood Drake unilaterally adopted the armorials of the ancient Devon family of Drake of Ash , near Musbury , to whom he claimed a distant but unspecified kinship . These arms were : Argent , a wyvern wings displayed and tail nowed gules , and the crest , a dexter arm Proper grasping a battle axe Sable , headed Argent . The head of that family , also a distinguished sailor , Sir Bernard Drake ( d.1586 ) , angrily refuted Sir Francis 's claimed kinship and his right to bear his family 's arms . That dispute led to `` a box in the ear '' being given to Sir Francis by Sir Bernard at court , as recorded by John Prince in his `` Worthies of Devon '' ( 1697 ) . Queen Elizabeth , to assuage matters , awarded Sir Francis his own coat of arms , blazoned as follows : The motto , Sic Parvis Magna , translated literally , is : `` Thus great things from small things ( come ) '' . The hand out of the clouds , labelled Auxilio Divino , means `` With Divine Help '' . The full achievement is depicted in the form of a large coloured plaster overmantel in the Lifetimes Gallery at Buckland Abbey Nevertheless , Drake continued to quarter his new arms with the wyvern gules . The arms adopted by his nephew Sir Francis Drake , 1st Baronet ( 1588–1637 ) of Buckland were the arms of Drake of Ash , but the wyvern without a `` nowed '' ( knotted ) tail . Political career In September 1581 , Drake became the Mayor of Plymouth , and was a member of parliament in 1581 , for an unknown constituency ( possibly Camelford ) , and again in 1584 for Bossiney and Plymouth in 1593 . Purchase of Buckland Abbey In 1580 Drake purchased Buckland Abbey , a large manor house near Yelverton in Devon , via intermediaries from Sir Richard Greynvile . He lived there for fifteen years , until his final voyage , and it remained in his family for several generations . Buckland Abbey is now in the care of the National Trust and a number of mementos of his life are displayed there . Great Expedition War had already been declared by Phillip II after the Treaty of Nonsuch , so the Queen through Francis Walsingham ordered Sir Francis Drake to lead an expedition to attack the Spanish colonies in a kind of preemptive strike . An expedition left Plymouth in September 1585 with Drake in command of twenty one ships with 1,800 soldiers under Christopher Carleill . He first attacked Vigo in Spain and held the place for two weeks ransoming supplies . He then plundered Santiago in the Cape Verde islands after which the fleet then sailed across the Atlantic , sacked the port of Santo Domingo and captured the city of Cartagena de Indias in present-day Colombia . On 6 June 1586 , during the return leg of the voyage , he raided the Spanish fort of San Augustín in Spanish Florida . After the raids he then went on to find Sir Walter Raleigh 's settlement much further North at Roanoke which he replenished and also took back with him all of the original colonists before Sir Richard Greynvile arrived with supplies and more colonists . He finally reached England on 22 July , when he sailed into Portsmouth , England to a hero 's welcome . Spanish Armada Encouraged by these acts Philip II ordered a planned invasion of England . Cadiz raid In another pre-emptive strike , Drake `` singed the beard of the King of Spain '' in 1587 by sailing a fleet into Cadiz and also Corunna , two of Spain 's main ports , and occupied the harbours . He destroyed 37 naval and merchant ships . The attack delayed the Spanish invasion by a year . Over the next month , Drake patrolled the Iberian coasts between Lisbon and Cape St. Vincent , intercepting and destroying ships on the Spanish supply lines . Drake estimated that he captured around 1600–1700 tons of barrel staves , enough to make 25,000 to 30000 oilbbl for containing provisions . Defeat of the Spanish Armada Drake was vice admiral in command of the English fleet ( under Lord Howard of Effingham ) when it overcame the Spanish Armada that was attempting to invade England in 1588 . As the English fleet pursued the Armada up the English Channel in closing darkness , Drake broke off and captured the Spanish galleon Rosario , along with Admiral Pedro de Valdés and all his crew . The Spanish ship was known to be carrying substantial funds to pay the Spanish Army in the Low Countries . Drake 's ship had been leading the English pursuit of the Armada by means of a lantern . By extinguishing this for the capture , Drake put the fleet into disarray overnight . On the night of 29 July , along with Howard , Drake organised fire-ships , causing the majority of the Spanish captains to break formation and sail out of Calais into the open sea . The next day , Drake was present at the Battle of Gravelines . He wrote as follows to Admiral Henry Seymour after coming upon part of the Spanish Armada , whilst aboard Revenge on 31 July 1588 ( 21 July 1588 O.S . ) : Coming up to them , there has passed some common shot between some of our fleet and some of them ; and as far as we perceive , they are determined to sell their lives with blows . The most famous ( but probably apocryphal ) anecdote about Drake relates that , prior to the battle , he was playing a game of bowls on Plymouth Hoe . On being warned of the approach of the Spanish fleet , Drake is said to have remarked that there was plenty of time to finish the game and still beat the Spaniards . There is no known eyewitness account of this incident and the earliest retelling of it was printed 37 years later . Adverse winds and currents caused some delay in the launching of the English fleet as the Spanish drew nearer , perhaps prompting a popular myth of Drake 's cavalier attitude to the Spanish threat . Drake-Norris Expedition In 1589 , the year after defeating the Armada , Drake and Sir John Norreys were given three tasks . They were ordered to first seek out and destroy the remaining ships , second they were to support the rebels in Lisbon , Portugal against King Philip II ( then king of Spain and Portugal ) , and third they were to take the Azores if possible . Drake and Norreys destroyed a few ships in the harbour of A Coruña in Spain but lost more than 12,000 lives and 20 ships . This delayed Drake , and he was forced to forgo hunting the rest of the surviving ships and head on to Lisbon . Defeat and death Drake 's seafaring career continued into his mid-fifties . In 1595 , he failed to conquer the port of Las Palmas , and following a disastrous campaign against Spanish America , where he suffered a number of defeats , he unsuccessfully attacked San Juan de Puerto Rico , eventually losing the Battle of San Juan . The Spanish gunners from El Morro Castle shot a cannonball through the cabin of Drake 's flagship , and he survived ; but a few weeks later , in January 1596 , he died of dysentery when he was about 55 , while anchored off the coast of Portobelo , Panama , where some Spanish treasure ships had sought shelter . Following his death , the English fleet withdrew . Before dying , he asked to be dressed in his full armour . He was buried at sea in a lead coffin , near Portobelo . Divers continue to search for the coffin . Cultural impact In the UK there are various places named after him , especially in Plymouth , Devon , where various places carry his name , including the naval base ( HMS Drake ) , Drake 's Island and a roundabout named Drake Circus , along with a shopping mall named after the roundabout . Plymouth Hoe is also home to a statue of Drake . In the United States Drakes Bay and Sir Francis Drake Boulevard of Marin County , California are both named after him , as well as the high school in San Anselmo , California . The boulevard runs between Drakes Bay at Point Reyes to Point San Quentin on San Francisco Bay . A large hotel in Union Square , San Francisco also bears his name . Additionally , the Sir Francis Drake Channel in the British Virgin Islands bears his name . In British Columbia , Canada , where some theorize he may also have landed to the north of the usual site considered to be Nova Albion , various mountains were named in the 1930s for him , or in connection with Elizabeth I or other figures of that era , including Mount Sir Francis Drake , Mount Queen Bess , and the Golden Hinde , the highest mountain on Vancouver Island . Drake 's will was the focus of a vast confidence scheme which Oscar Hartzell perpetrated in the 1920s and 1930s . He convinced thousands of people , mostly in the American Midwest , that Drake 's fortune was being held by the British government , and had compounded to a huge amount . If their last name was Drake they might be eligible for a share if they paid Hartzell to be their agent . The swindle continued until a copy of Drake 's will was brought to Hartzell 's mail fraud trial and he was convicted and imprisoned.Rayner , Richard . The Admiral and the Con Man The New Yorker , 22 April 2002 , p. 150 Drake was portrayed by the Canadian actor Matheson Lang in the 1935 film Drake of England . Modern workings of stories involving Drake include the 1961 British television series Sir Francis Drake , and the 2009 US television movie The Immortal Voyage of Captain Drake . In 2003 , he was the namesake of the Drake Tribe in Survivor : Pearl Islands . Drake 's execution of Thomas Doughty is the subject of Robert E. Howard 's Solomon Kane poem , `` The One Black Stain . '' Nathan Drake , a fictional descendant of Sir Francis Drake , searches for lost treasure supposedly found by Sir Francis during his circumnavigation in the video game Uncharted : Drake 's Fortune , and again in Uncharted 3 : Drake 's Deception . In Popular Culture At the Memorial Service for the Challenger Disaster , U.S. President Ronald Reagan says that it was 390 years to the day from the death of Drake to the Disaster , but the Disaster occurred on 28 January 1986 , while Drake 's demise took place , as noted above , on 27 January 1596 , and even accounting for the differences in the Julian Calendar and the Gregorian Calendar , the

qw_13177--Francis_Drake.txt

Who was the first Englishman to lead an expedition to circumnavigate the earth by sea, and died of dysentery in the West Indies 16 years later?

A planet is an astronomical object orbiting a star or stellar remnant that * is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity , * is not massive enough to cause thermonuclear fusion , and * has cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals.This definition is drawn from two separate IAU declarations ; a formal definition agreed by the IAU in 2006 , and an informal working definition established by the IAU in 2001/2003 for objects outside of the Solar System . The official 2006 definition applies only to the Solar System , whereas the 2003 definition applies to planets around other stars . The extrasolar planet issue was deemed too complex to resolve at the 2006 IAU conference . The term planet is ancient , with ties to history , astrology , science , mythology , and religion . Several planets in the Solar System can be seen with the naked eye . These were regarded by many early cultures as divine , or as emissaries of deities . As scientific knowledge advanced , human perception of the planets changed , incorporating a number of disparate objects . In 2006 , the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) officially adopted a resolution defining planets within the Solar System . This definition is controversial because it excludes many objects of planetary mass based on where or what they orbit . Although eight of the planetary bodies discovered before 1950 remain `` planets '' under the modern definition , some celestial bodies , such as Ceres , Pallas , Juno and Vesta ( each an object in the solar asteroid belt ) , and Pluto ( the first trans-Neptunian object discovered ) , that were once considered planets by the scientific community , are no longer viewed as such . The planets were thought by Ptolemy to orbit Earth in deferent and epicycle motions . Although the idea that the planets orbited the Sun had been suggested many times , it was not until the 17th century that this view was supported by evidence from the first telescopic astronomical observations , performed by Galileo Galilei . By careful analysis of the observation data , Johannes Kepler found the planets ' orbits were not circular but elliptical . As observational tools improved , astronomers saw that , like Earth , the planets rotated around tilted axes , and some shared such features as ice caps and seasons . Since the dawn of the Space Age , close observation by space probes has found that Earth and the other planets share characteristics such as volcanism , hurricanes , tectonics , and even hydrology . Planets are generally divided into two main types : large low-density giant planets , and smaller rocky terrestrials . Under IAU definitions , there are eight planets in the Solar System . In order of increasing distance from the Sun , they are the four terrestrials , Mercury , Venus , Earth , and Mars , then the four giant planets , Jupiter , Saturn , Uranus , and Neptune . Six of the planets are orbited by one or more natural satellites . More than two thousand planets around other stars ( `` extrasolar planets '' or `` exoplanets '' ) have been discovered in the Milky Way . As of , known extrasolar planets in planetary systems ( including multiple planetary systems ) , ranging in size from just above the size of the Moon to gas giants about twice as large as Jupiter have been discovered , out of which more than 100 planets are the same size as Earth , nine of which are at the same relative distance from their star as Earth from the Sun , i.e . in the habitable zone . On December 20 , 2011 , the Kepler Space Telescope team reported the discovery of the first Earth-sized extrasolar planets , Kepler-20e and Kepler-20f , orbiting a Sun-like star , Kepler-20 . A 2012 study , analyzing gravitational microlensing data , estimates an average of at least 1.6 bound planets for every star in the Milky Way . Around one in five Sun-like stars is thought to have an Earth-sized planet in its habitable zone . History The word `` planet '' derives from the Ancient Greek ἀστήρ πλανήτης astēr planētēs , or πλάνης ἀστήρ plánēs astēr , which means `` wandering star , '' and originally referred to those objects in the night sky that moved relative to one another , as opposed to the `` fixed stars '' , which maintained a constant relative position in the sky . The idea of planets has evolved over its history , from the divine lights of antiquity to the earthly objects of the scientific age . The concept has expanded to include worlds not only in the Solar System , but in hundreds of other extrasolar systems . The ambiguities inherent in defining planets have led to much scientific controversy . The five classical planets , being visible to the naked eye , have been known since ancient times and have had a significant impact on mythology , religious cosmology , and ancient astronomy . In ancient times , astronomers noted how certain lights moved across the sky in relation to the other stars . Ancient Greeks called these lights ( , `` wandering stars '' ) or simply ( , `` wanderers '' ) , from which today 's word `` planet '' was derived . In ancient Greece , China , Babylon , and indeed all pre-modern civilizations , it was almost universally believed that Earth was the center of the Universe and that all the `` planets '' circled Earth . The reasons for this perception were that stars and planets appeared to revolve around Earth each day and the apparently common-sense perceptions that Earth was solid and stable and that it was not moving but at rest . Babylon The first civilization known to have a functional theory of the planets were the Babylonians , who lived in Mesopotamia in the first and second millennia BC . The oldest surviving planetary astronomical text is the Babylonian Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa , a 7th-century BC copy of a list of observations of the motions of the planet Venus , that probably dates as early as the second millennium BC . The MUL.APIN is a pair of cuneiform tablets dating from the 7th century BC that lays out the motions of the Sun , Moon and planets over the course of the year . The Babylonian astrologers also laid the foundations of what would eventually become Western astrology . The Enuma anu enlil , written during the Neo-Assyrian period in the 7th century BC , comprises a list of omens and their relationships with various celestial phenomena including the motions of the planets . Venus , Mercury and the outer planets Mars , Jupiter and Saturn were all identified by Babylonian astronomers . These would remain the only known planets until the invention of the telescope in early modern times . Greco-Roman astronomy The ancient Greeks initially did not attach as much significance to the planets as the Babylonians . The Pythagoreans , in the 6th and 5th centuries BC appear to have developed their own independent planetary theory , which consisted of the Earth , Sun , Moon , and planets revolving around a `` Central Fire '' at the center of the Universe . Pythagoras or Parmenides is said to have been the first to identify the evening star ( Hesperos ) and morning star ( Phosphoros ) as one and the same ( Aphrodite , Greek corresponding to Latin Venus ) . In the 3rd century BC , Aristarchus of Samos proposed a heliocentric system , according to which Earth and the planets revolved around the Sun . The geocentric system remained dominant until the Scientific Revolution . By the 1st century BC , during the Hellenistic period , the Greeks had begun to develop their own mathematical schemes for predicting the positions of the planets . These schemes , which were based on geometry rather than the arithmetic of the Babylonians , would eventually eclipse the Babylonians ' theories in complexity and comprehensiveness , and account for most of the astronomical movements observed from Earth with the naked eye . These theories would reach their fullest expression in the Almagest written by Ptolemy in the 2nd century CE . So complete was the domination of Ptolemy 's model that it superseded all previous works on astronomy and remained the definitive astronomical text in the Western world for 13 centuries . To the Greeks and Romans there were seven known planets , each presumed to be circling Earth according to the complex laws laid out by Ptolemy . They were , in increasing order from Earth ( in Ptolemy 's order ) : the Moon , Mercury , Venus , the Sun , Mars , Jupiter , and Saturn . India In 499 CE , the Indian astronomer Aryabhata propounded a planetary model that explicitly incorporated Earth 's rotation about its axis , which he explains as the cause of what appears to be an apparent westward motion of the stars . He also believed that the orbits of planets are elliptical . Aryabhata 's followers were particularly strong in South India , where his principles of the diurnal rotation of Earth , among others , were followed and a number of secondary works were based on them . In 1500 , Nilakantha Somayaji of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics , in his Tantrasangraha , revised Aryabhata 's model . In his Aryabhatiyabhasya , a commentary on Aryabhata 's Aryabhatiya , he developed a planetary model where Mercury , Venus , Mars , Jupiter and Saturn orbit the Sun , which in turn orbits Earth , similar to the Tychonic system later proposed by Tycho Brahe in the late 16th century . Most astronomers of the Kerala school who followed him accepted his planetary model . Medieval Muslim astronomy In the 11th century , the transit of Venus was observed by Avicenna , who established that Venus was , at least sometimes , below the Sun . In the 12th century , Ibn Bajjah observed `` two planets as black spots on the face of the Sun '' , which was later identified as a transit of Mercury and Venus by the Maragha astronomer Qotb al-Din Shirazi in the 13th century . Ibn Bajjah could not have observed a transit of Venus , because none occurred in his lifetime . European Renaissance With the advent of the Scientific Revolution , use of the term `` planet '' changed from something that moved across the sky ( in relation to the star field ) ; to a body that orbited Earth ( or that were believed to do so at the time ) ; and by the 18th century to something that directly orbited the Sun when the heliocentric model of Copernicus , Galileo and Kepler gained sway . Thus , Earth became included in the list of planets , whereas the Sun and Moon were excluded . At first , when the first satellites of Jupiter and Saturn were discovered in the 17th century , the terms `` planet '' and `` satellite '' were used interchangeably – although the latter would gradually become more prevalent in the following century . Until the mid-19th century , the number of `` planets '' rose rapidly because any newly discovered object directly orbiting the Sun was listed as a planet by the scientific community . 19th century In the 19th century astronomers began to realize that recently discovered bodies that had been classified as planets for almost half a century ( such as Ceres , Pallas , and Vesta ) were very different from the traditional ones . These bodies shared the same region of space between Mars and Jupiter ( the asteroid belt ) , and had a much smaller mass ; as a result they were reclassified as `` asteroids '' . In the absence of any formal definition , a `` planet '' came to be understood as any `` large '' body that orbited the Sun . Because there was a dramatic size gap between the asteroids and the planets , and the spate of new discoveries seemed to have ended after the discovery of Neptune in 1846 , there was no apparent need to have a formal definition . 20th century In the 20th century , Pluto was discovered . After initial observations led to the belief it was larger than Earth , the object was immediately accepted as the ninth planet . Further monitoring found the body was actually much smaller : in 1936 , Raymond Lyttleton suggested that Pluto may be an escaped satellite of Neptune , and Fred Whipple suggested in 1964 that Pluto may be a comet . As it was still larger than all known asteroids and seemingly did not exist within a larger population , it kept its status until 2006 . In 1992 , astronomers Aleksander Wolszczan and Dale Frail announced the discovery of planets around a pulsar , PSR B1257+12 . This discovery is generally considered to be the first definitive detection of a planetary system around another star . Then , on October 6 , 1995 , Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz of the Geneva Observatory announced the first definitive detection of an exoplanet orbiting an ordinary main-sequence star ( 51 Pegasi ) . The discovery of extrasolar planets led to another ambiguity in defining a planet : the point at which a planet becomes a star . Many known extrasolar planets are many times the mass of Jupiter , approaching that of stellar objects known as brown dwarfs . Brown dwarfs are generally considered stars due to their ability to fuse deuterium , a heavier isotope of hydrogen . Although objects more massive than 75 times that of Jupiter fuse hydrogen , objects of only 13 Jupiter masses can fuse deuterium . Deuterium is quite rare , and most brown dwarfs would have ceased fusing deuterium long before their discovery , making them effectively indistinguishable from supermassive planets . 21st century With the discovery during the latter half of the 20th century of more objects within the Solar System and large objects around other stars , disputes arose over what should constitute a planet . There were particular disagreements over whether an object should be considered a planet if it was part of a distinct population such as a belt , or if it was large enough to generate energy by the thermonuclear fusion of deuterium . A growing number of astronomers argued for Pluto to be declassified as a planet , because many similar objects approaching its size had been found in the same region of the Solar System ( the Kuiper belt ) during the 1990s and early 2000s . Pluto was found to be just one small body in a population of thousands . Some of them , such as Quaoar , Sedna , and Eris , were heralded in the popular press as the tenth planet , failing to receive widespread scientific recognition . The announcement of Eris in 2005 , an object then thought of as 27 % more massive than Pluto , created the necessity and public desire for an official definition of a planet . Acknowledging the problem , the IAU set about creating the definition of planet , and produced one in August 2006 . The number of planets dropped to the eight significantly larger bodies that had cleared their orbit ( Mercury , Venus , Earth , Mars , Jupiter , Saturn , Uranus , and Neptune ) , and a new class of dwarf planets was created , initially containing three objects ( Ceres , Pluto and Eris ) . Extrasolar planets There is no official definition of extrasolar planets . In 2003 , the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) Working Group on Extrasolar Planets issued a position statement , but this position statement was never proposed as an official IAU resolution and was never voted on by IAU members . The positions statement incorporates the following guidelines , mostly focused upon the boundary between planets and brown dwarfs : # Objects with true masses below the limiting mass for thermonuclear fusion of deuterium ( currently calculated to be 13 times the mass of Jupiter for objects with the same isotopic abundance as the Sun ) that orbit stars or stellar remnants are `` planets '' ( no matter how they formed ) . The minimum mass and size required for an extrasolar object to be considered a planet should be the same as that used in the Solar System . # Substellar objects with true masses above the limiting mass for thermonuclear fusion of deuterium are `` brown dwarfs '' , no matter how they formed or where they are located . # Free-floating objects in young star clusters with masses below the limiting mass for thermonuclear fusion of deuterium are not `` planets '' , but are `` sub-brown dwarfs '' ( or whatever name is most appropriate ) . This working definition has since been widely used by astronomers when publishing discoveries of exoplanets in academic journals . Although temporary , it remains an effective working definition until a more permanent one is formally adopted . It does not address the dispute over the lower mass limit , and so it steered clear of the controversy regarding objects within the Solar System . This definition also makes no comment on the planetary status of objects orbiting brown dwarfs , such as 2M1207b . One definition of a sub-brown dwarf is a planet-mass object that formed through cloud collapse rather than accretion . This formation distinction between a sub-brown dwarf and a planet is not universally agreed upon ; astronomers are divided into two camps as whether to consider the formation process of a planet as part of its division in classification . One reason for the dissent is that often it may not be possible to determine the formation process . For example , a planet formed by accretion around a star may get ejected from the system to become free-floating , and likewise a sub-brown dwarf that formed on its own in a star cluster through cloud collapse may get captured into orbit around a star . The 13 Jupiter-mass cutoff represents an average mass rather than a precise threshold value . Large objects will fuse most of their deuterium and smaller ones will fuse only a little , and the 13 value is somewhere in between . In fact , calculations show that an object fuses 50 % of its initial deuterium content when the total mass ranges between 12 and 14 . The amount of deuterium fused depends not only on mass but also on the composition of the object , on the amount of helium and deuterium present . The Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia includes objects up to 25 Jupiter masses , saying , `` The fact that there is no special feature around 13 in the observed mass spectrum reinforces the choice to forget this mass limit . '' The Exoplanet Data Explorer includes objects up to 24 Jupiter masses with the advisory : `` The 13 Jupiter-mass distinction by the IAU Working Group is physically unmotivated for planets with rocky cores , and observationally problematic due to the sin i ambiguity . '' The NASA Exoplanet Archive includes objects with a mass ( or minimum mass ) equal to or less than 30 Jupiter masses . Another criterion for separating planets and brown dwarfs , rather than deuterium fusion , formation process or location , is whether the core pressure is dominated by coulomb pressure or electron degeneracy pressure . 2006 IAU definition of planet The matter of the lower limit was addressed during the 2006 meeting of the IAU 's General Assembly . After much debate and one failed proposal , 232 members of the 10,000 member assembly , who nevertheless constituted a large majority of those remaining at the meeting , voted to pass a resolution . The 2006 resolution defines planets within the Solar System as follows : Under this definition , the Solar System is considered to have eight planets . Bodies that fulfill the first two conditions but not the third ( such as Ceres , Pluto , and Eris ) are classified as dwarf planets , provided they are not also natural satellites of other planets . Originally an IAU committee had proposed a definition that would have included a much larger number of planets as it did not include ( c ) as a criterion . After much discussion , it was decided via a vote that those bodies should instead be classified as dwarf planets . This definition is based in theories of planetary formation , in which planetary embryos initially clear their orbital neighborhood of other smaller objects . As described by astronomer Steven Soter : `` The end product of secondary disk accretion is a small number of relatively large bodies ( planets ) in either non-intersecting or resonant orbits , which prevent collisions between them . Minor planets and comets , including KBOs [ Kuiper belt objects ] , differ from planets in that they can collide with each other and with planets . '' The 2006 IAU definition presents some challenges for exoplanets because the language is specific to the Solar System and because the criteria of roundness and orbital zone clearance are not presently observable . Astronomer Jean-Luc Margot proposed a mathematical criterion that determines whether an object can clear its orbit during the lifetime of its host star , based on the mass of the planet , its semimajor axis , and the mass of its host star . This formula produces a value π that is greater than 1 for planets . The eight known planets and all known exoplanets have π values above 100 , while Ceres , Pluto , and Eris have π values of 0.1 or less . Objects with π values of 1 or more are also expected to be approximately spherical , so that objects that fulfill the orbital zone clearance requirement automatically fulfill the roundness requirement . Objects formerly considered planets The table below lists Solar System bodies once considered to be planets . Beyond the scientific community , Pluto still holds cultural significance for many in the general public due to its historical classification as a planet from 1930 to 2006 . A few astronomers , such as Alan Stern , consider dwarf planets and the larger moons to be planets , based on a purely geophysical definition of planet . Mythology and naming The names for the planets in the Western world are derived from the naming practices of the Romans , which ultimately derive from those of the Greeks and the Babylonians . In ancient Greece , the two great luminaries the Sun and the Moon were called Helios and Selene ; the farthest planet ( Saturn ) was called Phainon , the shiner ; followed by Phaethon ( Jupiter ) , `` bright '' ; the red planet ( Mars ) was known as Pyroeis , the `` fiery '' ; the brightest ( Venus ) was known as Phosphoros , the light bringer ; and the fleeting final planet ( Mercury ) was called Stilbon , the gleamer . The Greeks also made each planet sacred to one among their pantheon of gods , the Olympians : Helios and Selene were the names of both planets and gods ; Phainon was sacred to Cronus , the Titan who fathered the Olympians ; Phaethon was sacred to Zeus , Cronus 's son who deposed him as king ; Pyroeis was given to Ares , son of Zeus and god of war ; Phosphoros was ruled by Aphrodite , the goddess of love ; and Hermes , messenger of the gods and god of learning and wit , ruled over Stilbon . The Greek practice of grafting of their gods ' names onto the planets was almost certainly borrowed from the Babylonians . The Babylonians named Phosphoros after their goddess of love , Ishtar ; Pyroeis after their god of war , Nergal , Stilbon after their god of wisdom Nabu , and Phaethon after their chief god , Marduk . There are too many concordances between Greek and Babylonian naming conventions for them to have arisen separately . The translation was not perfect . For instance , the Babylonian Nergal was a god of war , and thus the Greeks identified him with Ares . Unlike Ares , Nergal was also god of pestilence and the underworld . Today , most people in the western world know the planets by names derived from the Olympian pantheon of gods . Although modern Greeks still use their ancient names for the planets , other European languages , because of the influence of the Roman Empire and , later , the Catholic Church , use the Roman ( Latin ) names rather than the Greek ones . The Romans , who , like the Greeks , were Indo-Europeans , shared with them a common pantheon under different names but lacked the rich narrative traditions that Greek poetic culture had given their gods . During the later period of the Roman Republic , Roman writers borrowed much of the Greek narratives and applied them to their own pantheon , to the point where they became virtually indistinguishable . When the Romans studied Greek astronomy , they gave the planets their own gods ' names : Mercurius ( for Hermes ) , Venus ( Aphrodite ) , Mars ( Ares ) , Iuppiter ( Zeus ) and Saturnus ( Cronus ) . When subsequent planets were discovered in the 18th and 19th centuries , the naming practice was retained with Neptūnus ( Poseidon ) . Uranus is unique in that it is named for a Greek deity rather than his Roman counterpart . Some Romans , following a belief possibly originating in Mesopotamia but developed in Hellenistic Egypt , believed that the seven gods after whom the planets were named took hourly shifts in looking after affairs on Earth . The order of shifts went Saturn , Jupiter , Mars , Sun , Venus , Mercury , Moon ( from the farthest to the closest planet ) . Therefore , the first day was started by Saturn ( 1st hour ) , second day by Sun ( 25th hour ) , followed by Moon ( 49th hour ) , Mars , Mercury , Jupiter and Venus . Because each day was named by the god that started it , this is also the order of the days of the week in the Roman calendar after the Nundinal cycle was rejected – and still preserved in many modern languages . In English , Saturday , Sunday , and Monday are straightforward translations of these Roman names . The other days were renamed after Tiw ( Tuesday ) , Wóden ( Wednesday ) , Thunor ( Thursday ) , and Fríge ( Friday ) , the Anglo-Saxon gods considered similar or equivalent to Mars , Mercury , Jupiter , and Venus , respectively . Earth is the only planet whose name in English is not derived from Greco-Roman mythology . Because it was only generally accepted as a planet in the 17th century , there is no tradition of naming it after a god . ( The same is true , in English at least , of the Sun and the Moon , though they are no longer generally considered planets . ) The name originates from the 8th century Anglo-Saxon word erda , which means ground or soil and was first used in writing as the name of the sphere of Earth perhaps around 1300 . As with its equivalents in the other Germanic languages , it derives ultimately from the Proto-Germanic word ertho , `` ground '' , as can be seen in the English earth , the German Erde , the Dutch aarde , and the Scandinavian jord . Many of the Romance languages retain the old Roman word terra ( or some variation of it ) that was used with the meaning of `` dry land '' as opposed to `` sea '' . The non-Romance languages use their own native words . The Greeks retain their original name , Γή ( Ge ) . Non-European cultures use other planetary-naming systems . India uses a system based on the Navagraha , which incorporates the seven traditional planets ( Surya for the Sun , Chandra for the Moon , and Budha , Shukra , Mangala , Bṛhaspati| and Shani for Mercury , Venus , Mars , Jupiter and Saturn ) and the ascending and descending lunar nodes Rahu and Ketu . China and the countries of eastern Asia historically subject to Chinese cultural influence

sfq_19473--Planet.txt

Which planet, which has moons named after characters from Shakespeare and Pope, was discovered by Herschel in 1781?

`` All I Need to Know '' is a song by British singer-songwriter , Emma Bunton . It was released as the second and final single from her third solo album , Life in Mono ( 2006 ) . The song was co-written with Jamie Hartman , who is notable for previously writing the hit `` All Time Love '' for Will Young . First announced by her official site , the single was released physically on 12 February 2007 in the United Kingdom and Ireland . It was also available to download from 5 February 2007 . The physical release of this single is a two-track CD , with a remix being available only as an iTunes exclusive . The single entered the UK Singles Chart in the week of 24 February 2007 at number 60 and charted for only one week before falling out , making it the lowest charting single of Bunton 's career at the time . Critical reception The song received mixed to positive reviews . Music OMH called the song `` similarly arresting '' , describing it as `` a beautifully tender piano ballad that the likes of Lucie Silvas would be well advised to take note of . Fraser McAlpine of TheChartBlog ( BBC ) explained the composition thus : `` the first verse is wafty and piano-led , then there 's a quiet chorus , then the drums kick in for a meatier version of same '' , while adding `` the dragging pace and out-dated 'classy ' production are going to get really boring , really quickly '' and comparing it negatively to Viva Forever . The Guardian deemed it `` breathtakingly lovely '' . Music video Directed by Max & Dania , the music video was shot shortly before Christmas 2006 in the East End of London . The video features Bunton as an angel watching over various lonely people , none of whom can see her . The only trace of her presence are floating feathers that come from her wings , which are only observable as reflections or from a distance . The video was originally inspired by the photography of Peter Lindbergh , who is one of the world 's preeminent fashion photographers . Track listings and formats These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of `` All I Need to Know '' . UK CD # `` All I Need to Know '' - 3:36 # `` Midnight and Martinis '' - 4:14 UK iTunes # `` All I Need to Know '' – 3:36 # `` All I Need to Know '' – 6:53 # `` Midnight and Martinis '' – 4:14 UK radio promo # `` All I Need to Know '' – 3:36 UK club promo # `` All I Need to Know '' – 6:53 # `` All I Need to Know '' – 6:39 # `` All I Need to Know '' – 7:15 # `` All I Need to Know '' – 3:24 # `` All I Need to Know '' – 3:36 19 Management internal CD-R1 # `` All I Need to Know '' – 3:29 1 Charts

qw_7996--All_I_Need_to_Know_(Emma_Bunton_song).txt

"What is the real name of ""Baby Spice"" of the Spice Girls, whose 2007 single ""All I Need to Know"" was the lowest-charting single of her solo career?"

The Roman Empire ( ; Koine and Medieval Greek : Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων , tr . ) was the post-Roman Republic period of the ancient Roman civilization , characterized by government headed by emperors and large territorial holdings around the Mediterranean Sea in Europe , Africa and Asia . The city of Rome was the largest city in the world BC AD , with Constantinople ( New Rome ) becoming the largest around 500 AD , and the Empire 's populace grew to an estimated 50 to 90 million inhabitants ( roughly 20 % of the world 's population at the time ) . The 500-year-old republic which preceded it was severely destabilized in a series of civil wars and political conflict , during which Julius Caesar was appointed as perpetual dictator and then assassinated in 44 BC . Civil wars and executions continued , culminating in the victory of Octavian , Caesar 's adopted son , over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the annexation of Egypt . Octavian 's power was then unassailable and in 27 BC the Roman Senate formally granted him overarching power and the new title Augustus , effectively marking the end of the Roman Republic . The imperial successor to the republic lasted approximately 1400 years . The first two centuries of the empire 's existence were a period of unprecedented political stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana , or `` Roman Peace '' . Following Octavian 's victory , the size of the empire was dramatically increased . After the assassination of Caligula in 41 , the senate briefly considered restoring the republic , but the Praetorian Guard proclaimed Claudius emperor instead . Under Claudius , the empire invaded Britannia , its first major expansion since Augustus . After Claudius ' successor , Nero , committed suicide in 68 , the empire suffered a period of brief civil wars , as well as a concurrent major rebellion in Judea , during which four different legionary generals were proclaimed emperor . Vespasian emerged triumphant in 69 , establishing the Flavian dynasty , before being succeeded by his son Titus , who opened the Colosseum shortly after the eruption of Mount Vesuvius . His short reign was followed by the long reign of his brother Domitian , who was eventually assassinated . The senate then appointed the first of the Five Good Emperors . The empire reached its greatest extent under Trajan , the second in this line . A period of increasing trouble and decline began with the reign of Commodus . Commodus ' assassination in 192 triggered the Year of the Five Emperors , of which Septimius Severus emerged victorious . The assassination of Alexander Severus in 235 led to the Crisis of the Third Century in which 26 men were declared emperor by the Roman Senate over a fifty-year period . It was not until the reign of Diocletian that the empire was fully stabilized with the introduction of the Tetrarchy , which saw four emperors rule the empire at once . This arrangement was ultimately unsuccessful , leading to a civil war that was finally ended by Constantine I , who defeated his rivals and became the sole ruler of the empire . Constantine subsequently shifted the capital to Byzantium , which was renamed `` Constantinople '' in his honour . It remained the capital of the east until its demise . Constantine also adopted Christianity which later became the official state religion of the empire . This eastern part of the empire ( known later as the `` Byzantine Empire '' ) remained one of the leading powers in the world alongside its arch-rival the Sassanid Empire , which had inherited a centuries-old Roman-Persian conflict from its predecessor the Parthians . Following the death of Theodosius I , the last emperor to rule a united Roman Empire , the dominion of the empire was gradually eroded by abuses of power , civil wars , barbarian migrations and invasions , military reforms and economic depression . The Sack of Rome in 410 by the Visigoths and again in 455 by the Vandals accelerated the Western Empire 's decay , while the deposition of the emperor , Romulus Augustulus , in 476 by Odoacer , is generally accepted to mark the end of the empire in the west . However , Augustulus was never recognized by his Eastern colleague , and separate rule in the Western part of the empire only ceased to exist upon the death of Julius Nepos , in 480 . The Eastern Roman Empire endured for another millennium , eventually falling to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 . The Roman Empire was among the most powerful economic , cultural , political and military forces in the world of its time . It was the largest empire of the ancient history era , and one of the largest empires in world history . At its height under Trajan , it covered 5 million square kilometers , a territory composed of 48 nations in the 21st century . It held sway over an estimated 70 million people , at that time 21 % of the world 's entire population . The longevity and vast extent of the empire ensured the lasting influence of Latin and Greek language , culture , religion , inventions , architecture , philosophy , law and forms of government on the empire 's descendants . Throughout the European medieval period , attempts were even made to establish successors to the Roman Empire , including the Empire of Romania , a Crusader state , and the Holy Roman Empire . By means of European colonialism following the Renaissance , and their descendant states , Greco-Roman culture was exported on a worldwide scale , playing a crucial role in the development of the modern world . History Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the republic in the 6th century BC , though it did not expand outside the Italian Peninsula until the 3rd century BC . Then , it was an `` empire '' long before it had an emperor . The Roman Republic was not a nation-state in the modern sense , but a network of towns left to rule themselves ( though with varying degrees of independence from the Roman Senate ) and provinces administered by military commanders . It was ruled , not by emperors , but by annually elected magistrates ( Roman Consuls above all ) in conjunction with the senate . For various reasons , the 1st century BC was a time of political and military upheaval , which ultimately led to rule by emperors . The consuls ' military power rested in the Roman legal concept of imperium , which literally means `` command '' ( though typically in a military sense ) . Occasionally , successful consuls were given the honorary title imperator ( commander ) , and this is the origin of the word emperor ( and empire ) since this title ( among others ) was always bestowed to the early emperors upon their accession . Rome suffered a long series of internal conflicts , conspiracies and civil wars from the late second century BC onwards , while greatly extending its power beyond Italy . This was the period of the Crisis of the Roman Republic . Towards the end of this period , in 44 BC , Julius Caesar was briefly perpetual dictator before being assassinated . The faction of his assassins was driven from Rome and defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC by an army led by Mark Antony and Caesar 's adopted son Octavian . Antony and Octavian 's division of the Roman world between themselves did not last and Octavian 's forces defeated those of Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC . In 27 BC the Senate and People of Rome made Octavian princeps ( `` first citizen '' ) with proconsular imperium , thus beginning the Principate ( the first epoch of Roman imperial history , usually dated from 27 BC to AD 284 ) , and gave him the name `` Augustus '' ( `` the venerated '' ) . Though the old constitutional machinery remained in place , Augustus came to predominate it . Although the republic stood in name , contemporaries of Augustus knew it was just a veil and that Augustus had all meaningful authority in Rome . Since his rule ended a century of civil wars , and began an unprecedented period of peace and prosperity , he was so loved that he came to hold the power of a monarch de facto if not de jure . During the years of his rule , a new constitutional order emerged ( in part organically and in part by design ) , so that , upon his death , this new constitutional order operated as before when Tiberius was accepted as the new emperor . The 200 years that began with Augustus 's rule is traditionally regarded as the Pax Romana ( `` Roman Peace '' ) . During this period , the cohesion of the empire was furthered by a degree of social stability and economic prosperity that Rome had never before experienced . Uprisings in the provinces were infrequent , but put down `` mercilessly and swiftly '' when they occurred . The sixty years of Jewish–Roman wars in the second half of the 1st century and the first half of the 2nd century were exceptional in their duration and violence . The success of Augustus in establishing principles of dynastic succession was limited by his outliving a number of talented potential heirs . The Julio-Claudian dynasty lasted for four more emperors — Tiberius , Caligula , Claudius and Nero — before it yielded in 69 AD to the strife-torn Year of Four Emperors , from which Vespasian emerged as victor . Vespasian became the founder of the brief Flavian dynasty , to be followed by the Nerva–Antonine dynasty which produced the `` Five Good Emperors '' : Nerva , Trajan , Hadrian , Antoninus Pius and the philosophically-inclined Marcus Aurelius . In the view of the Greek historian Dio Cassius , a contemporary observer , the accession of the emperor Commodus in 180 AD marked the descent `` from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron '' —a famous comment which has led some historians , notably Edward Gibbon , to take Commodus ' reign as the beginning of the decline of the Roman Empire . In 212 , during the reign of Caracalla , Roman citizenship was granted to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire . But despite this gesture of universality , the Severan dynasty was tumultuous — an emperor 's reign was ended routinely by his murder or execution — and , following its collapse , the Roman Empire was engulfed by the Crisis of the Third Century , a period of invasions , civil strife , economic disorder , and plague . In defining historical epochs , this crisis is sometimes viewed as marking the transition from Classical Antiquity to Late Antiquity . Aurelian ( reigned 270–275 ) brought the empire back from the brink and stabilized it . Diocletian completed the work of fully restoring the empire , but declined the role of princeps and became the first emperor to be addressed regularly as domine , `` master '' or `` lord '' . This marked the end of the Principate , and the beginning of the Dominate . Diocletian 's reign also brought the empire 's most concerted effort against the perceived threat of Christianity , the `` Great Persecution '' . The state of absolute monarchy that began with Diocletian endured until the fall of the Eastern Roman Empire in 1453 . Diocletian divided the empire into four regions , each ruled by a separate emperor , the Tetrarchy . Confident that he fixed the disorders that were plaguing Rome , he abdicated along with his co-emperor , and the Tetrarchy soon collapsed . Order was eventually restored by Constantine the Great , who became the first emperor to convert to Christianity , and who established Constantinople as the new capital of the eastern empire . During the decades of the Constantinian and Valentinian dynasties , the empire was divided along an east–west axis , with dual power centers in Constantinople and Rome . The reign of Julian , who attempted to restore Classical Roman and Hellenistic religion , only briefly interrupted the succession of Christian emperors . Theodosius I , the last emperor to rule over both East and West , died in 395 AD after making Christianity the official religion of the empire . The Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate in the early 5th century as Germanic migrations and invasions overwhelmed the capacity of the Empire to assimilate the migrants and fight off the invaders . The Romans were successful in fighting off all invaders , most famously Attila , though the empire had assimilated so many Germanic peoples of dubious loyalty to Rome that the empire started to dismember itself . Most chronologies place the end of the Western Roman Empire in 476 , when Romulus Augustulus was forced to abdicate to the Germanic warlord Odoacer . By placing himself under the rule of the Eastern Emperor , rather than naming himself Emperor ( as other Germanic chiefs had done after deposing past emperors ) , Odoacer ended the Western Empire by ending the line of Western emperors . The empire in the East — often known as the Byzantine Empire , but referred to in its time as the Roman Empire or by various other names — had a different fate . It survived for almost a millennium after the fall of its Western counterpart and became the most stable Christian realm during the Middle Ages . During the 6th century , Justinian I reconquered Northern Africa and Italy . But within a few years of Justinian 's death , Byzantine possessions in Italy were greatly reduced by the Lombards who settled in the peninsula . In the east , partially resulting from the destructive Plague of Justinian , the Romans were threatened by the rise of Islam , whose followers rapidly conquered the territories of Syria , Armenia and Egypt during the Byzantine-Arab Wars , and soon presented a direct threat to Constantinople . In the following century , the Arabs also captured southern Italy and Sicily . Slavic populations were also able to penetrate deep into the Balkans . The Romans , however , managed to stop further Islamic expansion into their lands during the 8th century and , beginning in the 9th century , reclaimed parts of the conquered lands . In 1000 AD , the Eastern Empire was at its height : Basil II reconquered Bulgaria and Armenia , culture and trade flourished . However , soon after the expansion was abruptly stopped in 1071 with the Byzantine defeat in the Battle of Manzikert . The aftermath of this important battle sent the empire into a protracted period of decline . Two decades of internal strife and Turkic invasions ultimately paved the way for Emperor Alexios I Komnenos to send a call for help to the Western European kingdoms in 1095 . The West responded with the Crusades , eventually resulting in the Sack of Constantinople by participants in the Fourth Crusade . The conquest of Constantinople in 1204 fragmented what remained of the Empire into successor states , the ultimate victor being that of Nicaea . After the recapture of Constantinople by Imperial forces , the Empire was little more than a Greek state confined to the Aegean coast . The Roman Empire finally collapsed when Mehmed the Conqueror conquered Constantinople on 29 May 1453 . Geography and demography The Roman Empire was one of the largest in history , with contiguous territories throughout Europe , North Africa , and the Middle East . The Latin phrase imperium sine fine ( `` empire without end '' ) expressed the ideology that neither time nor space limited the Empire . In Vergil 's epic poem the Aeneid , limitless empire is said to be granted to the Romans by their supreme deity Jupiter . This claim of universal dominion was renewed and perpetuated when the Empire came under Christian rule in the 4th century . In reality , Roman expansion was mostly accomplished under the Republic , though parts of northern Europe were conquered in the 1st century AD , when Roman control in Europe , Africa and Asia was strengthened . During the reign of Augustus , a `` global map of the known world '' was displayed for the first time in public at Rome , coinciding with the composition of the most comprehensive work on political geography that survives from antiquity , the Geography of the Pontic Greek writer Strabo . When Augustus died , the commemorative account of his achievements ( Res Gestae ) prominently featured the geographical cataloguing of peoples and places within the Empire . Geography , the census , and the meticulous keeping of written records were central concerns of Roman Imperial administration . The Empire reached its largest expanse under Trajan ( reigned 98–117 ) , encompassing an area of 5 million square kilometers that as of 2009 was divided among forty different modern countries . The traditional population estimate of inhabitants accounted for between one-sixth and one-fourth of the world 's total population and made it the largest population of any unified political entity in the West until the mid-19th century . Recent demographic studies have argued for a population peak ranging from to more than . Each of the three largest cities in the Empire—Rome , Alexandria , and Antioch— was almost twice the size of any European city at the beginning of the 17th century . As the historian Christopher Kelly has described it : Trajan 's successor Hadrian adopted a policy of maintaining rather than expanding the empire . Borders ( fines ) were marked , and the frontiers ( limites ) patrolled . The most heavily fortified borders were the most unstable . Hadrian 's Wall , which separated the Roman world from what was perceived as an ever-present barbarian threat , is the primary surviving monument of this effort . Languages The language of the Romans was Latin , which Virgil emphasizes as a source of Roman unity and tradition . Until the time of Alexander Severus ( reigned 222–235 ) , the birth certificates and wills of Roman citizens had to be written in Latin . Latin was the language of the law courts in the West and of the military throughout the Empire , but was not imposed officially on peoples brought under Roman rule . This policy contrasts with that of Alexander the Great , who aimed to impose Greek throughout his empire as the official language . As a consequence of Alexander 's conquests , koine Greek had become the shared language around the eastern Mediterranean and into Asia Minor . The `` linguistic frontier '' dividing the Latin West and the Greek East passed through the Balkan peninsula . Romans who received an elite education studied Greek as a literary language , and most men of the governing classes could speak Greek . The Julio-Claudian emperors encouraged high standards of correct Latin ( Latinitas ) , a linguistic movement identified in modern terms as Classical Latin , and favoured Latin for conducting official business . Claudius tried to limit the use of Greek , and on occasion revoked the citizenship of those who lacked Latin , but even in the Senate he drew on his own bilingualism in communicating with Greek-speaking ambassadors . Suetonius quotes him as referring to `` our two languages '' . In the Eastern empire , laws and official documents were regularly translated into Greek from Latin . The everyday interpenetration of the two languages is indicated by bilingual inscriptions , which sometimes even switch back and forth between Greek and Latin . After all freeborn inhabitants of the empire were universally enfranchised in 212 AD , a great number of Roman citizens would have lacked Latin , though they were expected to acquire at least a token knowledge , and Latin remained a marker of `` Romanness . '' Among other reforms , the emperor Diocletian ( reigned 284–305 ) sought to renew the authority of Latin , and the Greek expression hē kratousa dialektos attests to the continuing status of Latin as `` the language of power . '' In the early 6th century , the emperor Justinian engaged in a quixotic effort to reassert the status of Latin as the language of law , even though in his time Latin no longer held any currency as a living language in the East . Local languages and linguistic legacy References to interpreters indicate the continuing use of local languages other than Greek and Latin , particularly in Egypt , where Coptic predominated , and in military settings along the Rhine and Danube . Roman jurists also show a concern for local languages such as Punic , Gaulish , and Aramaic in assuring the correct understanding and application of laws and oaths . In the province of Africa , Libyco-Berber and Punic were used in inscriptions and for legends on coins during the time of Tiberius ( 1st century AD ) . Libyco-Berber and Punic inscriptions appear on public buildings into the 2nd century , some bilingual with Latin . In Syria , Palmyrene soldiers even used their dialect of Aramaic for inscriptions , in a striking exception to the rule that Latin was the language of the military . The Babatha Archive is a suggestive example of multilingualism in the Empire . These papyri , named for a Jewish woman in the province of Arabia and dating from 93 to 132 AD , mostly employ Aramaic , the local language , written in Greek characters with Semitic and Latin influences ; a petition to the Roman governor , however , was written in Greek . The dominance of Latin among the literate elite may obscure the continuity of spoken languages , since all cultures within the Roman Empire were predominantly oral . In the West , Latin , referred to in its spoken form as Vulgar Latin , gradually replaced Celtic and Italic languages that were related to it by a shared Indo-European origin . Commonalities in syntax and vocabulary facilitated the adoption of Latin . After the decentralization of political power in late antiquity , Latin developed locally into branches that became the Romance languages , such as Spanish , Portuguese , French , Italian and Romanian , and a large number of minor languages and dialects . Today , more than 900 million people are native speakers worldwide . As an international language of learning and literature , Latin itself continued as an active medium of expression for diplomacy and for intellectual developments identified with Renaissance humanism up to the 17th century , and for law and the Roman Catholic Church to the present . Although Greek continued as the language of the Byzantine Empire , linguistic distribution in the East was more complex . A Greek-speaking majority lived in the Greek peninsula and islands , western Anatolia , major cities , and some coastal areas . Like Greek and Latin , the Thracian language was of Indo-European origin , as were several now-extinct languages in Anatolia attested by Imperial-era inscriptions . Albanian is often seen as the descendant of Illyrian , although this hypothesis has been challenged by some linguists , who maintain that it derives from Dacian or Thracian . ( Illyrian , Dacian , and Thracian , however , may have formed a subgroup or a Sprachbund ; see Thraco-Illyrian . ) Various Afroasiatic languages—primarily Coptic in Egypt , and Aramaic in Syria and Mesopotamia—were never replaced by Greek . The international use of Greek , however , was one factor enabling the spread of Christianity , as indicated for example by the use of Greek for the Epistles of Paul . Society The Roman Empire was remarkably multicultural , with `` a rather astonishing cohesive capacity '' to create a sense of shared identity while encompassing diverse peoples within its political system over a long span of time . The Roman attention to creating public monuments and communal spaces open to all—such as forums , amphitheaters , racetracks and baths—helped foster a sense of `` Romanness '' . Roman society had multiple , overlapping social hierarchies that modern concepts of `` class '' in English may not represent accurately . The two decades of civil war from which Augustus rose to sole power left traditional society in Rome in a state of confusion and upheaval , but did not effect an immediate redistribution of wealth and social power . From the perspective of the lower classes , a peak was merely added to the social pyramid . Personal relationships—patronage , friendship ( amicitia ) , family , marriage—continued to influence the workings of politics and government , as they had in the Republic . By the time of Nero , however , it was not unusual to find a former slave who was richer than a freeborn citizen , or an equestrian who exercised greater power than a senator . The blurring or diffusion of the Republic 's more rigid hierarchies led to increased social mobility under the Empire , both upward and downward , to an extent that exceeded that of all other well-documented ancient societies . Women , freedmen , and slaves had opportunities to profit and exercise influence in ways previously less available to them . Social life in the Empire , particularly for those whose personal resources were limited , was further fostered by a proliferation of voluntary associations and confraternities ( collegia and sodalitates ) formed for various purposes : professional and trade guilds , veterans ' groups , religious sodalities , drinking and dining clubs , performing arts troupes , and burial societies . Infanticide has been recorded in the Roman Empire and may have been widespread . Legal status According to the jurist Gaius , the essential distinction in the Roman `` law of persons '' was that all human beings were either free ( liberi ) or slaves ( servi ) . The legal status of free persons might be further defined by their citizenship . Most citizens held limited rights ( such as the ius Latinum , `` Latin right '' ) , but were entitled to legal protections and privileges not enjoyed by those who lacked citizenship . Free people not considered citizens , but living within the Roman world , held status as peregrini , non-Romans . In 212 AD , by means of the edict known as the Constitutio Antoniniana , the emperor Caracalla extended citizenship to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire . This legal egalitarianism would have required a far-reaching revision of existing laws that had distinguished between citizens and non-citizens . Women in Roman law Freeborn Roman women were considered citizens throughout the Republic and Empire , but did not vote , hold political office , or serve in the military . A mother 's citizen status determined that of her children , as indicated by the phrase ex duobus civibus Romanis natos ( `` children born of two Roman citizens '' ) . A Roman woman kept her own family name ( nomen ) for life . Children most often took the father 's name , but in the Imperial period sometimes made their mother 's name part of theirs , or even used it instead . The archaic form of manus marriage in which the woman had been subject to her husband 's authority was largely abandoned by the Imperial era , and a married woman retained ownership of any property she brought into the marriage . Technically she remained under her father 's legal authority , even though she moved into her husband 's home , but when her father died she became legally emancipated . This arrangement was one of the factors in the degree of independence Roman women enjoyed relative to those of many other ancient cultures and up to the modern period : although she had to answer to her father in legal matters , she was free of his direct scrutiny in her daily life , and her husband had no legal power over her . Although it was a point of pride to be a `` one-man woman '' ( univira ) who had married only once , there was little stigma attached to divorce , nor to speedy remarriage after the loss of a husband through death or divorce . Girls had equal inheritance rights with boys if their father died without leaving a will . A Roman mother 's right to own property and to dispose of it as she saw fit , including setting the terms of her own will , gave her enormous influence over her sons even when they were adults . As

qb_9877--Roman_Empire.txt

What colour ink was traditionally used by Roman emperors to sign important documents?

The Ivy League is a collegiate athletic conference comprising sports teams from eight private institutions of higher education in the Northeastern United States . The conference name is also commonly used to refer to those eight schools as a group . The eight institutions are Brown University , Columbia University , Cornell University , Dartmouth College , Harvard University , the University of Pennsylvania , Princeton University , and Yale University . The term Ivy League has connotations of academic excellence , selectivity in admissions , and social elitism . While the term was in use as early as 1933 , it only became official after the formation of the NCAA Division I athletic conference in 1954 . Seven of the eight schools were founded during the United States colonial period ; the exception is Cornell , which was founded in 1865 . Ivy League institutions account for seven of the nine Colonial Colleges chartered before the American Revolution , the other two being Rutgers University and College of William & Mary . Ivy League schools are generally viewed as some of the most prestigious , and are ranked among the best universities worldwide . All eight universities place in the top fifteen of the U.S. News & World Report 2016 university rankings , including the top four schools and five of the top nine . U.S. News has named a member of the Ivy League as the best national university in each of the past sixteen years ending with the 2016 rankings : Princeton nine times , Harvard twice and the two schools tied for first five times . Undergraduate enrollments range from about 4,000 to 14,000 , making them larger than those of a typical private liberal arts college and smaller than a typical public state university . Total enrollments , including graduate students , range from approximately 6,100 at Dartmouth to over 20,000 at Columbia , Cornell , Harvard , and Penn . Ivy League financial endowments range from Brown 's $ 3 billion to Harvard 's $ 36.4 billion , the largest financial endowment of any academic institution in the world . Members Ivy League universities have some of the largest university financial endowments in the world , which allows the universities to provide many resources for their academic programs and research endeavors . As of 2014 , Harvard University has an endowment of $ 36.4 billion . Additionally , each university receives millions of dollars in research grants and other subsidies from federal and state governments . File : Brown Campus Manning Hall.JPG|Brown University File : Columbia_University , _Low_Library , _Manhattan , _Nov_2013.jpg|Columbia University File : Cornell University , Ho Plaza and Sage Hall.jpg|Cornell University File : Dartmouth College campus 2007-10-20 10.JPG|Dartmouth College File : Harvard yard winter 2009j.JPG|Harvard University File : Penn campus 2.jpg|University of Pennsylvania File : ClevelandTowerWatercolor20060829.jpg|Princeton University File : Yale University Old Campus 04.JPG|Yale University History Year founded Note : Six of the eight Ivy League universities consider their founding dates to be simply the date that they received their charters and thus became legal corporations with the authority to grant academic degrees . Harvard University uses the date that the legislature of the Massachusetts Bay Colony formally allocated funds for the creation of a college . Harvard was chartered in 1650 , although classes had been conducted for approximately a decade by then . The University of Pennsylvania initially considered its founding date to be 1750 ; this is the year which appears on the first iteration of the university seal . Later in Penn 's early history , the university changed its officially recognized founding date to 1749 , which was used for all of the nineteenth century , including a centennial celebration in 1849 . In 1899 , Penn 's board of trustees formally adopted a third founding date of 1740 , in response to a petition from Penn 's General Alumni Society . Penn was chartered in 1755 , the same year collegiate classes began . `` Religious affiliation '' refers to financial sponsorship , formal association with , and promotion by , a religious denomination . All of the schools in the Ivy League are private and not currently associated with any religion . Origin of the name Students have long revered the ivied walls of older colleges . `` Planting the ivy '' was a customary class day ceremony at many colleges in the 1800s . In 1893 an alumnus told The Harvard Crimson , `` In 1850 , class day was placed upon the University Calendar .... the custom of planting the ivy , while the ivy oration was delivered , arose about this time . '' At Penn , graduating seniors started the custom of planting ivy at a university building each spring in 1873 and that practice was formally designated as `` Ivy Day '' in 1874 . Ivy planting ceremonies are reported for Yale , Simmons , Bryn Mawr and many others . Princeton 's `` Ivy Club '' was founded in 1879 . The first usage of Ivy in reference to a group of colleges is from sportswriter Stanley Woodward ( 1895–1965 ) . The first known instance of the term Ivy League being used appeared in The Christian Science Monitor on February 7 , 1935 . Several sportswriters and other journalists used the term shortly later to refer to the older colleges , those along the northeastern seaboard of the United States , chiefly the nine institutions with origins dating from the colonial era , together with the United States Military Academy ( West Point ) , the United States Naval Academy , and a few others . These schools were known for their long-standing traditions in intercollegiate athletics , often being the first schools to participate in such activities . However , at this time , none of these institutions made efforts to form an athletic league . A common folk etymology attributes the name to the Roman numeral for four ( IV ) , asserting that there was such a sports league originally with four members . The Morris Dictionary of Word and Phrase Origins helped to perpetuate this belief . The supposed `` IV League '' was formed over a century ago and consisted of Harvard , Yale , Princeton , and a fourth school that varies depending on who is telling the story . However , it is clear that Harvard , Princeton , Yale and Columbia met on November 23 , 1876 at the so-called Massasoit Convention to decide on uniform rules for the emerging game of American football , which rapidly spread . Pre–Ivy League Seven out of the eight Ivy League schools were founded before the American Revolution ; Cornell was founded just after the American Civil War . These seven were the primary colleges in the Northern and Middle Colonies , and their early faculties and founding boards were largely , therefore , drawn from other Ivy League institutions . There were also some British graduates from the University of Cambridge , the University of Oxford , the University of St. Andrews , the University of Edinburgh , and elsewhere on their boards . Similarly , the founder of The College of William & Mary , in 1693 , was a British graduate of the University of Edinburgh . Cornell provided Stanford University with its first president . The influence of these institutions on the founding of other colleges and universities is notable . This included the Southern public college movement which blossomed in the decades surrounding the turn of the 19th century when Georgia , South Carolina , North Carolina and Virginia established what became the flagship universities for each of these states . In 1801 , a majority of the first board of trustees for what became the University of South Carolina were Princeton alumni . They appointed Jonathan Maxcy , a Brown graduate , as the university 's first president . Thomas Cooper , an Oxford alumnus and University of Pennsylvania faculty member , became the second president of the South Carolina college . The founders of the University of California came from Yale , hence the school colors of University of California are Yale Blue and California Gold . Some of the Ivy League schools have identifiable Protestant roots , while others were founded as non-sectarian schools . Church of England King 's College broke up during the Revolution and was reformed as public nonsectarian Columbia College . In the early nineteenth century , the specific purpose of training Calvinist ministers was handed off to theological seminaries , but a denominational tone and such relics as compulsory chapel often lasted well into the twentieth century . Penn and Brown were officially founded as nonsectarian schools . Brown 's charter promised no religious tests and `` full liberty of conscience '' , but placed control in the hands of a board of twenty-two Baptists , five Quakers , four Congregationalists , and five Episcopalians . Cornell has been strongly nonsectarian from its founding . `` Ivy League '' is sometimes used as a way of referring to an elite class , even though institutions such as Cornell University were among the first in the United States to reject racial and gender discrimination in their admissions policies . This dates back to at least 1935 . Novels and memoirs attest this sense , as a social elite ; to some degree independent of the actual schools . After the Second World War , the present Ivy League institutions slowly widened their selection of their students . They had always had distinguished faculties ; some of the first Americans with doctorates had taught for them ; but they now decided that they could not both be world-class research institutions and be competitive in the highest ranks of American college sport ; in addition , the schools experienced the scandals of any other big-time football programs , although more quietly . History of the athletic league 19th and early 20th centuries The first formal athletic league involving eventual Ivy League schools ( or any US colleges , for that matter ) was created in 1870 with the formation of the Rowing Association of American Colleges . The RAAC hosted a de facto national championship in rowing during the period 1870–1894 . In 1895 , Cornell , Columbia , and Penn founded the Intercollegiate Rowing Association , which remains the oldest collegiate athletic organizing body in the US . To this day , the IRA Championship Regatta determines the national champion in rowing and all of the Ivies are regularly invited to compete . A basketball league was later created in 1902 , when Columbia , Cornell , Harvard , Yale and Princeton formed the Eastern Intercollegiate Basketball League ; they were later joined by Penn and Dartmouth . In 1906 , the organization that eventually became the National Collegiate Athletic Association was formed , primarily to formalize rules for the emerging sport of football . But of the 39 original member colleges in the NCAA , only two of them ( Dartmouth and Penn ) later became Ivies . In February 1903 , intercollegiate wrestling began when Yale accepted a challenge from Columbia , published in the Yale News . The dual meet took place prior to a basketball game hosted by Columbia and resulted in a tie . Two years later , Penn and Princeton also added wrestling teams , leading to the formation of the student-run Intercollegiate Wrestling Association , now the Eastern Intercollegiate Wrestling Association ( EIWA ) , the first and oldest collegiate wrestling league in the US . In 1930 , Columbia , Cornell , Dartmouth , Penn , Princeton and Yale formed the Eastern Intercollegiate Baseball League ; they were later joined by Harvard , Brown , Army and Navy . Before the formal establishment of the Ivy League , there was an `` unwritten and unspoken agreement among certain Eastern colleges on athletic relations '' . The earliest reference to the `` Ivy colleges '' came in 1933 , when Stanley Woodward of the New York Herald Tribune used it to refer to the eight current members plus Army . In 1935 , the Associated Press reported on an example of collaboration between the schools : Despite such collaboration , the universities did not seem to consider the formation of the league as imminent . Romeyn Berry , Cornell 's manager of athletics , reported the situation in January 1936 as follows : Within a year of this statement and having held month-long discussions about the proposal , on December 3 , 1936 , the idea of `` the formation of an Ivy League '' gained enough traction among the undergraduate bodies of the universities that the Columbia Daily Spectator , The Cornell Daily Sun , The Dartmouth , The Harvard Crimson , The Daily Pennsylvanian , The Daily Princetonian and the Yale Daily News would simultaneously run an editorial entitled `` Now Is the Time '' , encouraging the seven universities to form the league in an effort to preserve the ideals of athletics . Part of the editorial read as follows : The Ivies have been competing in sports as long as intercollegiate sports have existed in the United States . Rowing teams from Harvard and Yale met in the first sporting event held between students of two U.S. colleges on Lake Winnipesaukee , New Hampshire , on August 3 , 1852 . Harvard 's team , `` The Oneida '' , won the race and was presented with trophy black walnut oars from then presidential nominee General Franklin Pierce . The proposal did not succeed—on January 11 , 1937 , the athletic authorities at the schools rejected the `` possibility of a heptagonal league in football such as these institutions maintain in basketball , baseball and track . '' However , they noted that the league `` has such promising possibilities that it may not be dismissed and must be the subject of further consideration . '' Post-World War II In 1945 the presidents of the eight schools signed the first Ivy Group Agreement , which set academic , financial , and athletic standards for the football teams . The principles established reiterated those put forward in the Harvard-Yale-Princeton Presidents ' Agreement of 1916 . The Ivy Group Agreement established the core tenet that an applicant 's ability to play on a team would not influence admissions decisions : In 1954 , the presidents extended the Ivy Group Agreement to all intercollegiate sports , effective with the 1955–56 basketball season . This is generally reckoned as the formal formation of the Ivy League . As part of the transition , Brown , the only Ivy that had n't joined the EIBL , did so for the 1954–55 season . A year later , the Ivy League absorbed the EIBL . The Ivy League claims the EIBL 's history as its own . Through the EIBL , it is the oldest basketball conference in Division I . As late as the 1960s many of the Ivy League universities ' undergraduate programs remained open only to men , with Cornell the only one to have been coeducational from its founding ( 1865 ) and Columbia being the last ( 1983 ) to become coeducational . Before they became coeducational , many of the Ivy schools maintained extensive social ties with nearby Seven Sisters women 's colleges , including weekend visits , dances and parties inviting Ivy and Seven Sisters students to mingle . This was the case not only at Barnard College and Radcliffe College , which are adjacent to Columbia and Harvard , but at more distant institutions as well . The movie Animal House includes a satiric version of the formerly common visits by Dartmouth men to Massachusetts to meet Smith and Mount Holyoke women , a drive of more than two hours . As noted by Irene Harwarth , Mindi Maline , and Elizabeth DeBra , `` The 'Seven Sisters ' was the name given to Barnard , Smith , Mount Holyoke , Vassar , Bryn Mawr , Wellesley , and Radcliffe , because of their parallel to the Ivy League men ’ s colleges . '' In 1982 the Ivy League considered adding two members , with Army , Navy , and Northwestern as the most likely candidates ; if it had done so , the league could probably have avoided being moved into the recently created Division I-AA ( now Division I FCS ) for football . In 1983 , following the admission of women to Columbia College , Columbia University and Barnard College entered into an athletic consortium agreement by which students from both schools compete together on Columbia University women 's athletic teams , which replaced the women 's teams previously sponsored by Barnard . When Army and Navy departed the Eastern Intercollegiate Baseball League in 1992 , all intercollegiate competition involving the eight schools became united under the Ivy League banner . Academics Admissions The Ivy League schools are highly selective , with acceptance rates since 2000 ranging from 6 to 16 percent at each of the universities . Admitted students come from around the world , although students from New England and the Northeastern United States make up a significant proportion of students . Prestige Members of the League have been highly ranked by various university rankings . Further , Ivy League members have produced many Nobel laureates , winners of the Nobel Prize and the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences . Listed from in order from greatest number of Nobel laureates are : Harvard with 153 Nobel winners , the most out of any university in the world . This is followed by Columbia with 101 winners , Yale with 52 , Cornell with 45 , Princeton with 37 , and Penn with 29 Nobel laureates . These figures are self-reported by the universities themselves , who use widely varying definitions for which Nobel winners are claimed as affiliates , for example , only degree-holding alumni or active faculty or former faculty , visiting faculty , adjunct faculty , etc . Many universities are notorious for claiming laureates with only tenuous informal connections in order to inflate their count of winners . Collaboration Collaboration between the member schools is illustrated by the student-led Ivy Council that meets in the fall and spring of each year , with representatives from every Ivy League school . The governing body of the Ivy League is the Council of Ivy Group Presidents , composed of each university president . During meetings , the presidents often discuss common procedures and initiatives for the universities . Culture Fashion and lifestyle Different fashion trends and styles have emerged from Ivy League campuses over time , and fashion trends such as Ivy League and Preppy are styles often associated with the Ivy League and its culture . Ivy League style is a style of men 's dress , popular during the late 1950s , believed to have originated on Ivy League campuses . The clothing stores J . Press and Brooks Brothers represent perhaps the quintessential Ivy League dress manner . The Ivy League style is said to be the predecessor to the preppy style of dress . Preppy fashion started around 1912 to the late 1940s and 1950s as the Ivy League style of dress . J . Press represents the quintessential preppy clothing brand , stemming from the collegiate traditions that shaped the preppy subculture . In the mid-twentieth century J . Press and Brooks Brothers , both being pioneers in preppy fashion , had stores on Ivy League school campuses , including Harvard , Princeton , and Yale . Some typical preppy styles also reflect traditional upper class New England leisure activities , such as equestrian , sailing or yachting , hunting , fencing , rowing , lacrosse , tennis , golf , and rugby . Longtime New England outdoor outfitters , such as L.L . Bean , became part of conventional preppy style . This can be seen in sport stripes and colours , equestrian clothing , plaid shirts , field jackets and nautical-themed accessories . Vacationing in Palm Beach , Florida , long popular with the East Coast upper class , led to the emergence of bright colour combinations in leisure wear seen in some brands such as Lilly Pulitzer . By the 1980s , other brands such as Lacoste , Izod and Dooney & Bourke became associated with preppy style . ' Today , these styles continue to be popular on Ivy League campuses , throughout the U.S. , and abroad , and are oftentimes labeled as `` Classic American style '' or `` Traditional American style '' . Social elitism The Ivy League is often associated with the upper class White Anglo-Saxon Protestant community of the Northeast , Old Money , or more generally , the American upper middle and upper classes . Although most Ivy League students come from upper middle and upper class families , the student body has become increasingly more economically and ethnically diverse . The universities provide significant financial aid to help increase the enrollment of lower income and middle class students . Several reports suggest , however , that the proportion of students from less-affluent families remains low . Phrases such as `` Ivy League snobbery '' are ubiquitous in nonfiction and fiction writing of the early and mid-twentieth century . A Louis Auchincloss character dreads `` the aridity of snobbery which he knew infected the Ivy League colleges '' . A business writer , warning in 2001 against discriminatory hiring , presented a cautionary example of an attitude to avoid ( the bracketed phrase is his ) : The phrase Ivy League historically has been perceived as connected not only with academic excellence , but also with social elitism . In 1936 , sportswriter John Kieran noted that student editors at Harvard , Yale , Princeton , Cornell , Columbia , Dartmouth , and Penn were advocating the formation of an athletic association . In urging them to consider `` Army and Navy and Georgetown and Fordham and Syracuse and Brown and Pitt '' as candidates for membership , he exhorted : Aspects of Ivy stereotyping were illustrated during the 1988 presidential election , when George H. W. Bush ( Yale '48 ) derided Michael Dukakis ( graduate of Harvard Law School ) for having `` foreign-policy views born in Harvard Yard 's boutique . '' New York Times columnist Maureen Dowd asked `` Was n't this a case of the pot calling the kettle elite ? '' Bush explained however that , unlike Harvard , Yale 's reputation was `` so diffuse , there is n't a symbol , I do n't think , in the Yale situation , any symbolism in it .... Harvard boutique to me has the connotation of liberalism and elitism '' and said Harvard in his remark was intended to represent `` a philosophical enclave '' and not a statement about class . Columnist Russell Baker opined that `` Voters inclined to loathe and fear elite Ivy League schools rarely make fine distinctions between Yale and Harvard . All they know is that both are full of rich , fancy , stuck-up and possibly dangerous intellectuals who never sit down to supper in their undershirt no matter how hot the weather gets . '' Still , the last four presidents have all attended Ivy League schools for at least part of their education— George H. W. Bush ( Yale undergrad ) , Bill Clinton ( Yale Law School ) , George W. Bush ( Yale undergrad , Harvard Business School ) , and Barack Obama ( Columbia undergrad , Harvard Law School ) . U.S. presidents in the Ivy League Of the forty-three men who have served as President of the United States , fourteen have graduated from an Ivy League university . Of them , eight have degrees from Harvard , five from Yale , three ( two were honorary ) from Columbia and two from Princeton . Eleven presidents have earned Ivy undergraduate degrees . Two of these were transfer students : Barack Obama transferred from Occidental College and John F. Kennedy transferred from another Ivy , Princeton , where he had been class of 1939 . John Adams was the first president to graduate from college , graduating from Harvard in 1755 . Student demographics Geographic distribution Students of the Ivy League largely hail from the Northeast , largely from the New York City , Boston , and Philadelphia areas . As all eight Ivy League universities are within the Northeast , it is no surprise that most graduates end up working and residing in the Northeast after graduation . An unscientific survey of Harvard seniors from the Class of 2013 found that 42 % hailed from the Northeast and 55 % overall were planning on working and residing in the Northeast . Boston and New York City are traditionally where many Ivy League graduates end up living . Socioeconomics and social class Students of the Ivy League , both graduate and undergraduate , come primarily from upper middle and upper class families . In recent years , however , the universities have looked towards increasing socioeconomic and class diversity , by providing greater financial aid packages to applicants from lower , working , and middle class American families . In 2013 , 46 % of Harvard College students came from families in the top 3.8 % of all American households ( over $ 200,000 per annum ) . In 2012 , the bottom 25 % of the American income distribution accounted for only 3–4 % of students at Brown , a figure that had remained unchanged since 1992 . In 2014 , 69 % of incoming freshmen students at Yale College came from families with annual incomes of over $ 120,000 , putting most Yale College students in the upper middle and/or upper class . ( The median household income in the U.S. in 2013 was $ 52,700 . ) In the 2011–2012 academic year , students qualifying for Pell Grants ( federally funded scholarships on the basis of need ) comprised 20 % at Harvard , 18 % at Cornell , 17 % at Penn , 16 % at Columbia , 15 % at Dartmouth and Brown , 14 % at Yale , and 12 % at Princeton . Nationally , 35 % of American university students qualify for a Pell Grant . Competition and athletics Ivy champions are recognized in sixteen men 's and sixteen women 's sports . In some sports , Ivy teams actually compete as members of another league , the Ivy championship being decided by isolating the members ' records in play against each other ; for example , the six league members who participate in ice hockey do so as members of ECAC Hockey , but an Ivy champion is extrapolated each year . The Ivy League was the last Division I basketball conference to institute a conference postseason tournament ; the first tournaments for men and women will be held at the end of the 2016–17 season . The tournaments will only award the Ivy League automatic bids for the NCAA Division I Men 's and Women 's Basketball Tournaments ; the official conference championships will continue to be awarded based solely on regular-season results . Before the 2016–17 season , the automatic bids were based solely on regular-season record , with a one-game playoff ( or series of one-game playoffs if more than two teams were tied ) held to determine the automatic bid . The Ivy League is one of only two Division I conferences which award their official basketball championships solely on regular-season results ; the other is the Southeastern Conference . Since its inception , an Ivy League school has yet to win either the men 's or women 's Division I NCAA Basketball Tournament . On average , each Ivy school has more than 35 varsity teams . All eight are in the top 20 for number of sports offered for both men and women among Division I schools . Unlike most Division I athletic conferences , the Ivy League prohibits the granting of athletic scholarships ; all scholarships awarded are need-based ( financial aid ) . Ivy League teams ' non-league games are often against the members of the Patriot League , which have similar academic standards and athletic scholarship policies . In the time before recruiting for college sports became dominated by those offering athletic scholarships and lowered academic standards for athletes , the Ivy League was successful in many sports relative to other universities in the country . In particular , Princeton won 26 recognized national championships in college football ( last in 1935 ) , and Yale won 18 ( last

sfq_3002--Ivy_League.txt

Which American Ivy League University is situated in Ithaca, New York State?

Tottenham Hotspur Football Club , commonly referred to as Spurs , is an English football club located in Tottenham , London , that competes in the Premier League . The club 's home stadium is White Hart Lane . Their newly developed training ground is in Bulls Cross on the northern borders of the London Borough of Enfield . Founded in 1882 , Tottenham won the FA Cup for the first time in 1901 , making them the only non-League club to do so since the formation of the Football League in 1888 . Tottenham were the first club in the 20th century to achieve the League and FA Cup Double , winning both competitions in the 1960–61 season . After successfully defending the FA Cup in 1962 , in 1963 they became the first British club to win a UEFA club competition – the European Cup Winners ' Cup . In 1967 , Spurs won the FA Cup for a third time in the 1960s . In the 1970s Tottenham won the League Cup on two occasions and were the inaugural winner of the UEFA Cup in 1972 , becoming the first British club to win two different major European trophies . In the 1980s Spurs won several trophies : the FA Cup twice , FA Community Shield and the UEFA Cup in 1984 . In the 1990s the club won the FA Cup and the League Cup . When they won the League Cup once more in 2008 , it meant that they had won a major trophy in each of the last six decades – an achievement only matched by Manchester United . The club 's Latin motto is Audere est Facere ( lit : `` To Dare Is to Do '' ) , and its emblem is a cockerel standing upon a football . The club has a long-standing rivalry with nearby neighbours Arsenal , with head-to-head fixtures known as the North London derby . History The club was formed in 1882 , as Hotspur F.C. , and played in the Southern League from 1896 until 1908 , when they were elected into the Football League Second Division . Before this promotion Tottenham had won the FA Cup in 1901 , making them the only non-League club to ( or likely to ) do so since the formation of the Football League . Since then , Tottenham have won the FA Cup a further seven times , the Football League twice , the Football League Cup four times , the UEFA Cup twice and also the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup . The Cup Winners ' Cup victory in 1963 made Tottenham the first English team to win a UEFA competition . In 1960–61 they became the first team to complete The Double in the 20th century . Stadium Tottenham played their first matches at Tottenham Marshes on the available public pitches and remained there for six years . It was at this ground that Spurs first played arch rivals Arsenal ( then known as Royal Arsenal ) , leading 2–1 until the match got called off due to poor light after the away team arrived late . There were occasions on which fights would break out on the marshes in dispute of the teams that were allowed to use the best pitches . Crowd sizes were regularly increasing and a new site was becoming needed to accommodate these supporters . In 1898 the club moved from the marshes to Northumberland Park and charged an admission fee of 3d ( £0.0125 ) . They only remained at this ground for a year as in April 1899 , 14,000 fans turned up to watch Spurs play Woolwich Arsenal . The ground was no longer able to cope with the larger crowds and Spurs were forced to move to a new larger site 100 yards down the road , to the current ground . The White Hart Lane ground was originally a disused nursery owned by the brewery Charringtons and located behind a public house on Tottenham High Road ( the actual White Hart Lane road lies a few hundred yards north of the main entrance ) . The landlord spotted the increased income he could enjoy if Tottenham played their matches behind his pub and in 1899 the club moved in . They brought with them the stand they used at Northumberland Park which gave shelter to 2,500 fans . Notts County were the first visitors to 'the Lane ' in a friendly watched by 5,000 people and provided in £115 in receipts ; Spurs won 4–1 . QPR became the first competitive visitors to the ground and 11,000 people saw them lose 1–0 to Tottenham . In 1905 Tottenham raised enough money to buy the freehold to the land and became permanent owners of the ground . As the club grew new stands were added . A new main stand was added in 1909 , the East stand was also covered this year and extended further two years later . The profits from the 1921 FA Cup win were used to build a covered terrace at the Paxton Road end and the Park Lane end was built at a cost of over £3,000 some two years later . This increased the ground 's capacity to around 58,000 with room for 40,000 under cover . The East Stand ( Worcester Avenue ) stand was finished in 1934 and this increased capacity to around 80,000 spectators but cost £60,000 . The pitch was thoroughly renovated in 1952 . This uncovered a number of items from the old nursery on the site and one year later the first floodlights were introduced . The floodlights were upgraded in 1957 which required the cockerel to be moved from the West Stand to the East and then in 1961 floodlight pylons were installed . The West Stand was replaced by an expensive ( and way behind schedule ) new structure . Various developments and upgrades were implemented over the years . In 1992 , following the Taylor Report 's recommendation that Premier League clubs eliminate standing areas , the lower terraces of the south and east stand were converted to seating , with the north stand becoming all-seater the following season . The south stand redevelopment was completed in March 1995 and included the first giant Sony Jumbotron TV screen for live game coverage and away match screenings . With this , the capacity of the stadium increased to just over 33,000 . In 1997/98 season the Paxton Road stand had a new upper tier added which included the second Jumbotron screen and increased capacity to 36,240 and was funded by a rights issue in 1996 . Minor amendments to the seating configuration were made in 2006 bringing the current capacity of the stadium to 36,310 . As an initial consideration Spurs were reported to have considered the possibility of the post-games use of the 2012 London Olympic Stadium . But as this proposal would involve a move out of the immediate Tottenham area and because ongoing users were reportedly required to retain the stadium 's running track , Spurs dropped the plan in October 2006 . But , on 1 October 2010 Tottenham Hotspur 's chairman Daniel Levy advised that the club had registered an interest in bidding for the stadium in conjunction with AEG ( Europe ) to keep its options open while there remained uncertainties about the success of the Northumberland Development Project . [ http : //www.tottenhamhotspur.com/futureplans/news/stadium-plans-011010.html Stadium Plans THFC Official website ] . Accessed 2 October 2010 . On 12 November 2010 the Olympic Park Legacy Company ( OPLC ) announced that the Tottenham Hotspur / AEG consortium had been shortlisted as one of the two preferred bidders to take over the Olympic Stadium after the 2012 Olympics . Then the OPLC announced on 11 February 2011 that West Ham had been selected as the preferred bidder for the Olympic Stadium , subject to final governmental ratification . Northumberland Development Project In 2007 the club stated they were considering options to increase stadium capacity by redevelopment of the current site or a move to a new site . Tottenham Hotspur advised in its 2007/8 Interim Financial Statement that the preferred option would be announced in the first half of 2008 , but delayed this decision until the autumn . In October 2008 , the club announced that , if approved , they were planning to build a new stadium just to the north of the existing White Hart Lane stadium , with the southern half of the new stadium 's pitch located on the northwest corner of the Lane . The unique design of the build would allow the new stadium to be built adjacent to White Hart Lane as the old facility continued to be used . The plan was that during the summer close season when two-thirds of the new stadium was complete , the northern and western stands would be demolished and a new pitch laid . The rest of the stadium would be built in the years to follow . The club submitted a planning application in October 2009 . But in May 2010 , following adverse reaction , this was withdrawn in favour of a substantially revised planning application . Haringey Council were requested in September 2010 to grant permission for a larger stadium and other associated developments ( subject to negotiation of 'section 106 ' developer contributions ) . The Mayor of London gave his approval to the plans to redevelop the stadium on 25 November 2010 . On 20 September 2011 , planning permission was granted . The opening date for the new stadium has been rescheduled on multiple occasions but is currently being aimed for use for the start of the 2018/19 season . [ http : //m.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-30831515 Tottenham Hotspur stadium dispute firm in court challenge BBC News online 15 January 2015 ] , Written 15 January 2015 . Accessed 20 February 2015 On 7 July 2015 , Spurs and the National Football League ( NFL ) of American football jointly announced that the new stadium would host at least two NFL games each season from 2018 through to 2027 . On 25 February 2016 , Boris Johnson continued his support for the Northumberland Development Project by granting Tottenham permission to build a new £400 million stadium . The Mayor of London showed support for the project and said the new stadium will create new jobs and boost growth of the area . Crest Since the 1921 FA Cup final the Tottenham Hotspur crest has featured a cockerel . Harry Hotspur ( from whom the club is said to have taken its name ) wore riding spurs and his fighting cocks were fitted with spurs which can be seen in the crests . In 1909 a former player named William James Scott made a bronze cast of a cockerel standing on a football to be placed on top of the West Stand and since then the cockerel and ball have been the major part of the club 's identity . Between 1956 and 2006 Spurs used a faux heraldic shield featuring a number of local landmarks and associations . The lions flanking the shield came from the Northumberland family ( of which Harry Hotspur was a member ) . The castle is Bruce Castle , 400 yards from the ground and the trees are the Seven Sisters . The arms featured the Latin motto Audere Est Facere ( to dare is to do ) . In 1983 , to overcome unauthorised `` pirate '' merchandising , the club 's badge was altered by adding the two red heraldic lions and the motto scroll . This device appeared on most Spurs ' playing kits for the next 23 years . In 2006 to rebrand and modernise the club 's image , the club badge and coat of arms were dumped for a professionally designed logo/emblem . This revamp showed a leaner , fitter cockerel on an old-time football . The club claims that the rebranding kept much of the original meaning of the name , but emphasised its originality . In November 2013 , Tottenham forced non-league club Fleet Spurs to change their badge because its new design was `` too similar '' to the Tottenham crest . File : Shirtbadge2.png|Early crest File : Tottenham Hotspur old logo.png|Crest 1956–1983 File : Tottenham Hotspur crest.png|Crest 1983–2005 File : Tottenham Hotspur.svg|Crest 2006 – present Kit The first Tottenham kit was navy blue shirt and shorts , but after the first season the club did not have one specific design for many years . In 1884 the club changed to a `` quartered '' kit similar in style to that of Blackburn Rovers . Shortly after moving to Northumberland Road , the kit changed again to red shirt and blue shorts . Five years later , after becoming a professional club , they switched to a chocolate and gold striped kit . At the end of the 19th century the club switched colours yet again , to the white shirts and blue shorts which they are now well known for wearing , hence the nickname `` Lilywhites '' . This colour choice is thought to be in homage to Preston North End who had recently done The Double . White and navy blue have remained as the club 's basic colours ever since . Soon after the First World War , the cockerel badge was added to the shirt . In 1939 numbers first appeared on shirt backs , and in 1983 Holsten became the first commercial sponsor logo to appear on the shirt . The club were the first to wear long-cut shorts , an innovation at a time where football kits all featured shorts cut well above the knee . When Thomson was chosen as kit sponsor in 2002 some Tottenham fans were unhappy as the shirt-front logo was red , the colour of their closest rivals , Arsenal . In 2006 , Tottenham then succeeded in securing a record £34 million sponsorship deal with internet casino group Mansion.com . In July 2010 Spurs announced a two-year shirt sponsorship contract with software infrastructure company Autonomy . It was said to be worth £20 million . A month later they unveiled a deal with leading specialist bank and asset management firm Investec as shirt sponsor for the Champions League and domestic cup competitions for the next two years . The deal was worth £5 million . In March 2011 , Under Armour announced a five-year deal to supply Spurs with shirts and other apparel from the start of 2012–13 , but other deal terms were undisclosed . The kit was revealed on 12 July in London and two weeks later the third kit was revealed via the promotion of Electronic Arts ' FIFA 13 video game . Kit suppliers and shirt sponsors 1 Only appeared in the Premier League . Investec Bank appeared in the Champions League , FA Cup , League Cup and Europa League . 2 Aurasma is a subsidiary of the Autonomy Corporation . 3 Hewlett-Packard is the parent company of the Autonomy Corporation and only appeared in the Premier League . AIA appeared in the FA Cup , League Cup and Europa League . Ownership Between 2001 and 2011 shares in Tottenham Hotspur F.C . were listed on the Alternative Investment Market ( AIM index ) . The majority shareholder was ENIC International Ltd , an investment company established by the British billionaire Joe Lewis . Daniel Levy , Lewis 's partner at ENIC , is Executive Chairman of the club . Shareholding by ENIC was increased over this period through the purchase of the remaining 14.7 % holding of former chairman Alan Sugar and , in 2009 , the 9.9 % stake belonging to Stelios Haji-Ioannou through Hodram Inc. On 21 August 2009 the club reported that they had issued a further 30 million shares to fund the initial development costs of the new stadium project , and that 27.8 million of these new shares had been purchased by ENIC . The Annual Report for 2010 indicated that ENIC had acquired 76 % of all Ordinary Shares and also held 97 % of all convertible redeemable preference shares , equivalent to a holding of 85 % of share capital . Following an announcement at the 2011 AGM , in January 2012 the club confirmed that they had been transferred into the private ownership of ENIC . In April 2014 the Club reported net profits of £1.5m for the financial year ending June 2013 . Support Tottenham have a large fanbase in the United Kingdom , drawn largely from north London and the Home counties . Five times between 1946 and 1969 , Tottenham had the highest average attendance in England . There are also Tottenham supporters ' clubs located all over the world . Tottenham were 9th in average attendances for the 2008–09 Premier League season , and 11th for all Premier League seasons . Historical supporters of the club have included such figures as A.J . Ayer . Tottenham supporters have rivalries with several clubs , mainly within the London area . The fiercest of these is with north London rivals Arsenal . They also share notable rivalries with fellow London clubs Chelsea and West Ham United . The club , as with many clubs in London , has a large Jewish following and this has led to much antisemitic provocation against Tottenham supporters . Tottenham supporters , Jewish and non-Jewish , united against this and adopted the nickname `` Yids '' , developing chants to support this . Many fans view adopting `` Yid '' as a badge of pride , helping defuse its power as an insult . Today it is mainly used to distinguish Tottenham fans from other football supporters . Many fans , however , disagree with the use of the name `` Yid '' , and believe it will only attract more racism . In April 2011 , Jewish comedian , author and Chelsea supporter David Baddiel produced a short film stating that the anti-semitic chanting is as unacceptable as the abuse still suffered by black footballers , and must be stamped out accordingly . After Spurs completed the Double in 1960–61 , the club entered the European Cup for the first time . Their first opponents were Górnik Zabrze the Polish champions and after a hard-fought match Spurs suffered a 4–2 reverse . Tottenham 's tough-tackling prompted the Polish press to describe them as they were no angels . These comments incensed a group of three fans and for the return match at White Hart Lane they dressed as angels wearing white sheets fashioned into togas , sandals , false beards and carrying placards bearing biblical type slogans . The angels were allowed on the perimeter of the pitch and their fervour whipped up the home fans who responded with a rendition of Glory Glory Hallelujah which is still sung on terraces at White Hart Lane and other football grounds . The Lilywhites also responded to the atmosphere to win the tie 8–1 . Manager of Spurs , Bill Nicholson , wrote in his autobiography . Social responsibility The club through its Community Programme has , since 2006 , been working with Haringey Council and the Metropolitan Housing Trust and the local community on developing sports facilities and social programmes which have also been financially supported by Barclays Spaces for Sport and the Football Foundation . The Tottenham Hotspur Foundation received high-level political support from the prime minister when it was launched at 10 Downing Street in February 2007 . In March 2007 the Club announced a partnership with the charity SOS Children 's Villages UK . Player fines will go towards this charity 's children 's village in Rustenburg , South Africa with the funds being used to cover the running costs as well as in support of a variety of community development projects in and around Rustenburg . In the financial year 2006–07 , Tottenham topped a league of Premier League charitable donations when viewed both in overall terms and as a percentage of turnover by giving £4,545,889 , including a one-off contribution of £4.5 million over four years , to set up the Tottenham Hotspur Foundation . This compared to donations of £9,763 in 2005–06 . [ http : //www.tottenhamhotspur.com/docstore/tottenham_ar2006_72dpi.pdf TOTTENHAM HOTSPUR PLC ANNUAL REPORT 2006 ] This commitment is an example of professional sport supporting the communities and people who support and enrich them through their attendance and other participation and support . The football club is one of the highest profile participants in the 10:10 project which encourages individuals , businesses and organisations to take action on environmental issues . They joined in 2009 in a commitment to reducing their carbon footprint . To do this they upgraded their lights to more efficient models , they turned down their heating dials and took less short-haul flights among a host of other things . After working with 10:10 for one year , they reported that they had reduced their carbon emissions by an impressive 14 % . In contrast , they have successfully sought the reduction of section 106 planning obligations connected to the redevelopment of the stadium . Initially the development would incorporate 50 % affordable housing ( 100 out of 200 ) , but this was reduced to 0 out of 285 when Spurs suggested that the development was not financially viable with this obligation . In addition , a payment of £16m for community infrastructure was reduced to £0.5m . This is controversial in an area which has suffered high levels of deprivation as well as long-term planning blight as Spurs bought up property for the development , leaving it empty . Tottenham Hotspur ladies Tottenham 's ladies ' team was founded in 1985 as Broxbourne Ladies . They started using the Tottenham Hotspur name for the 1991–92 season and played in the London and South East Women 's Regional Football League ( then fourth tier of the game ) . They won promotion after topping the league in 2007–08 , and currently play in the FA Women 's Premier League Southern Division ( the third tier of the game ) . Honours Domestic League * First Division/Premier League : * * Winners ( 2 ) : 1950–51 , 1960–61 * Second Division/Championship : * * Winners ( 2 ) : 1919–20 , 1949–50 * Southern League : * * Winners ( 1 ) : 1899–1900 * Western League : * * Winners ( 1 ) : 1903–04 Cup * FA Cup : * * Winners ( 8 ) : 1900–01 , 1920–21 , 1960–61 , 1961–62 , 1966–67 , 1980–81 , 1981–82 , 1990–91 * League Cup : * * Winners ( 4 ) : 1970–71 , 1972–73 , 1998–99 , 2007–08 * FA Charity Shield/FA Community Shield : * * Winners ( 7 ) : 1921 , 1951 , 1961 , 1962 , 1967 * , 1981 * , 1991 * ( * shared ) European * UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup : * * Winners ( 1 ) : 1962–63 * UEFA Cup/UEFA Europa League : * * Winners ( 2 ) : 1971–72 , 1983–84 * Anglo-Italian League Cup : * * Winners ( 1 ) : 1971 Other Honours * London League Premier Division Champions : * * Winners ( 1 ) : 1902-03 * Football League South ' C ' Division Champions : * * Winners ( 1 ) : 1939-40 * Football League South Champions : * * Winners ( 2 ) : 1943-44 , 1944-45 * Southern District Charity Cup : * * Winners ( 3 ) : 1901-02 , 1904–05 , 1906–07 * Dewar Shield : * * Winners ( 3 ) : 1901-02 , 1933–34 , 1934–35 * London Challenge Cup : * * Winners ( 8 ) : 1910-11 , 1928–29 , 1936–37 , 1947–48 , 1958–59 , 1963–64 , 1970–71 , 1973-74 * Costa Del Sol Tournament : * * Winners ( 2 ) : 1965 , 1966 * Nolia Cup : * * Winners ( 1 ) : 1977 * Kirin Cup : * * Winners ( 1 ) : 1979 * Sun International Challenge Trophy : * * Winners ( 1 ) : 1983 * Peace Cup : * * Winners ( 1 ) : 2005 * Vodacom Challenge : * * Winners ( 2 ) : 2007 , 2011 * Feyenoord Jubileum Tournament : * * Winners ( 1 ) : 2008 * Barclays Asia Trophy : * * Winners ( 1 ) : 2009 * AIA Cup : * * Winners ( 1 ) : 2015 Doubles * 1960–61 : Football League First Division and FA Cup * 1970–71 : League Cup and Anglo-Italian League Cup Statistics and records Steve Perryman holds the appearance record for Spurs , having played 854 games for the club between 1969 and 1986 , of which 655 were league matches . Jimmy Greaves holds the club goal scoring record with 266 goals in 380 league , cup and European appearances . Tottenham 's record league win is 9–0 against Bristol Rovers in the Second Division on 22 October 1977 . The club 's record cup victory came on 3 February 1960 with a 13–2 win over Crewe Alexandra in the FA Cup . Spurs ' biggest top-flight victory came against Wigan Athletic on 22 November 2009 , when they won 9–1 with Jermain Defoe scoring five goals . The club 's record defeat is an 8–0 loss to 1 . FC Köln in the Intertoto Cup on 22 July 1995 . Players Squad Out on loan Reserves and academy Transfers Club management and support staff Club directors Managers and players Managers and head coaches in club 's history * Listed according to when they became managers for Tottenham Hotspur : : * ( C ) – Caretaker : * ( FTC ) – First team coach Club hall of fame The following players are noted as `` greats '' for their contributions to the club : The most recent addition to the club 's hall of fame is Graham Roberts and Paul Miller on 15 October 2015 . * Osvaldo Ardiles * Ricardo Villa * Clive Allen * Les Allen * Paul Allen * Darren Anderton * Peter Baker * Phil Beal * Bobby Buckle * Keith Burkinshaw * Martin Chivers * Tommy Clay * Ray Clemence * Ralph Coates * Garth Crooks * Jimmy Dimmock * Ted Ditchburn * Terry Dyson * Paul Gascoigne * Arthur Grimsdell * Jimmy Greaves * Willie Hall * Ron Henry * Glenn Hoddle * Jack Jull * Ledley King * Cyril Knowles * Gary Lineker * Gary Mabbutt * Paul Miller * Billy Minter * Tom Morris * Alan Mullery * Bill Nicholson * Maurice Norman * Steve Perryman * Martin Peters * Graham Roberts * Teddy Sheringham * Bobby Smith * Vivian Woodward * Chris Waddle * Fanny Walden * David Ginola * Steffen Freund * Jürgen Klinsmann * Chris Hughton * Danny Blanchflower * Pat Jennings * Steve Archibald * Bill Brown * John Cameron * Alan Gilzean * Dave Mackay * John White * Ronnie Burgess * Mike England * Cliff Jones * Terry Medwin * Taffy O'Callaghan Player of the Year As voted by members and season ticket holders . ( Calendar year until 2005–06 season ) * 1987 Gary Mabbutt * 1988 Chris Waddle * 1989 Erik Thorstvedt * 1990 Paul Gascoigne * 1991 Paul Allen * 1992 Gary Lineker * 1993 Darren Anderton * 1994 Jürgen Klinsmann * 1995 Teddy Sheringham * 1996 Sol Campbell * 1997 Sol Campbell * 1998 David Ginola * 1999 Stephen Carr * 2000 Stephen Carr * 2001 Neil Sullivan * 2002 Simon Davies * 2003 Robbie Keane * 2004 Jermain Defoe * 2005–06 Robbie Keane * 2006–07 Dimitar Berbatov * 2007–08 Robbie Keane * 2008–09

odql_1084--Tottenham_Hotspur_F.C..txt

The 'Yid Army' are/were a gang of football hooligans who supported which London club?

Perestroika ( ) was a political movement for reformation within the Communist Party of the Soviet Union during the 1980s , widely associated with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev and his glasnost ( meaning `` openness '' ) policy reform . The literal meaning of perestroika is `` restructuring '' , referring to the restructuring of the Soviet political and economic system . Perestroika is sometimes argued to be a cause of the dissolution of the Soviet Union , the revolutions of 1989 in Eastern Europe , and the end of the Cold War . Summary Perestroika allowed more independent actions from various ministries and introduced some market-like reforms . The goal of the perestroika , however , was not to end the command economy but rather to make socialism work more efficiently to better meet the needs of Soviet consumers . The process of implementing perestroika arguably exacerbated already existing political , social , and economic tensions within the Soviet Union and no doubt helped to further nationalism in the constituent republics . Perestroika and resistance to it are often cited as major catalysts leading to the dissolution of the Soviet Union . Economic reforms In May 1985 , Gorbachev gave a speech in Leningrad in which he admitted the slowing down of the economic development and inadequate living standards . This was the first time in Soviet history that a Soviet leader had done so . The program was furthered at the 27th Congress of the Communist Party in Gorbachev 's report to the congress , in which he spoke about `` perestroika '' , `` uskoreniye '' , `` human factor '' , `` glasnost '' , and `` expansion of the khozraschyot '' ( commercialization ) . During the initial period ( 1985–87 ) of Mikhail Gorbachev 's time in power , he talked about modifying central planning but did not make any truly fundamental changes ( uskoreniye ; `` acceleration '' ) . Gorbachev and his team of economic advisors then introduced more fundamental reforms , which became known as perestroika ( economic restructuring ) . At the June 1987 plenary session of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union ( CPSU ) , Gorbachev presented his `` basic theses '' , which laid the political foundation of economic reform for the remainder of the existence of the Soviet Union . In July 1987 , the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union passed the Law on State Enterprise . The law stipulated that state enterprises were free to determine output levels based on demand from consumers and other enterprises . Enterprises had to fulfill state orders , but they could dispose of the remaining output as they saw fit . However , at the same time the state still held control over the means of production for these enterprises , thus limiting their ability to enact full-cost accountability . Enterprises bought input from suppliers at negotiated contract prices . Under the law , enterprises became self-financing ; that is , they had to cover expenses ( wages , taxes , supplies , and debt service ) through revenues . No longer was the government to rescue unprofitable enterprises that could face bankruptcy . Finally , the law shifted control over the enterprise operations from ministries to elected workers ' collectives . Gosplan 's ( ; Gosudarstvenniy komitet po planirovaniyu ; `` State Committee for Planning '' ) responsibilities were to supply general guidelines and national investment priorities , not to formulate detailed production plans . The Law on Cooperatives , enacted in May 1988 , was perhaps the most radical of the economic reforms during the early part of the Gorbachev era . For the first time since Vladimir Lenin 's New Economic Policy was abolished in 1928 , the law permitted private ownership of businesses in the services , manufacturing , and foreign-trade sectors . The law initially imposed high taxes and employment restrictions , but it later revised these to avoid discouraging private-sector activity . Under this provision , cooperative restaurants , shops , and manufacturers became part of the Soviet scene . Gorbachev brought perestroika to the Soviet Union 's foreign economic sector with measures that Soviet economists considered bold at that time . His program virtually eliminated the monopoly that the Ministry of Foreign Trade had once held on most trade operations . It permitted the ministries of the various industrial and agricultural branches to conduct foreign trade in sectors under their responsibility rather than having to operate indirectly through the bureaucracy of trade ministry organizations . In addition , regional and local organizations and individual state enterprises were permitted to conduct foreign trade . This change was an attempt to redress a major imperfection in the Soviet foreign trade regime : the lack of contact between Soviet end users and suppliers and their foreign partners . The most significant of Gorbachev 's reforms in the foreign economic sector allowed foreigners to invest in the Soviet Union in the form of joint ventures with Soviet ministries , state enterprises , and cooperatives . The original version of the Soviet Joint Venture Law , which went into effect in June 1987 , limited foreign shares of a Soviet venture to 49 percent and required that Soviet citizens occupy the positions of chairman and general manager . After potential Western partners complained , the government revised the regulations to allow majority foreign ownership and control . Under the terms of the Joint Venture Law , the Soviet partner supplied labor , infrastructure , and a potentially large domestic market . The foreign partner supplied capital , technology , entrepreneurial expertise , and in many cases , products and services of world competitive quality . Gorbachev 's economic changes did not do much to restart the country 's sluggish economy in the late 1980s . The reforms decentralised things to some extent , although price controls remained , as did the ruble 's inconvertibility and most government controls over the means of production . By 1990 the government had virtually lost control over economic conditions . Government spending increased sharply as an increasing number of unprofitable enterprises required state support and consumer price subsidies continued . Tax revenues declined because republic and local governments withheld tax revenues from the central government under the growing spirit of regional autonomy . The elimination of central control over production decisions , especially in the consumer goods sector , led to the breakdown in traditional supply-demand relationships without contributing to the formation of new ones . Thus , instead of streamlining the system , Gorbachev 's decentralisation caused new production bottlenecks . Comparison with China Perestroika and Deng Xiaoping 's economic reforms have similar origins but very different effects on their respective countries ' economies . Both efforts occurred in large communist countries attempting to modernize their economies , but while China 's GDP has grown consistently since the late 1980s ( albeit from a much lower level ) , national GDP in the USSR and in many of its successor states fell precipitously throughout the 1990s . Gorbachev 's reforms were gradualist and maintained many of the macroeconomic aspects of the command economy ( including price controls , inconvertibility of the ruble , exclusion of private property ownership , and the government monopoly over most means of production ) . Reform was largely focused on industry and on cooperatives , and a limited role was given to the development of foreign investment and international trade . Factory managers were expected to meet state demands for goods , but to find their own funding . Perestroika reforms went far enough to create new bottlenecks in the Soviet economy but arguably did not go far enough to effectively streamline it . Chinese economic reform was , by contrast , a bottom-up attempt at reform , focusing on light industry and agriculture ( namely allowing peasants to sell produce grown on private holdings at market prices ) . Economic reforms were fostered through the development of `` Special Economic Zones '' , designed for export and to attract foreign investment , municipally managed Township and Village Enterprises and a `` dual pricing '' system leading to the steady phasing out of state-dictated prices . Greater latitude was given to managers of state-owned factories , while capital was made available to them through a reformed banking system and through fiscal policies ( in contrast to the fiscal anarchy and fall in revenue experienced by the Soviet government during perestroika ) . Perestroika was expected to lead to results such as market pricing and privately sold produce , but the Union dissolved before advanced stages were reached . Another fundamental difference is that where perestroika was accompanied by greater political freedoms under Gorbachev 's glasnost policies , Chinese economic reform has been accompanied by continued authoritarian rule and a suppression of political dissidents , most notably at Tiananmen Square . Gorbachev acknowledges this difference but has always maintained that it was unavoidable and that perestroika would have been doomed to defeat and revanchism by the nomenklatura without glasnost , because conditions in the Soviet Union were not identical to those in China . Gorbachev had lived through the era in which the attempted reforms by Khrushchev , limited as they were , were rolled back under Brezhnev and other prototalitarian conservatives , and he could clearly see that the same could happen again without glasnost to allow broad oppositional pressure against the nomenklatura . Gorbachev cited a line from a 1986 newspaper article that he felt encapsulated this reality : `` The apparatus broke Khrushchev 's neck and the same thing will happen now . '' Another difference is that Soviet Union faced strong secession threats from their ethnic regions and a primacy challenge by the RSFSR . Gorbachev 's extension of regional autonomy removed the suppression from existing ethnic/regional tension , while Deng 's reforms did not alter the tight grip of the central government on any of their so-called autonomous regions . The Soviet Union 's dual nature , part supranational union of republics and part unitary state , played a part in the difficulty of controlling the pace of restructuring , especially once the new Russian Communist Party was formed and posed a challenge to the primacy of the CPSU . Gorbachev described this process as a `` parade of sovereignties '' and identified it as the factor that most undermined the gradualism of restructuring and the preservation of the Union . This caused a situation in the USSR whose closest analog would be if English sovereignty undermined that of the United Kingdom at a time when the entire UK society and economy was under significant stress and reform , or if North China had a party and state emerge as a challenge to the CCP and PRC during Deng 's reforms . Perestroika and glasnost On 27 January 1987 a meeting of the central committee members occurred . The CPSU has Gorbachev present his criticism that justifying his policies of perestroika and glasnost are the only solutions to the problems of the Soviet Union . Over Gorbachev ’ s time in power , perestroika and glasnost were his most important goals . Economic , social , and political aspects of the Soviet Union have been partly implemented due to these two elements which heighten his seriousness of pushing towards his current objective . Also , Gorbachev ’ s vigorous campaign for perestroika and glasnost motivated him to move from Moscow to Vladivostok in order to propose his revolutionary changes in the Soviet society . One of the final important measures taken on the continuation of the movement was a report that was at the central committee meeting of the CPSU titled “ On Reorganization and the Party ’ s Personnel Policy ” . This report was in such high demand in Prague and Berlin that many people could not get a copy . One effect was the sudden demand for Russian dictionaries in order to understand the content of Gorbachev ’ s report . Women 's activism in Russia during perestroika Women in the USSR were considerably knowledgeable and skilled . Women ’ s activism , due to the prominent position of women in Soviet society , played a key part in the speed at which perestroika affected the USSR . Gender equality was granted as early as 1918 . In the later years , organizations focused on the implementation of women into public life . They were allowed to teach , work and manage boarding schools and orphan homes for abandoned children . In the following years , the Soviet Women ’ s Committee was established and had broadened its network across the country . This committee focused upon assisting women to find employment and defending the Soviet Union . During the first years of perestroika , the women ’ s councils were granted independence and varying levels of political significance . Not all the women ’ s councils survived the post-perestroika years , but others managed to pull through , independently leading themselves forward – which signifies the success of the council . Although there are claims that `` women were increasingly able to voice their concerns and difficulties of gender inequality '' or `` all of female organizations placed most emphasis on gender equality '' , but in reality it is highly unlikely , since `` gender equality '' question was never popular in Russia and especially in Soviet Union , which has huge number of female-biased laws ( harsher punishment for men for similar crimes committed by women , alimony for women only , military conscription for males , anti- '' parasite '' laws for men only , etc . ) some of which survives today . The activism of women may be broken down into two general sections : one of which were during perestroika ( 1985–1991 ) and the other being post-perestroika : 1991–1993 . During the first stage , the number or councils expanded in numbers rapidly , that by the end of the event , there were a total of 300 registers women ’ s organizations in Russia . Until this day , five of these organizations have international status , two of them have a national status and as many as fourteen have a republican status . Throughout these different councils , a vast array of activities was established to enhance the amount and types of information a woman can learn in the Soviet Union . For example , the activities ranged from economic focus like providing services , running small businesses and training to more general employment jobs like political lobbying and raising women ’ s advocacy . It is important to note that some female political leaders like Larisa Bogoraz , Valeria Novodvorskaya and Elena Bonner all established their power with the assistance of these organizations ( even though they were the leaders of these dissident organizations in the Soviet times ) .

dpql_2734--Perestroika.txt

What Russian word means ‘restructuring’, particularly in an economic context?

This is a list of rivers of England , organised geographically and taken anti-clockwise around the English coast where the various rivers discharge into the surrounding seas , from the Solway Firth on the Scottish border to the Welsh Dee on the Welsh border , and again from the Wye on the Welsh border anti-clockwise to the Tweed on the Scottish border . Tributaries are listed down the page in an upstream direction . The main stem ( or principal ) river of a catchment is labelled as ( MS ) , left-bank tributaries are indicated by ( L ) , right-bank tributaries by ( R ) . Note that in general usage , the 'left ( or right ) bank of a river ' refers to the left ( or right ) hand bank , as seen when looking downstream . Where a named river derives from the confluence of two differently named rivers these are labelled as ( Ls ) and ( Rs ) for the left and right forks ( the rivers on the left and right , relative to an observer facing downstream ) . A prime example is the River Tyne ( MS ) , the confluence of the South Tyne ( Rs ) and the North Tyne ( Ls ) near Hexham . Those few watercourses ( mainly in the Thames catchment ) which branch off a major channel and then rejoin it or another watercourse further downstream are known as distributaries or anabranches and are labelled ( d ) . The list is ( or at least will be when completed ) essentially a list of the main rivers of England ( as defined by the Environment Agency ) and which includes those named watercourses for which the Environment Agency has a flood defence function . Difficulties arise otherwise in determining what should and what should not be included . Some minor watercourses are included in the list , especially if they are named as 'river'- such examples may be labelled ( m ) . For simplicity , they are divided here by the coastal sections within which each river system discharges to the sea . In the case of the rivers which straddle the borders with Scotland and Wales , such as the Border Esk , Tweed , Dee , Severn and Wye , only those tributaries which lie at least partly in England are included . Rivers discharging into the Irish Sea This section includes all rivers entering the Irish Sea from England between the Scottish border and the Welsh border . Cumbrian coast All rivers discharging into the Solway Firth , Irish Sea and Morecambe Bay from the Scottish border south to Silverdale on the Cumbria/Lancashire border . Flowing into the Solway Firth Border Esk catchment The lowest reaches of the Esk are in England but most of the river is in Scotland whilst a short section is followed by the England/Scotland border . Tributaries of the Esk which are wholly in Scotland are omitted from this list but may be found at List of rivers of Scotland . * River Esk ( MS ) * * River Sark ( or 'Sark Water ' ) ( R ) ( upper reaches in Scotland , part of river is followed by England/Scotland border ) * * River Lyne ( L ) * * * Hether Burn ( L ) * * * Rae Burn ( R ) * * * Black Lyne ( Rs ) * * * * Bailey Water ( R ) * * * White Lyne ( Ls ) * * Carwinley Burn ( L ) * * Liddel Water ( L ) ( part of river is followed by England/Scotland border ) * * * Kershope Burn ( L ) ( larger part of river is in Scotland , part of river is followed by England/Scotland border ) All further upstream tributaries of the Esk are wholly in Scotland . Eden catchment * River Eden ( MS ) * * River Caldew ( L ) * * * River Roe ( R ) * * * * River Ive ( Rs ) * * * * Roe Beck ( Ls ) * * * Cald Beck ( L ) * * * Gillcambon Beck ( R ) * * * Carrock Beck ( L ) * * * Grainsgill Beck ( L ) * * * Blackhazel Beck ( R ) * * River Petteril ( L ) * * River Irthing ( R ) * * * River Gelt ( R ) * * * Old Water ( R ) * * * Cam Beck ( R ) * * * King Water ( R ) * * * Gair Burn ( Ls ) * * * Tarn Beck ( Rs ) * * River Eamont ( L ) * * * River Lowther ( R ) * * * * Haweswater Beck ( L ) * * * * Swindale River ( or Swindale Beck ) ( L ) * * * Dacre Beck ( L ) * * River Lyvennet ( L ) ( known as Lyvennet Beck upstream ) * * * River Leith ( L ) * * Hoff Beck ( L ) * * Helm Beck ( L ) * * Swindale Beck ( R ) * * River Belah ( R ) * * * Argill Beck ( R ) * * Scandal Beck ( L ) Wampool catchment * River Wampool ( MS ) * * Chalk Beck ( L ) Minor coastal catchments * River Waver ( MS ) * River Ellen ( MS ) Flowing into the Irish Sea Derwent catchment * River Derwent ( MS ) * * River Marron ( L ) * * * Lostrigg Beck ( L ) * * River Cocker ( L ) * * Dash Beck ( R ) ( flows into Bassenthwaite Lake ) * * * Chapel Beck ( L ) * * Newlands Beck ( L ) ( flows into Bassenthwaite Lake ) * * * Coledale Beck ( L ) * * * Keskadale Beck ( L ) * * * Scope Beck ( L ) ( m ) * * River Greta ( R ) * * * Glenderaterra Beck ( R ) * * * Naddle Beck ( L ) ( m ) * * * St. John 's Beck ( Ls ) * * * River Glenderamackin ( Rs ) * * * * Mosedale Beck ( L ) * * Watendlath Beck ( R ) ( flows into Derwent Water ) * * Stonethwaite Beck ( R ) Minor coastal catchments * Lowca Beck ( MS ) * Pow Beck ( MS ) Ehen catchment * River Ehen ( MS ) * * River Keekle ( R ) * * River Liza ( enters head of Ennerdale Water ) Calder catchment * River Calder ( MS ) * * Worm Gill ( L ) Cumbrian Esk catchment * River Esk ( MS ) * * River Irt ( R ) * * * River Bleng ( R ) * * * Mosedale Beck ( feeds into Wast Water ) * * River Mite ( R ) * * Whillan Beck ( R ) Minor coastal catchment * River Annas ( MS ) Duddon catchment * River Duddon ( MS ) * * Kirkby Pool ( L ) * * River Lickle ( L ) Flowing into Morecambe Bay Minor Coastal catchment * Mill Beck ( MS ) * * Poaka Beck ( L ) * * Goldmire Beck ( R ) * Dragley Beck ( MS ) Leven catchment * River Leven ( MS ) * * Newland Beck ( R ) * * River Eea ( L ) * * River Crake ( R ) ( drains Coniston Water ) * * * Church Beck ( R ) ( enters Coniston Water ) * * * Yewdale Beck ( R ) ( enters Coniston Water ) * * Rusland Pool ( R ) * * Cunsey Beck ( R ) ( enters Windermere , west bank ; drains Esthwaite Water ) * * * Black Beck ( enters head of Esthwaite Water ) * * Trout Beck ( L ) ( enters Windermere , east bank ) * * River Brathay ( combines with Rothay to enter head of Windermere ) * * * Great Langdale Beck ( L ) * * River Rothay ( combines with Brathay to enter head of Windermere ) * * * Stock Ghyll ( L ) * * * Scandale Beck ( L ) * * * Rydal Beck ( L ) Kent catchment * River Kent ( MS ) * * River Winster ( R ) * * River Bela ( L ) * * * Peasey Beck ( Ls ) ( ? known as Killington Beck upstream ) * * * * Lupton Beck ( L ) * * * Stainton Beck ( Rs ) ( known as St. Sunday 's Beck upstream ) * * River Gilpin ( R ) * * * River Pool ( L ) * * River Mint ( L ) * * * Ashstead Beck ( Ls ) * * * Bannisdale Beck ( Rs ) ? * * River Sprint ( L ) * * River Gowan ( R ) Lancashire and Cheshire coast All rivers discharging into the Irish Sea from Silverdale on the Cumbria/Lancashire border south to the Dee Estuary . Keer catchment * River Keer ( MS ) Lune catchment * River Lune ( MS ) * * River Conder ( L ) * * Artle Beck ( L ) * * River Wenning ( L ) * * * River Hindburn ( L ) * * * * River Roeburn ( L ) * * * Keasden Beck ( L ) * * River Greta ( L ) * * * River Doe ( Rs ) * * * River Twiss ( Ls ) ( known as Kingsdale Beck upstream ) * * Leck Beck ( L ) * * Barbon Beck ( L ) * * River Rawthey ( L ) * * * River Dee ( L ) * * * * Deepdale Beck ( L ) * * * Clough River ( L ) * * Borrow Beck ( R ) * * Birk Beck ( R ) Cocker catchment * River Cocker ( MS ) * Broad Fleet ( MS ) Wyre catchment * River Wyre ( MS ) * * Main Dyke ( L ) * * River Brock ( L ) * * * New Draught ( L ) ( taking Woodplumpton Brook etc . ) * * River Calder ( L ) * * Tarnbrook Wyre ( Rs ) * * * River Grizedale ( R ) ( m ) * * Marshaw Wyre ( Ls ) Ribble catchment * River Ribble ( MS ) * * Wrea Brook / Main Drain ( R ) * * River Douglas ( also known as River Asland ) ( L ) * * * Douglas Navigation * * * River Yarrow ( R ) * * * * River Lostock ( R ) * * * * River Chor ( R ) * * * * Black Brook ( R ) * * * * Green Withins Brook ? ( m ) * * * Eller Brook ( L ) * * * River Tawd ( L ) * * Freckleton Pool ( R ) * * Savick Brook ( R ) * * River Darwen ( L ) * * * River Roddlesworth ( L ) * * * River Blakewater ( R ) ? reference ( rises as Knuzden Brook ) * * Park Brook ( L ) * * River Calder ( L ) * * * Sabden Brook ( R ) * * * Hyndburn Brook ( L ) * * * * River Hyndburn ( R ) * * * Pendle Water ( R ) * * * * Colne Water ( L ) * * * * * River Laneshaw ( Rs ) * * * * * Wycoller Beck ( Ls ) * * * River Brun ( L ) * * * * River Don ( R ) * * River Hodder ( R ) * * * River Loud ( R ) * * * Langden Brook ( R ) * * * River Dunsop ( R ) * * * * Brennand River ( Rs ) * * * * Whitendale River ( Ls ) * * * Croasdale Brook ( R ) * * * Bottoms Beck ( L ) ( enters Stocks Reservoir ) * * Skirden Beck ( R ) * * * Holden Beck ( R ) * * * Monubent Beck ( L ) * * Stock Beck ( L ) * * Stainforth Beck ( L ) * * Cam Beck ( L ) * * * Gayle Beck Minor coastal catchments * Crossens Pool ( MS ) * * The Sluice * * Three Pools Waterway Alt catchment * River Alt ( MS ) * * Downholland Brook ( R ) Mersey catchment * River Mersey ( MS ) * * The Birket ( L ) * * * River Fender ( R ) * * * * Prenton Brook ( L ) * * * Arrowe Brook ( R ) * * * * Greasby Brook ( L ) * * * * * Newton Brook ( L ) * * River Dibbin ( L ) * * Spittal Brook ( L ) * * River Gowy ( L ) * * River Weaver ( L ) * * * River Dane ( R ) * * * * River Wheelock ( L ) * * * * River Croco ( R ) * * Ditton Brook ( R ) * * River Bollin ( L ) * * * Birkin Brook ( L ) * * * * River Lily ( L ) ( m ) ( enters Tatton Mere ) * * * River Dean ( R ) * * Red Brook ( L ) * * Glaze Brook ( R ) * * River Irwell ( R ) ( subsumed within the Manchester Ship Canal in lower reaches ) * * * River Medlock ( L ) * * * * River Tib ( subterranean ) * * * River Irk ( L ) * * * * Boggart Hole Brook * * * River Croal ( R ) * * * * River Tonge ( L ) * * * * * Bradshaw Brook ( L ) * * * * * Astley Brook * * * * * Eagley Brook * * * River Roch ( L ) * * * * Naden Brook ( R ) * * * * River Spodden ( R ) * * * * River Beal ( L ) * * Chorlton Brook * * Micker Brook ( L ) * * River Tame ( Rs ) * * * Greenfield Brook ( R ) * * * Chew Brook ( L ) * * River Goyt ( Ls ) * * * River Etherow ( R ) * * * * Glossop Brook ( L ) * * * * Heyden Brook ( R ) * * * Todd Brook ( L ) * * * River Sett ( R ) * * * * River Kinder ( R ) The Dee and most of its tributaries arise in Wales . Though a section of it passes through England , it passes into Wales once again before discharging into the Irish Sea via the Dee estuary . For other rivers entering the Irish Sea and Cardigan Bay from Wales , see List of rivers of Wales . Only those tributaries of the River Dee which flow wholly or partly in England are listed here - for a complete list of the rivers and watercourses of the Dee catchment see List of rivers of Wales . Dee catchment * River Dee ( MS ) ( Afon Dyfrdwy in Welsh ) * * Shotwick Brook ( R ) * * Caldy Brook ( R ) * * Henlake Brook ( R ) ( m ) * * Powsey Brook ( R ) * * Aldford Brook ( R ) * * Wych Brook ( R ) * * * Emral Brook ( L ) * * * Red Brook ( L ) All further upstream tributaries of the Dee are wholly in Wales . Rivers discharging into the Bristol Channel and Southwest Approaches This section includes all rivers entering the Bristol Channel and the sea off the northern coasts of Devon and Cornwall which is referred to variously as the Southwest Approaches or Celtic Sea . Rivers Severn and Wye The lowermost Wye forms the boundary between England and Wales . Only those tributaries of the River Wye which flow wholly or partly in England are listed here - for a complete list of the rivers and watercourses of the Wye catchment and for other rivers entering the Bristol Channel from Wales see List of rivers of Wales . Wye catchment * River Wye ( MS ) * * Valley Brook ( L ) * * River Monnow ( R ) * * * River Dore ( L ) * * * * Worm Brook ( L ) * * Garren Brook ( R ) * * Rudhall Brook ( L ) * * River Lugg ( L ) * * * River Frome ( L ) * * * * River Loddon ( R ) * * * Wellington Brook ( R ) * * * Humber Brook ( L ) * * * River Arrow ( R ) * * * * Stretford Brook ( R ) * * * * * Tippet 's Brook ( L ) * * * * Curl Brook ( R ) * * * * Cynon Brook ( L ) * * * * Gladestry Brook ( L ) * * * Cheaton Brook ( L ) * * * Main Drain ( L ) * * * Pinsley Brook ( R ) * * * Hindwell Brook ( R ) * * Norton Brook ( R ) * * Letton Lake ( L ) * * Dulas Brook ( R ) All further upstream tributaries of the Wye are wholly in Wales . The River Severn upstream of the M48 Severn Bridge . This section includes all tributaries of the Severn which lie wholly or partly in England . For tributaries of the Severn which lie partly or wholly within Wales , see List of rivers of Wales . Severn catchment * River Severn ( Afon Hafren ) ( MS ) * * Little Avon River ( L ) * * River Lyd ( R ) * * River Frome , Stroud ( L ) * * River Cam , Gloucestershire ( L ) * * River Leadon ( R ) * * River Chelt ( L ) * * River Avon , Warwickshire ( L ) * * * River Swilgate ( L ) * * * Bow Brook ( R ) * * * Piddle Brook ( R ) * * * River Isbourne ( L ) * * * Badsey Brook ( L ) * * * River Arrow ( R ) * * * * River Alne ( L ) * * * River Stour , Warwickshire ( L ) * * * River Dene ( L ) * * * River Leam ( L ) * * * * River Itchen , Warwickshire ( L ) * * * River Sowe ( R ) * * * * Finham Brook ( R ) * * * * River Sherbourne ( R ) * * * * Smite Brook ( L ) * * * River Swift ( R ) * * River Teme ( R ) * * * Laughern Brook ( L ) * * * Leigh Brook ( R ) * * * Sapey Brook ( R ) * * * River Rea , Shropshire ( L ) * * * * Mill Brook , Shropshire ( R ) * * * Kyre Brook ( R ) * * * Ledwyche Brook ( L ) * * * River Corve ( L ) * * * River Onny ( L ) * * * * Quinny Brook ( L ) * * * * River East Onny ( Ls ) * * * * River West Onny ( Rs ) * * * River Clun , Shropshire ( L ) * * * * River Redlake ( R ) * * * * River Kemp ( L ) * * * * River Unk ( L ) * * * * Folly Brook ( L ) * * River Salwarpe ( L ) * * * Hadley Brook ( R ) * * Grimley Brook ( R ) * * Shrawley Brook ( R ) * * Dick Brook ( R ) * * River Stour , Worcestershire ( L ) * * * River Smestow ( Smestow Brook ) ( R ) * * * * Wom Brook ( L ) * * Dowles Brook ( R ) * * Borle Brook ( R ) * * Mor Brook ( R ) * * River Worfe ( L ) * * * Wesley Brook R * * Harley Brook ( R ) * * Cound Brook ( R ) * * River Tern ( L ) * * * River Roden ( R ) * * * River Strine ( L ) * * * River Meese ( L ) * * * River Duckow ( R ) * * Rea Brook ( R ) ( A small part of the upper catchment of the Rea Brook lies in Wales ) * * River Perry , Shropshire ( L ) * * River Vyrnwy ( Welsh : Afon Efyrnwy ) ( L ) ( lowermost section in England , rest in Wales ) * * * River Morda ( L ) * * * River Tanat ( L ) ( lowermost section in England , rest in Wales ) * * * * Cynllaith ( L ) ( part forms the border between England and Wales ) * * Camlad ( R ) ( part in Wales , part in England ) With the exception of the Morda and parts of the Camlad , Tanat and Cynllaith all tributaries of the Severn and Vyrnwy upstream of their confluence are in Wales . They can be found here . Bristol Channel All English rivers discharging into the Severn Estuary and the Bristol Channel from the M48 Severn Bridge south and west to Morte Point , North Devon . Bristol Avon catchment * River Avon ( MS ) * * River Trym ( R ) * * * Hazel Brook ( R ) * * River Frome ( R ) * * River Malago ( The Malago ) ( L ) * * Brislington Brook ( L ) * * Siston Brook ( R ) * * River Chew ( L ) * * River Boyd ( R ) * * Newton Brook ( L ) * * Lam Brook ( R ) * * By Brook ( R ) * * Midford Brook ( L ) * * * Cam Brook ( Ls ) * * * Wellow Brook ( Rs ) * * * * River Somer ( R ) * * River Frome ( L ) * * Henhambridge Brook ( L ) * * * Mells River ( L ) * * * * Egford Brook/Nunney Brook ( R ) * * * Rodden Brook ( R ) * * * * Redford Water ( L ) * * River Biss ( L ) * * Semington Brook ( L ) * * Cocklemore Brook ( R ) * * River Marden ( L ) * * Brinkworth Brook ( L ) * * Gauze Brook ( R ) * * Woodbridge Brook ( L ) * * * Tetbury Avon ( River Avon , Tetbury Branch ) ( Ls ) * * * Sherston Avon ( River Avon , Sherston Branch ) ( Rs ) Minor coastal catchments * Blind Yeo ( MS ) * River Kenn ( MS ) * Little River ( MS ) * Congresbury Yeo ( MS ) * * Oldbridge River ( L ) * River Banwell ( MS ) Axe catchment * River Axe ( MS ) * * Mark Yeo ( L ) * * Lox Yeo ( R ) * * Cheddar Yeo ( R ) Brue catchment * River Brue ( MS ) * * North Drain ( R ) * * River Sheppey via the Decoy Rhine ( R ) * * Whitelake River ( R ) * * River Alham ( R ) * * River Pitt ( L ) * * Pillrow Cut ? Parrett catchment * River Parrett ( MS ) * * Huntspill River ( R ) * * * Black Ditch ( L ) * * * Cripps River ( Rs ) ( connects with River Brue ) * * * South Drain ( Ls ) * * * Eighteen Foot Rhine ? * * Cannington Brook ( L ) * * King 's Sedgemoor Drain ( R ) * * * Sowy River ( L ) * * * Langacre Rhyne ( L ) * * * River Cary ? * * Horsey Pill ? * * Chinnock Water ? * * Sedgemoor Old Rhine ? * * Hamp Brook ? * * * Cobb 's Cross Stream ? * * North Moor Main Drain ? * * River Yeo ( R ) ( also known as River Ivel ) * * * Bearley Brook ( L ) * * * River Cam ( R ) * * * Hornsey Brook ( R ) * * * Trent Brook ( R ) * * * River Wriggle ( or Wriggle River ) ( L ) * * River Tone ( L ) * * River Isle ( L ) * * * Fivehead River ( L ) * * * * Venner 's Water ( R ) * * Wellhams Brook ( R ) * * Lopen Brook ( L ) * * Broad River ( R ) Minor coastal catchments * Donniford Stream ( MS )

bb_7860--List_of_rivers_of_England.txt

Which river forms the eastern section of the border between England and Scotland?

Tango is a partner dance that originated in the 1880s along the River Plate , the natural border between Argentina and Uruguay , and soon spread to the rest of the world . Early tango was known as tango criollo ( Creole tango ) . Today , there are many forms of tango extant . Popularly and among tango dancing circles , the authentic tango is considered to be the one closest to the form originally danced in Argentina and Uruguay . On August 31 , 2009 , UNESCO approved a joint proposal by Argentina and Uruguay to include the tango in the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists . History Tango is a dance that has influences from African and European culture . Dances from the candombe ceremonies of former slave peoples helped shape the modern day Tango . The dance originated in lower-class districts of Buenos Aires and Montevideo . The music derived from the fusion of various forms of music from Europe . The word `` tango '' and `` tambo '' around the river plate basin where initially used to refer to musical gatherings of slaves , with written records of colonial authorities attempting to ban such gatherings as early as 1789 . Initially it was just one of the many dances , but it soon became popular throughout society , as theatres and street barrel organs spread it from the suburbs to the working-class slums , which were packed with hundreds of thousands of European immigrants . In the early years of the 20th century , dancers and orchestras from Buenos Aires travelled to Europe , and the first European tango craze took place in Paris , soon followed by London , Berlin , and other capitals . Towards the end of 1913 it hit New York in the US , and Finland . In the US around 1911 the word `` tango '' was often applied to dances in a or rhythm such as the one-step . The term was fashionable and did not indicate that tango steps would be used in the dance , although they might be . Tango music was sometimes played , but at a rather fast tempo . Instructors of the period would sometimes refer to this as a `` North American tango '' , versus the so-called `` Argentine Tango '' . By 1914 more authentic tango stylings were soon developed , along with some variations like Albert Newman 's `` Minuet '' tango . In Argentina , the onset in 1929 of the Great Depression , and restrictions introduced after the overthrow of the Hipólito Yrigoyen government in 1930 caused tango to decline . Its fortunes were reversed as tango became widely fashionable and a matter of national pride under the government of Juan Perón . Tango declined again in the 1950s as a result of economic depression and the banning of public gatherings by the military dictatorships ; male-only Tango practice—the custom at the time—was considered `` public gathering '' . That , indirectly , boosted the popularity of rock and roll because , unlike Tango , it did not require such gatherings . In 2009 , the tango was added to the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists . Styles The tango consists of a variety of styles that developed in different regions and eras of Argentina as well as in other locations around the world . The dance developed in response to many cultural elements , such as the crowding of the venue and even the fashions in clothing . The styles are mostly danced in either open embrace , where lead and follow have space between their bodies , or close embrace , where the lead and follow connect either chest-to-chest ( Argentine tango ) or in the upper thigh , hip area ( American and International tango ) . Different styles of Tango are : * Tango Vals * Tango argentino * Tango canyengue * Tango Oriental Uruguayan tango * Tango liso * Tango salon * Tango orillero * Tango camacupense ( Angola ) * Tango milonguero ( Tango apilado ) * Tango Nuevo ( New Tango ) * Contact tango * Show Tango ( also known as fantasia ) * Ballroom tango * Finnish tango These are danced to several types of music : * Tango * Electronic tango-inspired music * `` Alternative tango '' , i.e . music that is an alternative to tango , or non-tango music employed for use in tango-inspired dance The milonguero style is characterized by a very close embrace , small steps , and syncopated rhythmic footwork . It is based on the petitero or caquero style of the crowded downtown clubs of the '50s . In contrast , the tango that originated in the family clubs of the suburban neighborhoods ( Villa Urquiza/Devoto/Avellaneda etc . ) emphasizes long elegant steps , and complex figures . In this case the embrace may be allowed to open briefly , to permit execution of the complex footwork . The complex figures of this style became the basis for a theatrical performance style of tango seen in the touring stage shows . For stage purposes , the embrace is often very open , and the complex footwork is augmented with gymnastic lifts , kicks , and drops . A newer style sometimes called tango nuevo or `` new tango '' , has been popularized in recent years by a younger generation of dancers . The embrace is often quite open and very elastic , permitting the leader to lead a large variety of very complex figures . This style is often associated with those who enjoy dancing to jazz- and techno-tinged `` alternative tango '' music , in addition to traditional tango compositions . Tango de Salon ( Salon Tango ) Tango Canyengue Tango canyengue is a rhythmic style of tango that originated in the early 1900s and is still popular today . It is one of the original roots styles of tango and contains all fundamental elements of traditional Tango from the River Plate region ( Uruguay and Argentina ) . In tango canyengue the dancers share one axis , dance in a closed embrace , and with the legs relaxed and slightly bent . Tango canyengue uses body dissociation for the leading , walking with firm ground contact , and a permanent combination of on- and off-beat rhythm . Its main characteristics are its musicality and playfulness . Its rhythm is described as `` incisive , exciting , provocative '' . The complex figures of this style became the basis for a theatrical performance style of Tango seen in the touring stage shows . For stage purposes , the embrace is often very open , and the complex footwork is augmented with gymnastic lifts , kicks , and drops . Tango nuevo A newer style sometimes called tango nuevo or `` new tango '' has been popularized in recent years by a younger generation of musicians and dancers . Ástor Piazzolla , composer and virtuoso of the bandoneón ( so-called `` tango accordion '' ) played a major role in the innovation of traditional tango music . The embrace is often quite open and very elastic , permitting the leader to initiate a great variety of very complex figures . This style is often associated with those who enjoy dancing to jazz- and techno-tinged , electronic and alternative music inspired in old tangos , in addition to traditional Tango compositions . Tango nuevo is largely fueled by a fusion between tango music and electronica , though the style can be adapted to traditional tango and even non-tango songs . Gotan Project released its first tango fusion album in 2000 , quickly following with La Revancha del Tango in 2001 . Bajofondo Tango Club , a Rioplatense music band consisting of seven musicians from Argentina and Uruguay , released their first album in 2002 . Tanghetto 's album Emigrante ( electrotango ) appeared in 2003 and was nominated for a Latin Grammy in 2004 . These and other electronic tango fusion songs bring an element of revitalization to the tango dance , serving to attract a younger group of dancers . Contact tango Contact tango takes inspiration from Argentine tango and Contact Improvisation , both of which are improvised and not choreographed . Contact tango 'blends ' the leading and following roles in a similar way to Contact Improvisation , and the dancing partners may frequently change roles during the dance . Contact tango may include the 'floor work ' of Contact Improvisation or other improvised movements which maintain contact between the partners . This differs from Argentine tango where stepping and walking are the dominate motifs . Contact tango is a partner dance but like Contact Improvisation , it may include more than two dancers on occasion . Ballroom tango Ballroom tango , divided in recent decades into the `` International '' ( Yogita ) and `` European '' styles , has descended from the tango styles that developed when the tango first went abroad to Europe and North America . The dance was simplified , adapted to the preferences of conventional ballroom dancers , and incorporated into the repertoire used in International Ballroom dance competitions . English tango was first codified in October 1922 , when it was proposed that it should only be danced to modern tunes , ideally at 30 bars per minute ( i.e . 120 beats per minute – assuming a measure ) . Subsequently the English tango evolved mainly as a highly competitive dance , while the American tango evolved as an unjudged social dance with an emphasis on leading and following skills . This has led to some principal distinctions in basic technique and style . Nevertheless , there are quite a few competitions held in the American style , and of course mutual borrowing of technique and dance patterns happens all the time . Ballroom tangos use different music and styling from the tangos from the River Plate region ( Uruguay and Argentina ) , with more staccato movements and the characteristic `` head snaps '' . The head snaps are totally foreign to Argentine and Uruguayan tango , and were introduced in 1934 under the influence of a similar movement in the legs and feet of the tango from the River Plate , and the theatrical movements of the pasodoble . This style became very popular in Germany and was soon introduced to England . The movements were very popular with spectators , but not with competition judges . Finnish tango Tango arrived in Finland in 1913 . The tango spread from the dominant urban dance form to become hugely popular across Finland in the 1950s after World War I and World War II . The melancholy tone of the music reflects the themes of Finnish folk poetry ; Finnish tango is almost always in a minor key . The tango is danced in very close full thigh , pelvis and upper body contact in a wide and strong frame , and features smooth horizontal movements that are very strong and determined . Dancers are very low , allowing long steps without any up and down movement , although rises and falls are optional in some styles . Forward steps land heel first except when descending from a rise , and in backward steps dancers push from the heel . In basic steps , the passing leg moves quickly to rest for a moment close to the grounded leg . Dips and rotations are typical . There is no open position , and typically feet stay close to the floor , except in dips the follower might slightly raise the left leg . Unlike in some Latin American tango styles , in Finnish tango there is no kicking of any kind , and there are no aerials . The annual Finnish tango festival Tangomarkkinat draws over 100,000 tangophiles to the central Finnish town of Seinäjoki ; the town also hosts the Tango Museum . Queer tango Queer tango is a new way to dance Argentine tango free from traditional heteronormative codes . It offers the chance to dance tango without pre-established roles according to the gender of the dancers and change the roles of leader and follower , even in mid-dance . It is thus also called open role or same-sex tango . The queer tango movement permits not only access to tango for the LGBT community , but also opens up new possibilities for heterosexual dancers ; women learn to lead and men learn to follow . Comparison of techniques Argentine , Uruguayan , and Ballroom Tango use very different techniques . In Argentine and Uruguayan tango , the body 's center moves first , then the feet reach to support it . In ballroom tango , the body is initially set in motion across the floor through the flexing of the lower joints ( hip , knee , ankle ) while the feet are delayed , then the feet move quickly to catch the body , resulting in snatching or striking action that reflects the staccato nature of this style 's preferred music . In tango , the steps are typically more gliding , but can vary widely in timing , speed , and character , and follow no single specific rhythm . Because the dance is led and followed at the level of individual steps , these variations can occur from one step to the next . This allows the dancers to vary the dance from moment to moment to match the music ( which often has both legato and/or staccato elements ) and their mood . The Tango 's frame , called an abrazo or `` embrace , '' is not rigid , but flexibly adjusts to different steps , and may vary from being quite close , to offset in a `` V '' frame , to open . The flexibility is as important as is all movement in dance . The American Ballroom Tango 's frame is flexible too , but experienced dancers frequently dance in closed position : higher in the elbows , tone in the arms and constant connection through the body . When dancing socially with a beginners , however , it may be better to use a more open position because the close position is too intimate for them . In American Tango open position may result in open breaks , pivots , and turns which are quite foreign in Argentine tango and International ( English ) tango . There is a closed position as in other types of ballroom dance , but it differs significantly between types of tango . In Tango from the River Plate region , the `` close embrace '' involves continuous contact at the full upper body , but not the legs . In American Ballroom tango , the `` close embrace '' involves close contact in the pelvis or upper thighs , but not the upper body . Followers are instructed to thrust their hips forward , but pull their upper body away and shyly look over their left shoulder when they are led into a `` corte . '' In tango from the River Plate region , the open position , the legs may be intertwined and hooked together , in the style of Pulpo ( the Octopus ) . In Pulpo 's style , these hooks are not sharp , but smooth ganchos . In Tango from the River Plate , Uruguay and Argentina , the ball or toe of the foot may be placed first . Alternatively , the dancer may take the floor with the entire foot in a cat-like manner . In the International style of Tango , `` heel leads '' ( stepping first onto the heel , then the whole foot ) are used for forward steps . Ballroom tango steps stay close to the floor , while the River Plate Tango ( Uruguayan and Argentine ) includes moves such as the boleo ( allowing momentum to carry one 's leg into the air ) and gancho ( hooking one 's leg around one 's partner 's leg or body ) in which the feet travel off the ground . Both Uruguayan and Argentine tango features other vocabulary foreign to ballroom , such as the parada ( in which the leader puts his foot against the follower 's foot ) , the arrastre ( in which the leader appears to drag or be dragged by the follower 's foot ) , and several kinds of sacada ( in which the leader displaces the follower 's leg by stepping into her space ) . Famous tango singers * Carlos Acuña ( 1915-1999 ) was known for his deep , high and expressive voice . His foreign travels brought him success in Uruguay , Mexico , Italy and Spain , where he became a close friend of the exiled Juan Perón . * Néstor Fabián * Carlos Gardel * Roberto Goyeneche * Julio Sosa ( 1926-1964 ) from Uruguay was one of the most important tango singers during tango 's unhappy years in the 1950s and early 1960s . His passion for poetry led to his sole published book ; his passion for fast cars led to his young death . * Jari Sillanpää * Reijo Taipale * Tita Merello * Edmundo Rivero Tango influence Music and dance elements of tango are popular in activities related to gymnastics , figure skating , synchronized swimming , etc. , because of its dramatic feeling and its cultural associations with romance . For 1978 FIFA World Cup in Argentina , Adidas designed a ball and named it Tango likely a tribute to the host country of the event . This design was also used in 1982 FIFA World Cup in Spain as Tango Málaga , and in 1984 and 1988 UEFA European Football Championships in France and West Germany . Health benefits It has been suggested that tango makes people feel more relaxed , sexier , and less depressed , and increases testosterone levels . Tangolates is an exercise method that combines the core stability of Pilates with the concentration , coordination and fluid movement of Tango , designed in 2004 by Tamara Di Tella . Utilizing a partner-method and incorporating the aerobic or cardio element of music , it started as a rehabilitation technique for patients with severe dysfunctions of the nervous system . Tango in film Argentine tango is the main subject in these films : * ¡Tango ! ( 1933 ) * Adiós Buenos Aires ( 1938 ) * Tango : El Exilio de Gardel/Tangos : the Exile of Gardel ( 1985 ) , starring Philippe Léotard , directed by Fernando Solanas * [ http : //www.imdb.com/title/tt0096221/ The Tango Bar ] ( 1988 ) , starring Raúl Juliá * The Tango Lesson ( 1997 ) , starring Sally Potter and Pablo Verón , directed by Sally Potter * Tango ( 1998 ) , starring Cecilia Narova and Mía Maestro , directed by Carlos Saura * Assassination Tango ( 2002 ) , starring Robert Duvall , Rubén Blades and Kathy Baker , directed by Robert Duvall * Orquesta Tipica ( 2005 ) , documentary film about typical orchestra Fernandez Fierro , directed by Nicolas Entel * [ http : //www.imdb.com/title/tt0459733/ 12 Tangos – Adios Buenos Aires ] ( 2005 ) , directed by Arne Birkenstock A number of films show tango in several scenes , such as : * The Threepenny Opera ( Die 3-Groschen-Oper ) ( 1931 ) , directed by G.W . Pabst , has number called Tango Ballade . * The Plow That Broke the Plains ( 1936 ) , directed by Pare Lorentz . * The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse ( 1921 ) , starring Rudolph Valentino and Alice Terry , directed by Rex Ingram . * L'amore in citta ' ( 1953 ) , segment `` Paradise for three hours '' ( Paradiso per tre ore ) , directed by Dino Risi , starring nonprofessional actors , featuring a long sequence in a ballroom , where a passionate tango of Mario Nascimbene is played . * Il Conformista ( 1970 ) , starring Jean-Louis Trintignant and Dominique Sanda , directed by Bernardo Bertolucci . * Last Tango in Paris ( 1972 ) , starring Marlon Brando and Maria Schneider , directed by Bernardo Bertolucci . * The World 's Greatest Lover ( 1977 ) , starring Gene Wilder ( who also directed ) , Carol Kane and Dom DeLuise . * Death on the Nile ( 1978 ) , Peter Ustinov and Olivia Hussey tango whilst David Niven is the unfortunate partner to Angela Lansbury 's rather eccentric version of the dance . * [ http : //www.imdb.com/title/tt0084764/ Tango ] ( 1981 ) , a short animation film by Zbigniew Rybczynski . Received an Oscar for Best Animated Short Film , Academy Awards 1982 . * Never Say Never Again ( 1983 ) , starring Sean Connery and Kim Basinger , directed by Irvin Kershner . * Naked Tango ( 1990 ) , starring Vincent D'Onofrio and Mathilda May , directed by Leonard Schrader . * Scent of a Woman ( 1992 ) , Al Pacino as blind Colonel dances Argentine Tango . * Strictly Ballroom ( 1992 ) , directed by Baz Luhrmann * Addams Family Values ( 1993 ) , Raul Julia and Anjelica Huston dance a tango so passionate that it literally burns the floor and makes all the champagne bottles in the nightclub pop their corks . * Schindler 's List ( 1993 ) , starring Liam Neeson * True Lies ( 1994 ) , starring Arnold Schwarzenegger , Jamie Lee Curtis and Tia Carrere , directed by James Cameron * Evita ( 1996 ) , Madonna and Antonio Banderas dance a ballroom tango . * Happy Together ( 1997 ) , directed by Wong Kar-wai * Moulin Rouge ! ( 2001 ) , featuring Ewan McGregor and `` El Tango de Roxanne '' * Waking Life ( 2001 ) , directed by Richard Linklater * [ http : //www.cinebel.be/fr/film.10832.Le_Tango_des_Rashevski.htm Le Tango Des Rashevski ] ( 2002 ) * Chicago ( 2002 ) , starring Renée Zellweger , Catherine Zeta-Jones , and Richard Gere , directed by Rob Marshall includes a song titled `` The Cell Block Tango '' and is accompanied with a dance . * Frida ( 2002 ) , Salma Hayek and Ashley Judd dance a tango to the Lila Downs performed song Alcoba Azul . * Shall We Dance ( 2004 ) , starring Richard Gere , Jennifer Lopez and Susan Sarandon , directed by Peter Chelsom . * Madonna featured choreography inspired by the argentine tango styles for the Die Another Day section of her 2004 Re-Invention Tour . Segments of the 2005 documentary I 'm Going To Tell You A Secret show this choreography in use . * Rent ( 2005 ) had Anthony Rapp and Tracie Thoms perform a semi-elaborate ballroom tango in the song `` Tango : Maureen '' to describe their emotional relations and issues over a promiscuous girl they both dated . * Mad Hot Ballroom ( 2005 ) , documentary directed by Marilyn Agrelo * Love and Other Disasters ( 2006 ) , Jacks ( Brittany Murphy ) and Paolo ( Santiago Cabrera ) perform a tango together . * Take the Lead ( 2006 ) , starring Antonio Banderas , directed by Liz Friedlander * Another Cinderella Story ( 2008 ) , starring Selena Gomez and Drew Seeley Performed during the Black and White Ball in the scene where Mary drops her Zune * Easy Virtue ( 2008 ) , in which Jessica Biel and Colin Firth dance a tango * Step Up 3D ( 2010 ) , in which Rick Malambri , Sharni Vinson and some of the supporting characters at a ballroom , dance a tango to Jazmine Sullivan 's Bust Your Windows . * Pixilation II ( 2011 ) , short animation film by Kambras Finnish tango is featured to a greater or lesser extent in the following films : * Onnen maa ( 1993 ) , starring Pertti Koivula and Katariina Kaitue , directed by Markku Pölönen . * Levottomat ( 2000 ) , starring Mikko Nousiainen and Laura Malmivaara , directed by Aku Louhimies . * Tulitikkutehtaan tyttö ( 1990 ) , starring Kati Outinen , directed by Aki Kaurismäki . * Mies vailla menneisyyttä ( 2002 ) , starring Markku Peltola and Kati Outinen , directed by Aki Kaurismäki . * Varjoja paratiisissa ( 1986 ) , starring Matti Pellonpää and Kati Outinen , directed by Aki Kaurismäki . * Kuutamolla ( 2002 ) , starring Minna Haapkylä and Laura Malmivaara , directed by Aku Louhimies . * Tango Kabaree ( 2001 ) , starring Martti Suosalo and Aira Samulin , directed by Pekka Lehto . * Minä soitan sinulle illalla ( 1954 ) , starring Olavi Virta , directed by Armand Lohikoski . Gallery Tango 2 - San Telmo @ Buenos Aires.jpg File : Tango_in_Plaza_Dorrego.jpg File : Carlos Gardel Abasto Buenos Aires.jpg File : Gardel.jpg File : Jorge Luis Borges Hotel.jpg File : Tango in BA.jpg File : Camanita Tango 06 ( 3395529946 ) .jpg

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The male lead roll was played by whom in the 2001 film Moulin Rouge?

Ancient Greek philosophy arose in the 6th century BC and continued throughout the Hellenistic period and the period in which Ancient Greece was part of the Roman Empire . It dealt with a wide variety of subjects , including political philosophy , ethics , metaphysics , ontology , logic , biology , rhetoric , and aesthetics . Many philosophers today concede that Greek philosophy has influenced much of Western culture since its inception . Alfred North Whitehead once noted : `` The safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato . '' Clear , unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers to Early Islamic philosophy , the European Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment . Some claim that Greek philosophy , in turn , was influenced by the older wisdom literature and mythological cosmogonies of the ancient Near East . Martin Litchfield West gives qualified assent to this view , stating , `` contact with oriental cosmology and theology helped to liberate the early Greek philosophers ' imagination ; it certainly gave them many suggestive ideas . But they taught themselves to reason . Philosophy as we understand it is a Greek creation . '' Subsequent philosophic tradition was so influenced by Socrates ( as presented by Plato ) that it is conventional to refer to philosophy developed prior to Socrates as pre-Socratic philosophy . The periods following this until the wars of Alexander the Great are those of `` classical Greek '' and `` Hellenistic '' philosophy . Pre-Socratic philosophy The convention of terming those philosophers who were active prior to Socrates the pre-Socratics gained currency with the 1903 publication of Hermann Diels ' Fragmente der Vorsokratiker , although the term did not originate with him . The term is considered philosophically useful because what came to be known as the `` Athenian school '' ( composed of Socrates , Plato , and Aristotle ) signaled a profound shift in the subject matter and methods of philosophy ; Friedrich Nietzsche 's thesis that this shift began with Plato rather than with Socrates ( hence his nomenclature of `` pre-Platonic philosophy '' ) has not prevented the predominance of the `` pre-Socratic '' distinction . The pre-Socratics were primarily concerned with cosmology , ontology and mathematics . They were distinguished from `` non-philosophers '' insofar as they rejected mythological explanations in favor of reasoned discourse . Milesian school Thales of Miletus , regarded by Aristotle as the first philosopher , held that all things arise from water . It is not because he gave a cosmogony that John Burnet calls him the `` first man of science , '' but because he gave a naturalistic explanation of the cosmos and supported it with reasons . According to tradition , Thales was able to predict an eclipse and taught the Egyptians how to measure the height of the pyramids . Thales inspired the Milesian school of philosophy and was followed by Anaximander , who argued that the substratum or arche could not be water or any of the classical elements but was instead something `` unlimited '' or `` indefinite '' ( in Greek , the apeiron ) . He began from the observation that the world seems to consist of opposites ( e.g. , hot and cold ) , yet a thing can become its opposite ( e.g. , a hot thing cold ) . Therefore , they can not truly be opposites but rather must both be manifestations of some underlying unity that is neither . This underlying unity ( substratum , arche ) could not be any of the classical elements , since they were one extreme or another . For example , water is wet , the opposite of dry , while fire is dry , the opposite of wet . Anaximenes in turn held that the arche was air , although John Burnet argues that by this he meant that it was a transparent mist , the aether . Despite their varied answers , the Milesian school was searching for a natural substance that would remain unchanged despite appearing in different forms , and thus represents one of the first scientific attempts to answer the question that would lead to the development of modern atomic theory ; `` the Milesians , '' says Burnet , `` asked for the φύσις of all things . '' Xenophanes Xenophanes was born in Ionia , where the Milesian school was at its most powerful , and may have picked up some of the Milesians ' cosmological theories as a result . What is known is that he argued that each of the phenomena had a natural rather than divine explanation in a manner reminiscent of Anaximander 's theories and that there was only one god , the world as a whole , and that he ridiculed the anthropomorphism of the Greek religion by claiming that cattle would claim that the gods looked like cattle , horses like horses , and lions like lions , just as the Ethiopians claimed that the gods were snubnosed and black and the Thracians claimed they were pale and red-haired . Burnet says that Xenophanes was not , however , a scientific man , with many of his `` naturalistic '' explanations having no further support than that they render the Homeric gods superfluous or foolish . He has been claimed as an influence on Eleatic philosophy , although that is disputed , and a precursor to Epicurus , a representative of a total break between science and religion . Pythagoreanism Pythagoras lived at roughly the same time that Xenophanes did and , in contrast to the latter , the school that he founded sought to reconcile religious belief and reason . Little is known about his life with any reliability , however , and no writings of his survive , so it is possible that he was simply a mystic whose successors introduced rationalism into Pythagoreanism , that he was simply a rationalist whose successors are responsible for the mysticism in Pythagoreanism , or that he was actually the author of the doctrine ; there is no way to know for certain . Pythagoras is said to have been a disciple of Anaximander and to have imbibed the cosmological concerns of the Ionians , including the idea that the cosmos is constructed of spheres , the importance of the infinite , and that air or aether is the arche of everything . Pythagoreanism also incorporated ascetic ideals , emphasizing purgation , metempsychosis , and consequently a respect for all animal life ; much was made of the correspondence between mathematics and the cosmos in a musical harmony . Heraclitus Heraclitus must have lived after Xenophanes and Pythagoras , as he condemns them along with Homer as proving that much learning can not teach a man to think ; since Parmenides refers to him in the past tense , this would place him in the 5th century BC . Contrary to the Milesian school , who would have one stable element at the root of all , Heraclitus taught that `` everything flows '' or `` everything is in flux , '' the closest element to this flux being fire ; he also extended the teaching that seeming opposites in fact are manifestations of a common substrate to good and evil itself . Eleatic philosophy Parmenides of Elea cast his philosophy against those who held `` it is and is not the same , and all things travel in opposite directions , '' —presumably referring to Heraclitus and those who followed him . Whereas the doctrines of the Milesian school , in suggesting that the substratum could appear in a variety of different guises , implied that everything that exists is corpuscular , Parmenides argued that the first principle of being was One , indivisible , and unchanging . Being , he argued , by definition implies eternality , while only that which is can be thought ; a thing which is , moreover , can not be more or less , and so the rarefaction and condensation of the Milesians is impossible regarding Being ; lastly , as movement requires that something exist apart from the thing moving ( viz . the space into which it moves ) , the One or Being can not move , since this would require that `` space '' both exist and not exist . While this doctrine is at odds with ordinary sensory experience , where things do indeed change and move , the Eleatic school followed Parmenides in denying that sense phenomena revealed the world as it actually was ; instead , the only thing with Being was thought , or the question of whether something exists or not is one of whether it can be thought . In support of this , Parmenides ' pupil Zeno of Elea attempted to prove that the concept of motion was absurd and as such motion did not exist . He also attacked the subsequent development of pluralism , arguing that it was incompatible with Being . His arguments are known as Zeno 's paradoxes . Pluralism and atomism The power of Parmenides ' logic was such that some subsequent philosophers abandoned the monism of the Milesians , Xenophanes , Heraclitus , and Parmenides , where one thing was the arche , and adopted pluralism , such as Empedocles and Anaxagoras . There were , they said , multiple elements which were not reducible to one another and these were set in motion by love and strife ( as in Empedocles ) or by Mind ( as in Anaxagoras ) . Agreeing with Parmenides that there is no coming into being or passing away , genesis or decay , they said that things appear to come into being and pass away because the elements out of which they are composed assemble or disassemble while themselves being unchanging . Leucippus also proposed an ontological pluralism with a cosmogony based on two main elements : the vacuum and atoms . These , by means of their inherent movement , are crossing the void and creating the real material bodies . His theories were not well known by the time of Plato , however , and they were ultimately incorporated into the work of his student , Democritus . Sophistry Sophistry arose from the juxtaposition of physis ( nature ) and nomos ( law ) . John Burnet posits its origin in the scientific progress of the previous centuries which suggested that Being was radically different from what was experienced by the senses and , if comprehensible at all , was not comprehensible in terms of order ; the world in which men lived , on the other hand , was one of law and order , albeit of humankind 's own making . At the same time , nature was constant , while what was by law differed from one place to another and could be changed . The first man to call himself a sophist , according to Plato , was Protagoras , whom he presents as teaching that all virtue is conventional . It was Protagoras who claimed that `` man is the measure of all things , of the things that are , that they are , and of the things that are not , that they are not , '' which Plato interprets as a radical perspectivism , where some things seem to be one way for one person ( and so actually are that way ) and another way for another person ( and so actually are that way as well ) ; the conclusion being that one can not look to nature for guidance regarding how to live one 's life . Protagoras and subsequent sophists tended to teach rhetoric as their primary vocation . Prodicus , Gorgias , Hippias , and Thrasymachus appear in various dialogues , sometimes explicitly teaching that while nature provides no ethical guidance , the guidance that the laws provide is worthless , or that nature favors those who act against the laws . Classical Greek philosophy Socrates Socrates , born in Athens in the 5th century BC , marks a watershed in ancient Greek philosophy . Athens was a center of learning , with sophists and philosophers traveling from across Greece to teach rhetoric , astronomy , cosmology , geometry , and the like . The great statesman Pericles was closely associated with this new learning and a friend of Anaxagoras , however , and his political opponents struck at him by taking advantage of a conservative reaction against the philosophers ; it became a crime to investigate the things above the heavens or below the earth , subjects considered impious . Anaxagoras is said to have been charged and to have fled into exile when Socrates was about twenty years of age . There is a story that Protagoras , too , was forced to flee and that the Athenians burned his books . Socrates , however , is the only subject recorded as charged under this law , convicted , and sentenced to death in 399 BC ( see Trial of Socrates ) . In the version of his defense speech presented by Plato , he claims that it is the envy he arouses on account of his being a philosopher that will convict him . While philosophy was an established pursuit prior to Socrates , Cicero credits him as `` the first who brought philosophy down from the heavens , placed it in cities , introduced it into families , and obliged it to examine into life and morals , and good and evil . '' By this account he would be considered the founder of political philosophy . The reasons for this turn toward political and ethical subjects remain the object of much study . The fact that many conversations involving Socrates ( as recounted by Plato and Xenophon ) end without having reached a firm conclusion , or aporetically , has stimulated debate over the meaning of the Socratic method . Socrates is said to have pursued this probing question-and-answer style of examination on a number of topics , usually attempting to arrive at a defensible and attractive definition of a virtue . While Socrates ' recorded conversations rarely provide a definite answer to the question under examination , several maxims or paradoxes for which he has become known recur . Socrates taught that no one desires what is bad , and so if anyone does something that truly is bad , it must be unwillingly or out of ignorance ; consequently , all virtue is knowledge . He frequently remarks on his own ignorance ( claiming that he does not know what courage is , for example ) . Plato presents him as distinguishing himself from the common run of mankind by the fact that , while they know nothing noble and good , they do not know that they do not know , whereas Socrates knows and acknowledges that he knows nothing noble and good . Numerous subsequent philosophical movements were inspired by Socrates or his younger associates . Plato casts Socrates as the main interlocutor in his dialogues , deriving from them the basis of Platonism ( and by extension , Neoplatonism ) . Plato 's student Aristotle in turn criticized and built upon the doctrines he ascribed to Socrates and Plato , forming the foundation of Aristotelianism . Antisthenes founded the school that would come to be known as Cynicism and accused Plato of distorting Socrates ' teachings . Zeno of Citium in turn adapted the ethics of Cynicism to articulate Stoicism . Epicurus studied with Platonic and Stoic teachers before renouncing all previous philosophers ( including Democritus , on whose atomism the Epicurean philosophy relies ) . The philosophic movements that were to dominate the intellectual life of the Roman empire were thus born in this febrile period following Socrates ' activity , and either directly or indirectly influenced by him . They were also absorbed by the expanding Muslim world in the 7th through 10th centuries AD , from which they returned to the West as foundations of Medieval philosophy and the Renaissance , as discussed below . Plato Plato was an Athenian of the generation after Socrates . Ancient tradition ascribes thirty-six dialogues and thirteen letters to him , although of these only twenty-four of the dialogues are now universally recognized as authentic ; most modern scholars believe that at least twenty-eight dialogues and two of the letters were in fact written by Plato , although all of the thirty-six dialogues have some defenders . A further nine dialogues are ascribed to Plato but were considered spurious even in antiquity . Plato 's dialogues feature Socrates , although not always as the leader of the conversation . ( One dialogue , the Laws , instead contains an `` Athenian Stranger . '' ) Along with Xenophon , Plato is the primary source of information about Socrates ' life and beliefs and it is not always easy to distinguish between the two . While the Socrates presented in the dialogues is often taken to be Plato 's mouthpiece , Socrates ' reputation for irony , his caginess regarding his own opinions in the dialogues , and his occasional absence from or minor role in the conversation serve to conceal Plato 's doctrines . Much of what is said about his doctrines is derived from what Aristotle reports about them . The political doctrine ascribed to Plato is derived from the Republic , the Laws , and the Statesman . The first of these contains the suggestion that there will not be justice in cities unless they are ruled by philosopher kings ; those responsible for enforcing the laws are compelled to hold their women , children , and property in common ; and the individual is taught to pursue the common good through noble lies ; the Republic says that such a city is likely impossible , however , generally assuming that philosophers would refuse to rule and the people would refuse to compel them to do so . Whereas the Republic is premised on a distinction between the sort of knowledge possessed by the philosopher and that possessed by the king or political man , Socrates explores only the character of the philosopher ; in the Statesman , on the other hand , a participant referred to as the Eleatic Stranger discusses the sort of knowledge possessed by the political man , while Socrates listens quietly . Although rule by a wise man would be preferable to rule by law , the wise can not help but be judged by the unwise , and so in practice , rule by law is deemed necessary . Both the Republic and the Statesman reveal the limitations of politics , raising the question of what political order would be best given those constraints ; that question is addressed in the Laws , a dialogue that does not take place in Athens and from which Socrates is absent . The character of the society described there is eminently conservative , a corrected or liberalized timocracy on the Spartan or Cretan model or that of pre-democratic Athens . Plato 's dialogues also have metaphysical themes , the most famous of which is his theory of forms . It holds that non-material abstract ( but substantial ) forms ( or ideas ) , and not the material world of change known to us through our physical senses , possess the highest and most fundamental kind of reality . Plato often uses long-form analogies ( usually allegories ) to explain his ideas ; the most famous is perhaps the Allegory of the Cave . It likens most humans to people tied up in a cave , who look only at shadows on the walls and have no other conception of reality . If they turned around , they would see what is casting the shadows ( and thereby gain a further dimension to their reality ) . If some left the cave , they would see the outside world illuminated by the sun ( representing the ultimate form of goodness and truth ) . If these travelers then re-entered the cave , the people inside ( who are still only familiar with the shadows ) would not be equipped to believe reports of this 'outside world ' . This story explains the theory of forms with their different levels of reality , and advances the view that philosopher-kings are wisest while most humans are ignorant . One student of Plato ( who would become another of the most influential philosophers of all time ) stressed the implication that understanding relies upon first-hand observation : Aristotle Aristotle moved to Athens from his native Stageira in 367 BC and began to study philosophy ( perhaps even rhetoric , under Isocrates ) , eventually enrolling at Plato 's Academy . He left Athens approximately twenty years later to study botany and zoology , became a tutor of Alexander the Great , and ultimately returned to Athens a decade later to establish his own school : the Lyceum . At least twenty-nine of his treatises have survived , known as the corpus Aristotelicum , and address a variety of subjects including logic , physics , optics , metaphysics , ethics , rhetoric , politics , poetry , botany , and zoology . Aristotle is often portrayed as disagreeing with his teacher Plato ( e.g. , in Raphael 's School of Athens ) . He criticizes the regimes described in Plato 's Republic and Laws , and refers to the theory of forms as `` empty words and poetic metaphors . '' He is generally presented as giving greater weight to empirical observation and practical concerns . Aristotle 's fame was not great during the Hellenistic period , when Stoic logic was in vogue , but later peripatetic commentators popularized his work , which eventually contributed heavily to Islamic , Jewish , and medieval Christian philosophy . His influence was such that Avicenna referred to him simply as `` the Master '' ; Maimonides , Alfarabi , Averroes , and Aquinas as `` the Philosopher . '' Hellenistic philosophy During the Hellenistic and Roman periods , many different schools of thought developed in the Hellenistic world and then the Greco-Roman world . There were Greeks , Romans , Egyptians , Syrians and Arabs who contributed to the development of Hellenistic philosophy . Elements of Persian philosophy and Indian philosophy also had an influence . The most notable schools of Hellenistic philosophy were : * Neoplatonism : Plotinus ( Egyptian ) , Ammonius Saccas , Porphyry ( Syrian ) , Zethos ( Arab ) , Iamblichus ( Syrian ) , Proclus * Academic Skepticism : Arcesilaus , Carneades , Cicero ( Roman ) * Pyrrhonian Skepticism : Pyrrho , Sextus Empiricus * Cynicism : Antisthenes , Diogenes of Sinope , Crates of Thebes ( taught Zeno of Citium , founder of Stoicism ) * Stoicism : Zeno of Citium , Cleanthes , Chrysippus , Crates of Mallus ( brought Stoicism to Rome c. 170 BC ) , Panaetius , Posidonius , Seneca ( Roman ) , Epictetus ( Greek/Roman ) , Marcus Aurelius ( Roman ) * Epicureanism : Epicurus ( Greek ) and Lucretius ( Roman ) * Eclecticism : Cicero ( Roman ) The spread of Christianity throughout the Roman world , followed by the spread of Islam , ushered in the end of Hellenistic philosophy and the beginnings of Medieval philosophy , which was dominated by the three Abrahamic traditions : Jewish philosophy , Christian philosophy , and early Islamic philosophy . Transmission of Greek philosophy under Islam During the Middle Ages , Greek ideas were largely forgotten in Western Europe ( where , between the fall of Rome and the East-West Schism , literacy in Greek had declined sharply ) . Not long after the first major expansion of Islam , however , the Abbasid caliphs authorized the gathering of Greek manuscripts and hired translators to increase their prestige . Islamic philosophers such as Al-Kindi ( Alkindus ) , Al-Farabi ( Alpharabius ) , Ibn Sina ( Avicenna ) and Ibn Rushd ( Averroes ) reinterpreted these works , and during the High Middle Ages Greek philosophy re-entered the West through translations from Arabic to Latin . The re-introduction of these philosophies , accompanied by the new Arabic commentaries , had a great influence on Medieval philosophers such as Thomas Aquinas .

qb_5777--Ancient_Greek_philosophy.txt

Which Greek philosopher was said to have lived inside a barrel?

Charles John Huffam Dickens ( ; 7 February 1812 – 9 June 1870 ) was an English writer and social critic . He created some of the world 's best-known fictional characters and is regarded as the greatest novelist of the Victorian era .. His works enjoyed unprecedented popularity during his lifetime , and by the twentieth century critics and scholars had recognised him as a literary genius . His novels and short stories enjoy lasting popularity . Born in Portsmouth , Dickens left school to work in a factory when his father was incarcerated in a debtors ' prison . Despite his lack of formal education , he edited a weekly journal for 20 years , wrote 15 novels , five novellas , hundreds of short stories and non-fiction articles , lectured and performed extensively , was an indefatigable letter writer , and campaigned vigorously for children 's rights , education , and other social reforms . Dickens 's literary success began with the 1836 serial publication of The Pickwick Papers . Within a few years he had become an international literary celebrity , famous for his humour , satire , and keen observation of character and society . His novels , most published in monthly or weekly instalments , pioneered the serial publication of narrative fiction , which became the dominant Victorian mode for novel publication . The instalment format allowed Dickens to evaluate his audience 's reaction , and he often modified his plot and character development based on such feedback . For example , when his wife 's chiropodist expressed distress at the way Miss Mowcher in David Copperfield seemed to reflect her disabilities , Dickens improved the character with positive features . His plots were carefully constructed , and he often wove elements from topical events into his narratives . Masses of the illiterate poor chipped in ha'pennies to have each new monthly episode read to them , opening up and inspiring a new class of readers . Dickens was regarded as the literary colossus of his age . His 1843 novella , A Christmas Carol , remains popular and continues to inspire adaptations in every artistic genre . Oliver Twist and Great Expectations are also frequently adapted , and , like many of his novels , evoke images of early Victorian London . His 1859 novel , A Tale of Two Cities , set in London and Paris , is his best-known work of historical fiction . Dickens 's creative genius has been praised by fellow writers—from Leo Tolstoy to George Orwell and G. K. Chesterton—for its realism , comedy , prose style , unique characterisations , and social criticism . On the other hand , Oscar Wilde , Henry James , and Virginia Woolf complained of a lack of psychological depth , loose writing , and a vein of saccharine sentimentalism . The term Dickensian is used to describe something that is reminiscent of Dickens and his writings , such as poor social conditions or comically repulsive characters . Early years Charles John Huffam Dickens was born on 7 February 1812 , at 1 Mile End Terrace ( now 393 Commercial Road ) , Landport in Portsea Island ( Portsmouth ) , the second of eight children of John Dickens ( 1785–1851 ) and Elizabeth Dickens ( née Barrow ; 1789–1863 ) . His father was a clerk in the Navy Pay Office and was temporarily stationed in the district . He asked Christopher Huffam , rigger to His Majesty 's Navy , gentleman , and head of an established firm , to act as godfather to Charles . Huffam is thought to be the inspiration for Paul Dombey , the owner of a shipping company in Dickens 's eponymous Dombey and Son ( 1848 ) . In January 1815 John Dickens was called back to London , and the family moved to Norfolk Street , Fitzrovia . When Charles was four , they relocated to Sheerness , and thence to Chatham , Kent , where he spent his formative years until the age of 11 . His early life seems to have been idyllic , though he thought himself a `` very small and not-over-particularly-taken-care-of boy '' . Charles spent time outdoors but also read voraciously , including the picaresque novels of Tobias Smollett and Henry Fielding , as well as Robinson Crusoe and Gil Blas . He read and reread The Arabian Nights and the Collected Farces of Elizabeth Inchbald . He retained poignant memories of childhood , helped by an excellent memory of people and events , which he used in his writing . His father 's brief work as a clerk in the Navy Pay Office afforded him a few years of private education , first at a dame school , and then at a school run by William Giles , a dissenter , in Chatham . This period came to an end in June 1822 , when John Dickens was recalled to Navy Pay Office headquarters at Somerset House , and the family—minus Charles , who stayed behind to finish his final term of work—moved to Camden Town in London . The family had left Kent amidst rapidly mounting debts , and , living beyond his means , John Dickens was forced by his creditors into the Marshalsea debtors ' prison in Southwark , London in 1824 . His wife and youngest children joined him there , as was the practice at the time . Charles , then 12 years old , boarded with Elizabeth Roylance , a family friend , at 112 College Place , Camden Town . Roylance was `` a reduced [ impoverished ] old lady , long known to our family '' , whom Dickens later immortalised , `` with a few alterations and embellishments '' , as `` Mrs. Pipchin '' in Dombey and Son . Later , he lived in a back-attic in the house of an agent for the Insolvent Court , Archibald Russell , `` a fat , good-natured , kind old gentleman ... with a quiet old wife '' and lame son , in Lant Street in Southwark . They provided the inspiration for the Garlands in The Old Curiosity Shop . On Sundays—with his sister Frances , free from her studies at the Royal Academy of Music—he spent the day at the Marshalsea . Dickens later used the prison as a setting in Little Dorrit . To pay for his board and to help his family , Dickens was forced to leave school and work ten-hour days at Warren 's Blacking Warehouse , on Hungerford Stairs , near the present Charing Cross railway station , where he earned six shillings a week pasting labels on pots of boot blacking . The strenuous and often harsh working conditions made a lasting impression on Dickens and later influenced his fiction and essays , becoming the foundation of his interest in the reform of socio-economic and labour conditions , the rigours of which he believed were unfairly borne by the poor . He later wrote that he wondered `` how I could have been so easily cast away at such an age '' . As he recalled to John Forster ( from The Life of Charles Dickens ) : The blacking-warehouse was the last house on the left-hand side of the way , at old Hungerford Stairs . It was a crazy , tumble-down old house , abutting of course on the river , and literally overrun with rats . Its wainscoted rooms , and its rotten floors and staircase , and the old grey rats swarming down in the cellars , and the sound of their squeaking and scuffling coming up the stairs at all times , and the dirt and decay of the place , rise up visibly before me , as if I were there again . The counting-house was on the first floor , looking over the coal-barges and the river . There was a recess in it , in which I was to sit and work . My work was to cover the pots of paste-blacking ; first with a piece of oil-paper , and then with a piece of blue paper ; to tie them round with a string ; and then to clip the paper close and neat , all round , until it looked as smart as a pot of ointment from an apothecary 's shop . When a certain number of grosses of pots had attained this pitch of perfection , I was to paste on each a printed label , and then go on again with more pots . Two or three other boys were kept at similar duty down-stairs on similar wages . One of them came up , in a ragged apron and a paper cap , on the first Monday morning , to show me the trick of using the string and tying the knot . His name was Bob Fagin ; and I took the liberty of using his name , long afterwards , in Oliver Twist .. When the warehouse was moved to Chandos Street in the smart , busy district of Covent Garden the boys worked in a room in which the window gave onto the street and little audiences gathered and watched them at work—in Dickens biographer Simon Callow 's estimation , the public display was `` a new refinement added to his misery '' . A few months after his imprisonment , John Dickens 's paternal grandmother , Elizabeth Dickens , died and bequeathed him £450 . On the expectation of this legacy , Dickens was released from prison . Under the Insolvent Debtors Act , Dickens arranged for payment of his creditors , and he and his family left Marshalsea , for the home of Mrs Roylance . Charles 's mother , Elizabeth Dickens , did not immediately support his removal from the boot-blacking warehouse . This influenced Dickens 's view that a father should rule the family , and a mother find her proper sphere inside the home : `` I never afterwards forgot , I never shall forget , I never can forget , that my mother was warm for my being sent back '' . His mother 's failure to request his return was a factor in his dissatisfied attitude towards women . Righteous indignation stemming from his own situation and the conditions under which working-class people lived became major themes of his works , and it was this unhappy period in his youth to which he alluded in his favourite , and most autobiographical , novel , David Copperfield : `` I had no advice , no counsel , no encouragement , no consolation , no assistance , no support , of any kind , from anyone , that I can call to mind , as I hope to go to heaven ! '' Dickens was eventually sent to the Wellington House Academy in Camden Town , where he remained until March 1827 , having spent about two years there . He did not consider it to be a good school : `` Much of the haphazard , desultory teaching , poor discipline punctuated by the headmaster 's sadistic brutality , the seedy ushers and general run-down atmosphere , are embodied in Mr. Creakle 's Establishment in David Copperfield . `` . Dickens worked at the law office of Ellis and Blackmore , attorneys , of Holborn Court , Gray 's Inn , as a junior clerk from May 1827 to November 1828 . He was a gifted mimic and impersonated those around him : clients , lawyers , and clerks . He went to theatres obsessively—he claimed that for at least three years he went to the theatre every single day . His favourite actor was Charles Mathews , and Dickens learnt his monopolylogues , ( farces in which Mathews played every character ) , by heart . Then , having learned Gurney 's system of shorthand in his spare time , he left to become a freelance reporter . A distant relative , Thomas Charlton , was a freelance reporter at Doctors ' Commons , and Dickens was able to share his box there to report the legal proceedings for nearly four years . This education was to inform works such as Nicholas Nickleby , Dombey and Son , and especially Bleak House—whose vivid portrayal of the machinations and bureaucracy of the legal system did much to enlighten the general public and served as a vehicle for dissemination of Dickens 's own views regarding , particularly , the heavy burden on the poor who were forced by circumstances to `` go to law '' . In 1830 , Dickens met his first love , Maria Beadnell , thought to have been the model for the character Dora in David Copperfield . Maria 's parents disapproved of the courtship and ended the relationship by sending her to school in Paris . Journalism and early novels In 1832 , at age 20 , Dickens was energetic and increasingly self-confident . He enjoyed mimicry and popular entertainment , lacked a clear , specific sense of what he wanted to become , and yet knew he wanted fame . Drawn to the theatre—he became an early member of the Garrick —he landed an acting audition at Covent Garden , where the manager George Bartley and the actor Charles Kemble were to see him . Dickens prepared meticulously and decided to imitate the comedian Charles Mathews , but ultimately he missed the audition because of a cold . Before another opportunity arose , he had set out on his career as a writer . In 1833 he submitted his first story , `` A Dinner at Poplar Walk '' , to the London periodical Monthly Magazine .. William Barrow , a brother of his mother , offered him a job on The Mirror of Parliament and he worked in the House of Commons for the first time early in 1832 . He rented rooms at Furnival 's Inn and worked as a political journalist , reporting on Parliamentary debates , and he travelled across Britain to cover election campaigns for the Morning Chronicle . His journalism , in the form of sketches in periodicals , formed his first collection of pieces , published in 1836 : Sketches by Boz—Boz being a family nickname he employed as a pseudonym for some years . Dickens apparently adopted it from the nickname `` Moses '' , which he had given to his youngest brother Augustus Dickens , after a character in Oliver Goldsmith 's The Vicar of Wakefield . When pronounced by anyone with a head cold , `` Moses '' became `` Boses '' —later shortened to Boz . Dickens 's own name was considered `` queer '' by a contemporary critic , who wrote in 1849 : `` Mr Dickens , as if in revenge for his own queer name , does bestow still queerer ones upon his fictitious creations . '' He contributed to and edited journals throughout his literary career . In January 1835 the Morning Chronicle launched an evening edition , under the editorship of the Chronicles music critic , George Hogarth . Hogarth invited Dickens to contribute Street Sketches and Dickens became a regular visitor to his Fulham house , excited by Hogarth 's friendship with a hero of his , Walter Scott , and enjoying the company of Hogarth 's three daughters—Georgina , Mary , and nineteen-year-old Catherine . Dickens made rapid progress both professionally and socially . He began a friendship with William Harrison Ainsworth , the author of the highwayman novel Rookwood ( 1834 ) , whose bachelor salon in Harrow Road had become the meeting place for a set that included Daniel Maclise , Benjamin Disraeli , Edward Bulwer-Lytton , and George Cruikshank . All these became his friends and collaborators , with the exception of Disraeli , and he met his first publisher , John Macrone , at the house . The success of Sketches by Boz led to a proposal from publishers Chapman and Hall for Dickens to supply text to match Robert Seymour 's engraved illustrations in a monthly letterpress . Seymour committed suicide after the second instalment , and Dickens , who wanted to write a connected series of sketches , hired `` Phiz '' to provide the engravings ( which were reduced from four to two per instalment ) for the story . The resulting story became The Pickwick Papers , and though the first few episodes were not successful , the introduction of the Cockney character Sam Weller in the fourth episode ( the first to be illustrated by Phiz ) marked a sharp climb in its popularity . The final instalment sold 40,000 copies . In November 1836 Dickens accepted the position of editor of Bentley 's Miscellany , a position he held for three years , until he fell out with the owner . In 1836 as he finished the last instalments of The Pickwick Papers , he began writing the beginning instalments of Oliver Twist—writing as many as 90 pages a month—while continuing work on Bentley 's and also writing four plays , the production of which he oversaw . Oliver Twist , published in 1838 , became one of Dickens 's better known stories , and was the first Victorian novel with a child protagonist . On 2 April 1836 , after a one-year engagement , and between episodes two and three of The Pickwick Papers , Dickens married Catherine Thomson Hogarth ( 1816–1879 ) , the daughter of George Hogarth , editor of the Evening Chronicle . They were married in St. Luke 's Church , Chelsea , London . After a brief honeymoon in Chalk in Kent the couple returned to lodgings at Furnival 's Inn . The first of their ten children , Charley , was born in January 1837 , and a few months later the family set up home in Bloomsbury at 48 Doughty Street , London , ( on which Charles had a three-year lease at £80 a year ) from 25 March 1837 until December 1839 . Dickens 's younger brother Frederick and Catherine 's 17-year-old sister Mary , moved in with them . Dickens became very attached to Mary , and she died in his arms after a brief illness in 1837 . Unusually for Dickens , as a consequence of his shock , he stopped working , and he and Kate stayed at a little farm on Hampstead Heath for a fortnight . Dickens idealised Mary , - the character he fashioned after her , Rose Maylie , he found he could not now kill , as he had planned , in his fiction and according to Ackroyd he drew on memories of her for his later descriptions of Little Nell and Florence Dombey . His grief was so great that he was unable to meet the deadline for the June instalment of Pickwick Papers and had to cancel the Oliver Twist instalment that month as well . The time in Hampstead was the occasion for a growing bond between Dickens and John Forster to develop and Forster soon became his unofficial business manager , and the first to read his work . His success as a novelist continued . The young Queen Victoria read both Oliver Twist and Pickwick , staying up until midnight to discuss them . Nicholas Nickleby ( 1838–39 ) , The Old Curiosity Shop and , finally , his first historical novel , Barnaby Rudge : A Tale of the Riots of 'Eighty , as part of the Master Humphrey 's Clock series ( 1840–41 ) , were all published in monthly instalments before being made into books . In the midst of all his activity during this period there was discontent with his publishers and John Macrone was bought off , while Richard Bentley signed over all his rights in Oliver Twist . Other signs of a certain restlessness and discontent emerge—in Broadstairs he flirted with Eleanor Picken , the young fiancée of his solicitor 's best friend , and one night grabbed her and ran with her down to the sea . He declared they were both to drown there in the `` sad sea waves '' . She finally got free but afterwards kept her distance . In June 1841 he precipitately set out on a two-month tour of Scotland and then , in September 1841 , telegraphed Forster that he had decided to go to America . Master Humphrey 's Clock was shut down , though Dickens was still keen on the idea of the weekly magazine , a form he liked , a liking that had begun with his childhood reading of the eighteenth-century magazines Tatler and The Spectator . First visit to the United States In 1842 , Dickens and his wife made their first trip to the United States and Canada . At this time Georgina Hogarth , another sister of Catherine , joined the Dickens household , now living at Devonshire Terrace , Marylebone , to care for the young family they had left behind . She remained with them as housekeeper , organiser , adviser , and friend until Dickens 's death in 1870 . He described his impressions in a travelogue , American Notes for General Circulation . Dickens includes in Notes a powerful condemnation of slavery , which he had attacked as early as The Pickwick Papers , correlating the emancipation of the poor in England with the abolition of slavery abroad citing newspaper accounts of runaway slaves disfigured by their masters . In spite of the abolitionist sentiments gleaned from his trip to America , some modern commentators have pointed out inconsistencies in Dickens ' views on racial inequality , for instance , he has been criticized for his subsequent acquiescence in Governor Eyre 's harsh crackdown during the 1860s Morant Bay rebellion in Jamaica and his failure to join other British progressives in condemning it . From Richmond , Virginia , Dickens returned to Washington , D.C. , and started a trek westward to St. Louis , Missouri . While there , he expressed a desire to see an American prairie before returning east . A group of 13 men then set out with Dickens to visit Looking Glass Prairie , a trip 30 miles into Illinois . During his American visit , Dickens spent a month in New York City , giving lectures , raising the question of international copyright laws and the pirating of his work in America . He persuaded a group of twenty-five writers , headed by Washington Irving , to sign a petition for him to take to Congress , but the press were generally hostile to this , saying that he should be grateful for his popularity and that it was mercenary to complain about his work being pirated . The popularity he gained caused a shift in his self-perception according to critic Kate Flint , who writes the he `` found himself a cultural commodity , and its circulation had passed out his control '' , causing him to become interested in and delve into themes of public and personal personas in the next novels . She writes that he assumed a role of `` influential commentator '' , publicly and in his fiction , evident in his next few books . Soon after his return to England , Dickens began work on the first of his Christmas stories , A Christmas Carol , written in 1843 , which was followed by The Chimes in 1844 and The Cricket on the Hearth in 1845 . Of these , A Christmas Carol was most popular and , tapping into an old tradition , did much to promote a renewed enthusiasm for the joys of Christmas in Britain and America . The seeds for the story became planted in Dickens 's mind during a trip to Manchester to witness the conditions of the manufacturing workers there . This , along with scenes he had recently witnessed at the Field Lane Ragged School , caused Dickens to resolve to `` strike a sledge hammer blow '' for the poor . As the idea for the story took shape and the writing began in earnest , Dickens became engrossed in the book . He later wrote that as the tale unfolded he `` wept and laughed , and wept again '' as he `` walked about the black streets of London fifteen or twenty miles many a night when all sober folks had gone to bed . '' After living briefly in Italy ( 1844 ) , Dickens travelled to Switzerland ( 1846 ) , where he began work on Dombey and Son ( 1846–48 ) . This and David Copperfield ( 1849–50 ) mark a significant artistic break in Dickens 's career as his novels became more serious in theme and more carefully planned than his early works . At about this time he was made aware of a large embezzlement at the firm where his brother , Augustus , worked ( John Chapman & Co. ) . It had been carried out by Thomas Powell ( 1809-1887 ) , a clerk , who was on friendly terms with Dickens and who had acted as mentor to Augustus when he started work . Powell was also an author and poet and knew many of the famous writers of the day . After further fraudulent activities , Powell fled to New York and published a book called The Living Authors of England with a chapter on Charles Dickens , who was not amused by what Powell had written . One item that seemed to have annoyed him was the assertion that he had based the character of Paul Dombey ( Dombey and Son ) , on Thomas Chapman , one of the principal partners at John Chapman & Co. Dickens immediately fired off a letter to Lewis Gaylord Clark , editor of the New York literary magazine The Knickerbocker , saying that Powell was a forger and thief . Clark published the letter in the New-York Tribune and several other papers picked up on the story . Powell started proceedings to sue these publications and Clark was arrested . Dickens , realising that he had acted in haste , contacted John Chapman & Co. to seek written confirmation of Powell ’ s guilt . Dickens did receive a reply confirming Powell 's embezzlement , but once the directors realised this information may have to be produced in court they refused to make further disclosures . Due to the difficulties of providing evidence in America to support his accusations , Dickens eventually made a private settlement with Powell out of court . Philanthropy In May 1846 Angela Burdett Coutts , heir to the Coutts banking fortune , approached Dickens about setting up a home for the redemption of fallen women of the working class . Coutts envisioned a home that would replace the punitive regimes of existing institutions with a reformative environment conducive to education and proficiency in domestic household chores . After initially resisting , Dickens eventually founded the home , named `` Urania Cottage '' , in the Lime Grove section of Shepherds Bush , which he managed for ten years , setting the house rules , reviewing the accounts and interviewing prospective residents . Emigration and marriage were central to Dickens 's agenda for the women on leaving Urania Cottage , from which it is estimated that about 100 women graduated between 1847 and 1859 . Religious views As a young man Dickens expressed a distaste for certain aspects of organized religion . In 1836 , in a pamphlet titled Sunday Under Three Heads , he defended the people 's right to pleasure , opposing a plan to prohibit games on Sundays . `` Look into your churches- diminished congregations and scanty attendance . People have grown sullen and obstinate , and are becoming disgusted with the faith which condemns them to such a day as this , once in every seven . They display their feeling by staying away [ from church ] . Turn into the streets [ on a Sunday ] and mark the rigid gloom that reigns over everything around '' Dickens honoured the figure of though some claim he may have denied his divinity . Notwithstanding , Dickens has been characterized as a professing Christian . His son , Henry Fielding Dickens , described Dickens as someone who `` possessed deep religious convictions '' . Though in the early 1840s Dickens had showed an interest in Unitarian Christianity , the writer Gary Colledge has asserted that he `` never strayed from his attachment to popular lay Anglicanism '' . He also wrote a religious work called The Life of Our Lord ( 1849 ) , which was a short book about the life of Jesus Christ , written with the purpose of inculcating his faith to his children and family . Dickens disapproved of Roman Catholicism and 19th-century evangelicalism , and was critical of what he saw as the hypocrisy of religious institutions and philosophies like spiritualism , all of which he considered deviations from the true spirit of Christianity . Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoyevsky referred to Dickens as ``

odql_13667--Charles_Dickens.txt

Which Charles Dickens novel, his last completed work, features' John Harmon' and the title character 'John Rokesmith'?

`` Do n't be evil '' is the corporate motto ( or slogan ) of Google . It was first suggested either by Google employee Paul Buchheit at a meeting about corporate values that took place in early 2000 ( quoting from : Jessica Livingston , Founders at Work , ISBN 978-1590597149 ) or in 2001 or , according to another account , by Google Engineer Amit Patel in 1999 . Buchheit , the creator of Gmail , said he `` wanted something that , once you put it in there , would be hard to take out '' , adding that the slogan was `` also a bit of a jab at a lot of the other companies , especially our competitors , who at the time , in our opinion , were kind of exploiting the users to some extent . '' While the official corporate philosophy of Google does not contain the words `` Do n't be evil '' , they were included in the prospectus ( on Form S-1 ) of Google 's 2004 IPO ( a letter from Google 's founders , later called the `` 'Do n't Be Evil ' manifesto '' ) : `` Don ’ t be evil . We believe strongly that in the long term , we will be better served — as shareholders and in all other ways — by a company that does good things for the world even if we forgo some short term gains . '' The motto is sometimes incorrectly stated as Do no evil . Following Google 's corporate restructuring under the conglomerate Alphabet Inc. in October 2015 , the motto was replaced in the Alphabet corporate code of conduct by the phrase `` Do the right thing '' ; however , the Google code of conduct still contains the phrase `` Do n't be evil '' . Avoiding conflicts of interest In their 2004 founders ' letter prior to their initial public offering , Larry Page and Sergey Brin explained that their `` Do n't be evil '' culture prohibited conflicts of interest , and required objectivity and an absence of bias : Chris Hoofnagle , director of University of California , Berkeley Law 's information privacy programs , has stated that Google 's original intention expressed by the `` do n't be evil '' motto is linked to the company 's separation of search results from advertising . However , he argues that clearly separating search results from sponsored links is required by law , thus , Google 's practice is now mainstream and no longer remarkable or good . According to Hoofnagle , Google should abandon the motto because : The End of `` Do n't Be Evil '' In an NPR interview , Eric Schmidt revealed doubts he had when Larry Page and Sergey Brin recommended the motto as a guiding principle for Google . Others raised similar questions about the actual definition of what Google considered `` evil '' . Google 's 2012 announcement to `` begin tracking users universally across all its services '' ( via `` Google Plus '' accounts ) resulted in public backlash on the motto , like `` Google 's Broken Promise : The End of `` Do n't Be Evil '' on Gizmodo . And while the motto was still cited in the Google Investor Relations Preface to the Code of Conduct , which stated : “ Don ’ t be evil. ” Googlers generally apply those words to how we serve our users . But “ Don ’ t be evil ” is much more than that ... The Google Code of Conduct is one of the ways we put “ Don ’ t be evil ” into practice ... The Commercial Appeal objected `` critics say Google 's recent moves belie search giant 's motto '' . Indeed , criticism of Google still frequently spins the motto in a negative way , such as InfoWorld 's 2014 article `` Google ? Evil ? You have no idea '' . Major social networks even co-developed a `` Do n't be evil '' browser bookmarklet ( specifically to expose alleged SERP manipulation promoting Google-owned content over that of others ) . On the user-facing , aforementioned 'What We Believe ' page , Google appeared to replace the original motto altogether ( a carefully reworded version stood as of 10 April 2015 , `` You can make money without doing evil '' , which varied significantly from the absolute imperative of DO N'T be evil ) . Following Google 's corporate restructuring under the conglomerate Alphabet Inc. in October 2015 , the slogan was replaced in the Alphabet corporate code of conduct by the phrase `` Do the right thing '' , however to this day , the Google code of conduct still contains the phrase `` Do n't be evil '' . `` I think that you do evil '' On 16 May 2013 Margaret Hodge MP , the chair of the United Kingdom Public Accounts Committee accused Google of being `` calculated and unethical '' over its use of highly contrived and artificial distinctions to avoid paying billions of pounds in Corporation tax owed by its UK operations . The company was accused by the committee , which represents the interests of all UK taxpayers , of being `` evil '' for not paying its `` fair amount of tax '' . She told Matt Brittin , head of Google UK `` I think that you do evil '' . In 2015 , the UK Government introduced a new law intended to penalise Google and other large multinational corporations ' artificial tax avoidance .

sfq_13352--Don't_be_evil.txt

"""Don't be evil"" is the motto of which intemet company?"

The Roman emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period ( starting in 27 BC ) . The emperors used a variety of different titles throughout history . Often when a given Roman is described as becoming `` emperor '' in English , it reflects his taking of the title Augustus or Caesar . Another title often used was imperator , originally a military honorific . Early Emperors also used the title princeps ( first citizen ) . Emperors frequently amassed Republican titles , notably princeps Senatus , consul and Pontifex Maximus . The legitimacy of an emperor 's rule depended on his control of the army and recognition by the Senate ; an emperor would normally be proclaimed by his troops , or invested with imperial titles by the Senate , or both . The first emperors reigned alone ; later emperors would sometimes rule with co-Emperors and divide administration of the Empire between them . The Romans considered the office of emperor to be distinct to that of a king . The first emperor , Augustus , resolutely refused recognition as a monarch . Although Augustus could claim that his power was authentically Republican , his successor , Tiberius , could not convincingly make the same claim . Nonetheless , for the first three hundred years of Roman Emperors , from Augustus until Diocletian , a great effort was made to emphasize that the Emperors were the leaders of a Republic . From Diocletian onwards , emperors ruled in an openly monarchic style and did not preserve the nominal principle of a republic , but the contrast with `` kings '' was maintained : although the imperial succession was generally hereditary , it was only hereditary if there was a suitable candidate acceptable to the army and the bureaucracy , so the principle of automatic inheritance was not adopted . Elements of the Republican institutional framework ( senate , consuls , and magistrates ) were preserved until the very end of the Western Empire . The Eastern ( Byzantine ) emperors ultimately adopted the title of `` Basileus '' ( ) , which had meant king in Greek , but became a title reserved solely for the Roman emperor and the ruler of the Sasanian Empire . Other kings were then referred to as rēgas . In addition to their pontifical office , some emperors were given divine status after death . With the eventual hegemony of Christianity , the emperor came to be seen as God 's chosen ruler and as a special protector and leader of the Christian Church on Earth , although in practice an emperor 's authority on Church matters was subject to challenge . The Western Roman Empire collapsed in the late 5th century . Romulus Augustulus is often considered to be the last emperor of the west after his forced abdication in 476 , although Julius Nepos maintained a claim to the title until his death in 480 . Meanwhile , in the east , emperors continued to rule from Constantinople ( `` New Rome '' ) ; these are referred to in modern scholarship as `` Byzantine emperor '' but they used no such title and called themselves `` Emperor ( or King ) of the Romans '' ( βασιλεύς Ῥωμαίων ) . Constantine XI was the last Byzantine Roman emperor in Constantinople , dying in the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453 . Due to the cultural rupture of the Turkish conquest , most western historians treat Constantine XI as the last meaningful claimant to the title Roman Emperor , although from 1453 Ottoman rulers were titled `` Caesar of Rome '' ( Turkish : Kayser-i Rum ) until the Ottoman Empire ended in 1922 . A Byzantine group of claimant Roman Emperors existed in the Empire of Trebizond until its conquest by the Ottomans in 1461 . In western Europe the title of Roman Emperor was revived by Germanic rulers , the `` Holy Roman Emperors '' , in 800 , and was used until 1806 . Background and first Roman emperor Modern historians conventionally regard Augustus as the first Emperor whereas Julius Caesar is considered the last dictator of the Roman Republic , a view having its origins in the Roman writers Plutarch , Tacitus and Cassius Dio . However , the majority of Roman writers , including Josephus , Pliny the Younger , Suetonius and Appian , as well as most of the ordinary people of the Empire , thought of Julius Caesar as the first Emperor . At the end of the Roman Republic no new , and certainly no single , title indicated the individual who held supreme power . Insofar as emperor could be seen as the English translation of imperator , then Julius Caesar had been an emperor , like several Roman generals before him . Instead , by the end of the civil wars in which Julius Caesar had led his armies , it became clear that there was certainly no consensus to return to the old-style monarchy , but that the period when several officials , bestowed with equal power by the senate , would fight one another had come to an end . Julius Caesar , and then Augustus after him , accumulated offices and titles of the highest importance in the Republic , making the power attached to those offices permanent , and preventing anyone with similar aspirations from accumulating or maintaining power for themselves . However , Julius Caesar , unlike those after him , did so without the Senate 's vote and approval . Julius Caesar held the Republican offices of consul four times and dictator five times , was appointed dictator in perpetuity ( dictator perpetuo ) in 45 BC and had been `` pontifex maximus '' for a long period . He gained these positions by senatorial consent . By the time of his assassination , he was the most powerful man in the Roman world . In his will , Caesar appointed his adopted son Octavian as his heir . On Caesar 's death , Octavian inherited his adoptive father 's property and lineage , the loyalty of most of his allies and – again through a formal process of senatorial consent – an increasing number of the titles and offices that had accrued to Caesar . A decade after Caesar 's death , Octavian 's victory over his erstwhile ally Mark Antony at Actium put an end to any effective opposition and confirmed Octavian 's supremacy . In 27 BC , Octavian appeared before the Senate and offered to retire from active politics and government ; the Senate not only requested he remain , but increased his powers and made them lifelong , awarding him the title of Augustus ( the elevated or divine one , somewhat less than a god but approaching divinity ) . Augustus stayed in office until his death ; the sheer breadth of his superior powers as princeps and permanent imperator of Rome 's armies guaranteed the peaceful continuation of what nominally remained a republic . His `` restoration '' of powers to the Senate and the people of Rome was a demonstration of his auctoritas and pious respect for tradition . Some later historians such as Tacitus would say that even at Augustus ' death , the true restoration of the Republic might have been possible . Instead , Augustus actively prepared his adopted son Tiberius to be his successor and pleaded his case to the Senate for inheritance on merit . The Senate disputed the issue but eventually confirmed Tiberius as princeps . Once in power , Tiberius took considerable pains to observe the forms and day-to-day substance of republican government . Classical period Rome had no single constitutional office , title or rank exactly equivalent to the English title `` Roman emperor '' . Romans of the Imperial era used several titles to denote their emperors , and all were associated with the pre-Imperial , Republican era . The emperor 's legal authority derived from an extraordinary concentration of individual powers and offices that were extant in the Republic rather than from a new political office ; emperors were regularly elected to the offices of consul and censor . Among their permanent privileges were the traditional Republican title of princeps senatus ( leader of the Senate ) and the religious office of pontifex maximus ( chief priest of the Roman state ) . Every emperor held the latter office and title until Gratian surrendered it in AD 382 to Pope Siricius ; it eventually became an auxiliary honor of the Bishop of Rome . These titles and offices conferred great personal prestige ( dignitas ) but the basis of an emperor 's powers derived from his auctoritas : this assumed his greater powers of command ( imperium maius ) and tribunician power ( tribunicia potestas ) as personal qualities , separate from his public office . As a result , he formally outranked provincial governors and ordinary magistrates . He had the right to enact or revoke sentences of capital punishment , was owed the obedience of private citizens ( privati ) and by the terms of the ius auxiliandi could save any plebeian from any patrician magistrate 's decision . He could veto any act or proposal of any magistrate , including the tribunes of the people ( ius intercedendi or ius intercessionis ) . His person was held to be sacrosanct . Roman magistrates on official business were expected to wear the form of toga associated with their office ; different togas were worn by different ranks ; senior magistrates had the right to togas bordered with purple . A triumphal imperator of the Republic had the right to wear the toga picta ( of solid purple , richly embroidered ) for the duration of the triumphal rite . During the Late Republic , the most powerful had this right extended . Pompey and Caesar are both thought to have worn the triumphal toga and other triumphal dress at public functions . Later emperors were distinguished by wearing togae purpurae , purple togas ; hence the phrase `` to don the purple '' for the assumption of imperial dignity . The titles customarily associated with the imperial dignity are imperator ( `` commander '' ) , which emphasizes the emperor 's military supremacy and is the source of the English word emperor ; Caesar , which was originally a name but came to be used for the designated heir ( as Nobilissimus Caesar , `` Most Noble Caesar '' ) and was retained upon accession . The ruling emperor 's title was the descriptive Augustus ( `` majestic '' or `` venerable '' , which had tinges of the divine ) , which was adopted upon accession . In Greek , these three titles were rendered as autokratōr ( `` '' ) , kaisar ( `` '' ) , and augoustos ( `` '' ) or sebastos ( `` '' ) respectively . In Diocletian 's Tetrarchy , the traditional seniorities were maintained : `` Augustus '' was reserved for the two senior emperors and `` Caesar '' for the two junior emperors – each delegated a share of power and responsibility but each an emperor-in-waiting , should anything befall his senior . As princeps senatus ( lit. , `` first man of the senate '' ) , the emperor could receive foreign embassies to Rome ; some emperors ( such as Tiberius ) are known to have delegated this task to the Senate . In modern terms these early emperors would tend to be identified as chiefs of state . The office of princeps senatus , however , was not a magistracy and did not entail imperium . At some points in the Empire 's history , the emperor 's power was nominal ; powerful praetorian prefects , masters of the soldiers and on a few occasions , other members of the Imperial household including Imperial mothers and grandmothers were the true source of power . Imperator The title imperator dates back to the Roman Republic , when a victorious commander could be hailed as imperator in the field by his troops . The Senate could then award or withhold the extraordinary honour of a triumph ; the triumphal commander retained the title until the end of his magistracy . In Roman tradition , the first triumph was that of Romulus , but the first attested recipient of the title imperator in a triumphal context is Aemilius Paulus in 189 BC . It was a title held with great pride : Pompey was hailed imperator more than once , as was Sulla , but it was Julius Caesar who first used it permanently – according to Dio , this was a singular and excessive form of flattery granted by the Senate , passed to Caesar 's adopted heir along with his name and virtually synonymous with it . In 38 BC Agrippa refused a triumph for his victories under Octavian 's command , and this precedent established the rule that the princeps should assume both the salutation and title of imperator . It seems that from then on Octavian ( later the first emperor Augustus ) used imperator as a first name ( praenomen ) : Imperator Caesar not Caesar imperator . From this the title came to denote the supreme power and was commonly used in that sense . Otho was the first to imitate Augustus , but only with Vespasian did imperator ( emperor ) become the official title by which the ruler of the Roman Empire was known . Princeps The word princeps ( plural principes ) , meaning `` first '' , was a republican term used to denote the leading citizen ( s ) of the state . It was a purely honorific title with no attached duties or powers . It was the title most preferred by Caesar Augustus as its use implies only primacy , as opposed to another of his titles , imperator , which implies dominance . Princeps , because of its republican connotation , was most commonly used to refer to the emperor in Latin ( although the emperor 's actual constitutional position was essentially `` pontifex maximus with tribunician power and imperium superseding all others '' ) as it was in keeping with the façade of the restored Republic ; the Greek word basileus ( `` king '' ) was modified to be synonymous with emperor ( and primarily came into favour after the reign of Heraclius ) as the Greeks had no republican sensibility and openly viewed the emperor as a monarch . In the era of Diocletian and beyond , princeps fell into disuse and was replaced with dominus ( `` lord '' ) ; later emperors used the formula Imperator Caesar NN . Pius Felix ( Invictus ) Augustus : NN representing the individual 's personal name ; Pius Felix meaning `` Pious and Blest '' ; and Invictus meaning `` undefeated '' . The use of princeps and dominus broadly symbolise the differences in the empire 's government , giving rise to the era designations `` Principate '' and `` Dominate '' . Evolution in Late Antiquity In 293 , following the Crisis of the Third Century which had severely damaged Imperial administration , Emperor Diocletian enacted sweeping reforms that washed away many of the vestiges and façades of republicanism which had characterized the Augustan order in favor of a more frank autocracy . As a result , historians distinguish the Augustinian period as the principate and the period from Diocletian to the 7th century reforms of Emperor Heraclius as the dominate ( from the Latin for `` lord '' . ) Reaching back to the oldest traditions of job-sharing in the republic , however , Diocletian established at the top of this new structure the Tetrarchy ( `` rule of four '' ) in an attempt to provide for smoother succession and greater continuity of government . Under the Tetrarchy , Diocletian set in place a system of co-emperors , styled `` Augustus '' , and junior emperors , styled `` Caesar '' . When a co-emperor retired ( as Diocletian and his co-emperor Maximian did in 305 ) or died , a junior `` Caesar '' would succeed him and the co-emperors would appoint new Caesars as needed . The four members of the Imperial college ( as historians call the arrangement ) shared military and administrative challenges by each being assigned specific geographic areas of the empire . From this innovation , often but not consistently repeated over the next 187 years , comes the notion of an east-west partition of the empire that became popular with historians long after the practice had stopped . The two halves of empire , while often run as de facto separate entities day-to-day , were always considered and seen , legally and politically , as separate administrative divisions of a single , insoluble imperium by the Romans of the time . The final period of co-emperorship began in 395 , when Emperor Theodosius I 's sons Arcadius and Honorius succeeded as co-emperors . Eighty-five years later , following Germanic migrations which had reduced the empire 's effective control across Brittania , Gaul and Hispania and a series of military coup d'état which drove Emperor Nepos out of Italy , the idea of dividing the position of emperor was formally abolished by Emperor Zeno ( 480 ) . The Roman Empire survived in the east until 1453 , but the marginalization of the former heartland of Italy to the empire had a profound cultural impact on the empire and the position of emperor . In 620 , the official language was changed from Latin to Greek . The Greek-speaking inhabitants were Romaioi ( Ῥωμαῖοι ) , and were still considered Romans by themselves and the populations of Eastern Europe , the Near East , India , and China . But many in Western Europe began to refer to the political entity as the `` Greek Empire '' . The evolution of the church in the no-longer imperial city of Rome and the church in the now supreme Constantinople began to follow divergent paths , culminating in the schism between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox faiths . The position of emperor was increasingly influenced by Near Eastern concepts of kingship . Starting with Emperor Heraclius , Roman emperors styled themselves `` King of Kings '' ( from the imperial Persian Shahanshah ) from 627 and `` Basileus '' ( from the title used by Alexander the Great ) from 629 . The later period of the empire is today called the Byzantine Empire as a matter of scholarly convention . Titles and positions Although these are the most common offices , titles , and positions , not all Roman emperors used them , nor were all of them used at the same time in history . The consular and censorial offices especially were not an integral part of the Imperial dignity , and were usually held by persons other than the reigning emperor . * Augustus : ( also `` '' or `` '' ) , `` Majestic '' or `` Venerable '' ; an honorific cognomen exclusive to the emperor * Autokrator : ( , Autokratōr ) , ( lit . `` Self-ruler '' ) ; Greek title equivalent to imperator or commander-in-chief * Basileus : ( ) , Greek for king , popularly used in the east to refer to the emperor ; a formal title of the Roman emperor beginning with Heraclius * Caesar : ( also `` '' ) , `` Caesar '' ; initially the cognomen of Julius Caesar , it was transformed into a title ; an honorific name later used to identify an emperor-designate * Censor : a Republican office held jointly by two former consuls every five years for the purpose of conducting the lustrum that determined the role of citizens ; the censor could audit all other magistrates and all state finances * Consul : the highest magistracy of the Roman Republic with a one-year term and one coequal officeholder ; the consul was the head of state within Rome . The last emperor to be bestowed the title by the Senate was Constans II , who was also the last emperor to visit Rome . * Dominus ( `` Lord '' or `` Master '' ) : an honorific title mainly associated with the Dominate * Dominus Noster ( `` Our Lord '' ) : an honorific title ; the praenomen of later emperors . * Imperator ( `` Commander '' or `` Commander-in-Chief '' ) : a victory title taken on accession to the purple and after a major military victory * Imperator Destinatus ( `` Destined to be Emperor '' ) : heir apparent , used by Septimius Severus for Caracalla * Invictus ( `` Unconquered '' ) , an honorific title . * Nobilissimus : ( , Nōbelissimos ) , ( `` Most Noble '' ) , one of the highest imperial titles held by the emperor * Pater Patriae ( `` Father of the Fatherland '' ) : an honorific title * Perpetuus ( `` Universal '' ) : an honorific title of later emperors * Pius Felix ( `` Pious and Blessed '' ) : an honorific title * Pontifex Maximus ( `` Supreme Pontiff '' or `` Chief Priest '' ) : in the Republican era , the Pontifex Maximus was the head of the College of Pontiffs , the religious body that oversaw the ancestral public religion of the Romans ; Julius Caesar had become Pontifex Maximus before he was elected consul , and the precedent set by his heir Augustus in consolidating supreme authority through this religious office was in general followed by his successors until the empire came under Christian rule * Princeps ( `` First Citizen '' or `` Leading Citizen '' ) : an honorific title denoting the status of the emperor as first among equals , associated mainly with the Principate * Princeps Iuventutis : ( `` Prince of Youth '' ) , an honorific title awarded to a presumptive emperor-designate * Princeps Senatus : ( `` First Man of the Senate '' ) , a Republican office with a five-year term * Sebastos : ( ) , ( `` Venerable '' ) ; the Greek rendition of the imperial title Augustus * Sebastokrator : ( , Sebastokratōr ) , ( `` Venerable Ruler ) ; a senior court title from the compound words `` sebastos '' ( `` venerable '' , the Greek equivalent of the Latin Augustus ) and `` kratōr '' ( `` ruler '' , the same element as is found in `` autokratōr '' , `` emperor '' ) * Tribunicia Potestas : ( `` Tribunician Power '' ) ; the powers of a tribune of the people , including sacrosanctity and inviolability of his person , and the veto over any decision by any other magistrate , assembly , or the Senate ( the emperor could not be a `` tribune '' because a tribune was a plebeian by definition , therefore the emperor had all the powers of a tribune without actually being one ) Powers When Augustus established the Princeps , he turned down supreme authority in exchange for a collection of various powers and offices , which in itself was a demonstration of his auctoritas ( `` authority '' ) . As holding princeps senatus , the emperor declared the opening and closure of each Senate session , declared the Senate 's agenda , imposed rules and regulation for the Senate to follow , and met with foreign ambassadors in the name of the Senate . Being pontifex maximus made the emperor the chief administrator of religious affairs , granting him the power to conduct all religious ceremonies , consecrate temples , control the Roman calendar ( adding or removing days as needed ) , appoint the vestal virgins and some flamens , lead the Collegium Pontificum , and summarize the dogma of the Roman religion . While these powers granted the emperor a great deal of personal pride and influence , they did not include legal authority . In 23 BC , Augustus gave the emperorship its legal power . The first was Tribunicia Potestas , or the powers of the tribune of the plebs without actually holding the office ( which would have been impossible , since a tribune was by definition a plebeian , whereas Augustus , although born into a plebeian family , had become a patrician when he was adopted into the gens Julia ) . This endowed the emperor with inviolability ( sacrosanctity ) of his person , and the ability to pardon any civilian for any act , criminal or otherwise . By holding the powers of the tribune , the emperor could prosecute anyone who interfered with the performance of his duties . The emperor 's tribuneship granted him the right to convene the Senate at his will and lay proposals before it , as well as the ability to veto any act or proposal by any magistrate , including the actual tribune of the plebeians . Also , as holder of the tribune 's power , the emperor would convoke the Council of the People , lay legislation before it , and served as the council 's president . But his tribuneship only granted him power within Rome itself . He would need another power to veto the act of governors and that of the consuls while in the provinces . To solve this problem , Augustus managed to have the emperor be given the right to hold two types of imperium . The first being consular imperium while he was in Rome , and imperium maius outside of Rome . While inside the walls of Rome , the reigning consuls and the emperor held equal authority , each being able to veto each other 's proposals and acts , with the emperor holding all of the consul 's powers . But outside of Rome , the emperor outranked the consuls and could veto them without the same effects on himself . Imperium Maius also granted the emperor authority over all the provincial governors , making him the ultimate authority in provincial matters and gave him the supreme command of all of Rome 's legions . With Imperium Maius , the emperor was also granted the power to appoint governors of imperial provinces without the interference of the Senate . Also , Imperium Maius granted the emperor the right to veto the governors of the provinces and even the reigning consul while in the provinces . Lineages and epochs Principate The nature of the imperial office and the Principate was established under Julius Caesar 's heir and posthumously adopted son , Caesar Augustus , and his own heirs , the descendants of his wife Livia from her first marriage to a scion of the distinguished Claudian clan . This Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end when the Emperor Nero – a great-great-grandson of Augustus through his daughter and of Livia through her son – was deposed in 68 . Nero was followed by a succession of usurpers throughout 69 , commonly called the `` Year of the Four Emperors '' . The last of these , Vespasian , established his own Flavian dynasty . Nerva , who replaced the last Flavian emperor , Vespasian 's son Domitian , in 96 , was elderly and childless , and chose therefore to adopt an heir , Trajan , from outside his family . When Trajan acceded to the purple he chose to follow his predecessor 's example , adopting Hadrian as his own heir , and the practice then became the customary manner of imperial succession for the next century , producing the `` Five Good Emperors '' and the Empire 's period of greatest stability . The last of the Good Emperors , Marcus Aurelius , chose his natural son Commodus as his successor rather than adopting an heir . Commodus 's misrule led to his murder on 31 December 192 , following which a brief period of instability quickly gave way to Septimius Severus , who established the Severan dynasty which , except for an interruption in 217–218 , held the purple until 235 . Crisis of the Third Century The accession of Maximinus Thrax marks both the close and the opening of an era . It was one of the last attempts by the increasingly impotent Roman Senate to influence the succession . Yet it was the second time that a man had achieved the purple while owing his advancement purely to his military career ; both Vespasian and Septimius Severus had come from noble or middle-class families , while Thrax was born a commoner . He never visited the city of Rome during his reign , which marks the beginning of a series

sfq_19820--Roman_emperor.txt

Which Roman Emperor committed suicide in 68 AD after being declared an enemy of the state by the senate?

Absolutely Fabulous , also known as Ab Fab , is a BBC television sitcom created by , written by and starring Jennifer Saunders . It is based on a 1990 French & Saunders sketch created by Saunders and Dawn French . The series features Saunders as Edina Monsoon , a heavy-drinking , drug-abusing PR agent who spends her time chasing bizarre fads in a desperate attempt to stay young and `` hip '' . Edina is joined in her quest by magazine editor Patsy Stone ( played by Joanna Lumley ) , her best friend and enabler , whose drug abuse , alcohol consumption , and promiscuity far eclipse Edina 's comparatively mild self-destructive behaviour . Despite being a middle-aged , twice-divorced career woman , Edina is reliant upon the support of her daughter Saffron ( Julia Sawalha ) , a secondary school pupil ( and later university student ) whose constant care of her mother has left her a bitter cynic . The series also stars June Whitfield as Edina 's sarcastic and thieving mother , and Jane Horrocks as Edina 's brainless personal assistant . Absolutely Fabulous returned for three special episodes which were originally broadcast on 25 December 2011 , 1 January 2012 and 23 July 2012 to mark the show 's 20th anniversary . The episode broadcast on 23 July 2012 featured the 2012 Summer Olympics which were being held in London that week . A film based on the series was released to theatres on 1 July 2016 . Production The show has had an extended and sporadic run . The first three series were broadcast on the BBC from 1992 to 1995 , followed by a series finale in the form of a two-part television film entitled The Last Shout in 1996 . Creator Jennifer Saunders revived the show for a fourth series in 2001 , after having written and submitted a pilot entitled Mirrorball , which recruited nearly all of the original cast in new roles . The pilot was intended to be turned into a series of episodes . However , Saunders felt the characters were far too rich and interesting to put aside , and were far better suited for her new story ideas . Instead of Mirrorball , a new series of Absolutely Fabulous was proposed to the BBC , which later commissioned the fourth series in 2001 . From 2001 to 2004 , two full series were produced , along with three one-off hour-long specials ; Gay ( retitled and issued as Absolutely Fabulous in New York for the United States ) in 2002 , Cold Turkey , a Christmas special in 2003 , and White Box ( another series finale ) , which aired in 2004 . A Comic Relief sketch was broadcast in 2005 . In August 2011 , Lumley confirmed the planned filming of three new episodes . In 2011 , plans for a 20th anniversary revival were welcomed in The Guardian , which applauded the show as `` prophetic '' . The first new special was broadcast on 25 December with the second episode being shown on 1 January 2012 . The third , and final special coincided with the 2012 Summer Olympics , with Stella McCartney appearing in a cameo role . A film version of the series was released in summer 2016 . In the United States , the first of the three new 20th anniversary specials aired in January 2012 for broadcast by both BBC America and Logo Channel . Both channels also co-produced the 20th Anniversary episodes , although Logo has removed some scenes for its airings . BBC America broadcast it in full . Both channels aired the episode in a 40-minute block to allow for commercial interruptions . Absolutely Fabulous is ranked as the 17th greatest British TV show of all time by the British Film Institute . A scene from the show was included in the 100 Greatest TV Moments programme broadcast by Channel 4 . In 1997 , the pilot episode , `` Fashion '' , was ranked number 47 on TV Guide 's `` 100 Greatest Episodes of All-Time '' list . In 2004 and 2007 , the series was ranked number 24 and number 29 on TV Guide 's Top Cult Shows Ever list . Background Absolutely Fabulous evolved from a French & Saunders sketch called `` Modern Mother and Daughter '' ( from series 3 episode 6 ) , which starred Saunders as the mother ( named 'Adrianna ' ) and French as the daughter , already named Saffron . The sketch revolved around a middle-aged , single mother who acted like a teenager , and was reliant upon the emotional and financial support of her teenage daughter , who behaved like a middle-aged woman . It has no connection , other than the character 's name , to the earlier film Eddie Monsoon : A Life ? , a comedy play written by Saunders ' husband Adrian Edmondson in 1984 for the TV series The Comic Strip Presents .... The name `` Edina Monsoon '' is derived from Edmondson 's name and `` Eddy Monsoon '' is a nickname of his . According to an article published in The Times , the character of Edina was based on Lynne Franks . Franks believed Saunders had observed her and her children in detail after joining them on a family holiday . Josh Howie , Franks ' son , reported that his mother was upset because one of her best friends `` had taken the piss out of her '' in a TV show . Saunders revealed in 2012 that she was also inspired by pop band Bananarama with whom she and Dawn French had become friends after their Comic Relief collaboration in 1989 . `` The nights with Bananarama were some of the best nights of my life , and I got a lot of gags from Bananarama because they were big vodka drinkers ... when I started doing AbFab , I remembered all of the falls that I saw Bananarama do . I once saw one of them coming out of a cab bottom first and hitting the road , and I thought 'that 's class ' . Although Ab Fab was produced by Saunders and French 's production company , Dawn French appeared on the show only once , in a cameo in the first-series episode `` Magazine '' . Three new specials were announced to celebrate the show 's 20th anniversary with the first special , `` Identity '' airing on 25 December 2011 . Jon Plowman , executive producer and original producer of the series , said : `` Viewers have been fantastically loyal in their devotion to our show , so we 're really thrilled to say that it 's coming back for three new shows to celebrate our 20th anniversary . All of the originals who are back together again are still truly absolutely fabulous and the new adventures of Edina , Patsy , Saffy , Bubble and Mother , plus a few surprising guests , will be a real treat for viewers . '' Saunders announced in November 2011 that she has begun work on a film version of the series . Plot Edina `` Eddy '' Monsoon ( Saunders ) and Patsy Stone ( Lumley ) are a pair of high-powered career women on the London fashion scene . Eddy runs her own PR firm , and Patsy holds a sinecure position at a top British fashion magazine . The two women use their considerable financial resources to indulge in alcohol , recreational drugs , and chasing the latest fads in an attempt to maintain their youth and recapture their glory days as Mods in Swinging London . In 2011 , they are still chain-smokers . The partnership is largely driven by Patsy , who is both co-dependent and enabler to Eddy . Their lifestyle inevitably leads to a variety of personal crises , which are invariably resolved by Eddy 's daughter , Saffron Monsoon ( Julia Sawalha ) , whose constant involvement in their exploits have left her increasingly bitter and cynical . Cast and characters Main Recurring Episodes Absolutely Fabulous first aired on 12 November 1992 and ran for three series , until 4 May 1995 , when the sixth episode of series 3 was billed as the last ever episode . However , the following year in November 1996 , two specials called `` The Last Shout '' were broadcast and were also billed as the last ever episodes . Both episodes featured end sequences with flashes to the future . However , after writing Mirrorball , Jennifer Saunders decided she had more ideas , leading to a fourth series , which premiered on 31 August 2001 . A fifth series and three specials followed , the last of which aired on 25 December 2004 . This was followed by a short special for Comic Relief in March 2005 . In July 2005 , Saunders announced she would not be writing or playing Edina again , stating `` The 6am calls to go to make-up and all the promotional work wear you down . I would like to write and direct—that would be my joy '' . However , in November 2010 , Lumley revealed to Playbill magazine that she had recently spoken to Saunders about the possibility of filming a new series . Lumley and Saunders reunited for the M & S Christmas advert in 2009 , along with other stars such as Twiggy and Stephen Fry . On 29 August 2011 , it was announced that a further series of three programmes was being made to celebrate the 20th anniversary of the original production . The first of these , `` Identity '' , was shown on Christmas Day 2011 and the second , `` Job '' , was shown on New Year 's Day 2012 . The last , entitled `` Olympics '' , aired on 23 July 2012 . The episodes were jointly co-produced by Logo , and BBC America in the US . On 3 January 2012 , following the success of the 20th Anniversary Specials , it was rumoured that Saunders was set to write another Christmas special for 2012 . The BBC were rumoured to also be urging her to write a sixth series for 2013 . Saunders denied the reports of additional episodes via her Twitter account . Film In 2011 , prior to the release of the new episodes for 2011/2012 , Deadline.com reported that Saunders planned to begin writing a script for a film of Absolutely Fabulous in 2012 . The film would begin with Edina and Patsy waking up on an oligarch 's deserted yacht , drifting in the ocean . Saunders later said that the film will be set on the French Riviera . In March 2012 , Saunders confirmed that she was working on the script . She said of the film 's plotline : Saunders also stated that now that she had announced plans for a feature , there was no going back . She would do it for no other reason than to have her alter-ego and Patsy walk down the red carpet at the film 's premiere . In April 2013 Saunders said on the Alan Carr Chatty Man show that she had doubts about the film as she felt the cast were `` too old '' . She felt pressure to write it and did n't want to commit herself to it at this early stage . On 4 January 2014 whilst appearing on The Jonathan Ross Show , Saunders officially confirmed that the movie will definitely be happening , as she felt obliged to write a script for a film adaptation after threatening it for so long . Saunders was quoted as saying : `` Joanna Lumley kept announcing it and saying , 'Yes she 's going to do it , ' and then Dawn French on our radio show at Christmas said , ' I bet £100,000 that you do n't write it , ' so now I have to write it , otherwise I have to pay her £100,000 ' '' . In April 2014 , Saunders again confirmed on BBC Breakfast that she was in the process of writing the film , and gave a prospective release date of sometime during 2015 . Principal photography on the film began on 12 October 2015 in the south of France . Special guests Many celebrities , mainly British or American , appeared in the series , most of them as themselves . They include : * Sylvia Anderson * Christopher Biggins * Crispin Bonham Carter * Helena Bonham Carter * Jo Brand * Fern Britton * Simon Brodkin * Emma Bunton * Naomi Campbell * Linford Christie * Nicky Clarke * Terence Conran * Richard Curtis * Carl Davis * Daniela Denby-Ashe * Marcella Detroit * Sacha Distel * Minnie Driver * Lindsay Duncan * Adrian Edmondson * Britt Ekland * Idris Elba * Marianne Faithfull * Jesse Tyler Ferguson * Dawn French * Mariella Frostrup * Stephen Gately * Jean-Paul Gaultier * Whoopi Goldberg * Sofie Gråbøl * Richard E Grant * Germaine Greer * Tanni Grey-Thompson * Debbie Harry * Miranda Hart * David Haye * Tom Hollander * Kelly Holmes * Colin Jackson * Elton John * Mark Kermode * La Roux * Christian Lacroix * Nathan Lane * Leigh Lawson * Robert Lindsay * Lulu * Stella McCartney * Suzy Menkes * Laurie Metcalf * Kate Moss * Graham Norton * Erin O'Connor * Bruce Oldfield * Kate O'Mara * Anita Pallenberg * Suzi Quatro * Zandra Rhodes * Mandy Rice-Davies * Richard and Judy * Miranda Richardson * Kristin Scott Thomas * Meera Syal * Twiggy * Rufus Wainwright * Kirsty Wark * Ruby Wax * Dale Winton * Katy Wix * Clarissa Dickson Wright Theme song The theme song for Absolutely Fabulous is `` This Wheel 's on Fire '' , written by Bob Dylan and Rick Danko and performed by Julie Driscoll and Saunders ' husband Adrian Edmondson . The song was also sung by Marianne Faithfull and P. P. Arnold for the `` Last Shout '' special in 1996 . Hermine Demoriane sang a French version of the theme song over the closing credits of the episode `` Paris '' . At the end of the episode `` Birthday '' , Edina and Patsy sang the song together using a karaoke machine . More recently , it has been sung by Debbie Harry , who also guest-starred in the 2002 Christmas special `` Gay '' . For series four , a line sung by David Bowie , `` Ziggy played guitar '' , from the song `` Ziggy Stardust '' played at the end of each episode . Due to copyright issues , the theme song is missing from many of the US Region 1 DVDs , being replaced by an instrumental version of the song . Also excised from the US DVD release is the musical number from Chicago performed by Horrocks , Gaffney , and Ryan , during a dream sequence in the series 5 episode `` Birthin ' '' . In addition to the official theme song , in 1994 , Pet Shop Boys recorded a song for Comic Relief using excerpts of dialogue from the series put to dance music . The single was not officially a Pet Shop Boys release : the artist was simply given as `` Absolutely Fabulous '' . It peaked at number 6 in the UK Singles Chart in July 1994 . The music video featured clips from the show and specially recorded footage of the Pet Shop Boys with Patsy and Edina . On 10 June 2016 , Kylie Minogue released her version of `` This Wheel ’ s on Fire '' for Absolutely Fabulous : The Movie , prior to the film 's release in July 2016 . Other countries In the United States , Absolutely Fabulous has been broadcast on Comedy Central , some public television stations , but not as part of the PBS program offerings , BBC America , Oxygen Network , and as of 2011 , Logo , a gay-oriented channel . In Canada , the programme has appeared on the BBC Canada , the CBC , and The Comedy Network . In Australia , all series were originally shown on the ABC , and on cable on UK.TV , and moved to The Comedy Channel in 2007 . Repeats of the first three series were also shown on the Seven network . The ABC continues to show it sporadically and shows Christmas Specials and occasional repeats of series 5 episodes . ABC2 also shows repeats of the show . In New Zealand all five series were broadcast on TVNZ . In India , all five series , including the specials , have been shown on BBC Entertainment . In Portugal , Ab Fab has been shown on RTP2 . In Serbia , the first series was aired in 1998 , through a network of local television stations . In 2004 the series was aired in its entirety on B92 , while in the Czech Republic all episodes have been shown . In the Republic of Macedonia , all episodes have been shown a couple of times on Sitel . In the Netherlands and Flanders , the series is popular , still being regularly re-broadcast by the VPRO and Canvas , respectively . In Sweden , all episodes were first broadcast by SVT , but reruns have later appeared on other channels . In Germany , it was broadcast by the Franco-German TV network Arte and gay-oriented channel TIMM . In France , before it was rerun on terrestrial TV arte , it was successively premiered on pay TV channel Canal + , cable channel Jimmy , and is now broadcast on France 4 . In Finland , the series was broadcast by YLE TV1 . In Estonia , the series was broadcast by ETV . In Brazil , it was aired on GNT . In Poland , two series were broadcast by Wizja Jeden , later by TVP3 , TVN7 and BBC Entertainment . Adaptations and related shows Absolutely Fabulous inspired a French feature film , called Absolument fabuleux , in 2001 . It was written and directed by Gabriel Aghion , and starred Josiane Balasko as Eddy and Nathalie Baye as Patsy . Saunders had a small cameo alongside Catherine Deneuve as a spectator at a fashion show . Amanda Lear was asked to play the part of Patsy but turned it down laughingly , saying she 'd `` already lived it '' . A proposed American remake that would have starred Carrie Fisher and Barbara Carrera was put into motion by Roseanne Barr but never got off the ground . However , Barr did incorporate many elements of the show into the final season of her eponymous show Roseanne , in which her character wins the lottery : Saunders and Lumley reprised their characters Edina and Patsy , and Mo Gaffney also appeared in the episode , but not as her character Bo . It was announced on 7 October 2008 that an American version of the series was in the works . The series was to be relocated to Los Angeles . Saturday Night Live writer Christine Zander worked on the new scripts and would have been executive producer along with Saunders and BBC Worldwide 's Ian Moffitt . Sony Pictures Television , BBC Worldwide , and indie Tantamount were producing the new series for Fox , which greenlighted the pilot as a possible Fall 2009 entry with Kathryn Hahn as Eddy and Kristen Johnston as Patsy . In May 2009 , Fox decided not to commission a full series . The stage for the kitchen in Ab Fab is now used as the stage for the shop in the British comedy Miranda . Miranda Hart , creator of the show , had previously appeared on Absolutely Fabulous . Mirrorball Mirrorball was a pilot set in the London theatre scene , starring the cast of Absolutely Fabulous as alternative characters . While writing and filming the show , Saunders was inspired to revive Absolutely Fabulous for a fourth series , which resulted in her abandoning Mirrorball . It was eventually aired as a television special , and is included as a special feature on the DVD of the fourth season . Home video releases Absolutely Fabulous was initially released on VHS in the UK by BBC Video ending with the 8-VHS box set Series 1–4 in November 2002 . All episodes were later released on DVD , including a five-DVD box set titled The Complete DVD Collection : Series 1–4 in 2002 . All releases were distributed by BBC Video and 2 Entertain ( post 2004 ) except for The Last Shout which was released by Vision Video and Universal Studios . The entire series is also available on demand on iTunes . When the first three series were re-released on DVD , they did not include corresponding cover photography to their series : Series 1 included an image from the Series 3 episode `` Jealous '' , Series 2 had an image from Series 3 episode `` Doorhandle '' and Series 3 is from the Series 2 episode `` Poor '' . All other releases included imagery from the correct series , as do the original VHS releases . In North America , all episodes have been released on DVD by BBC Video and Warner Home Video , including a complete collection named Absolutely Everything . The Last Shout and Gay ( which were released in the UK individually ) were released as a collection called Absolutely Special in 2003 . Another feature-length special White Box was released exclusively to the American market . It was eventually released in the United Kingdom on 15 November 2010 with its inclusion in the Absolutely Everything box set . Other releases include Absolutely Not , a bloopers and outtakes collection , and Absolutely Fabulous : A Life , a mockumentary including 15 minutes of new material interspersed with clips from the series . Both were only released on VHS in the UK ; the latter was also released as a special feature on the box set release Absolutely Everything in America . UK releases ; VHS In the United Kingdom , VHS releases were distributed by BBC Video , except The Last Shout which was released by Vision Video , the final release being in 2002 . ; DVD All episodes have now been released on DVD in the United Kingdom . `` White Box '' which was released in North America , was never available individually in the UK and was not available until its inclusion in the 2010 Absolutely Fabulous : Absolutely Everything box set . The North American release Absolutely Special has been released in the UK as two separate releases : The Last Shout and Gay . All releases in the UK were distributed by BBC Video except The Last Shout which was released by Vision Video . North American releases In North America , every episode of the series has been released . All releases are distributed by BBC Video and Warner Home Video . ; DVD Australian releases ; DVD Ratings

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Who plays the role of Bubble in Absolutely Fabulous?

The dromedary ( or ) , also called the Arabian camel ( Camelus dromedarius ) , is a large , even-toed ungulate with one hump on its back . It is one of the three species of camel that was given its current binomial name by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 . The dromedary is the largest camel after the Bactrian camel ; adult males stand at the shoulder , while females are tall . Males typically weigh between 400 and , and females weigh between 300 and . The species ' distinctive features include its long , curved neck , narrow chest , a single hump ( compared with two on the Bactrian camel ) , and long hairs on the throat , shoulders and hump . The coat is generally a shade of brown . The hump , 20 cm tall or more , is made of fat bound together by fibrous tissue . Dromedaries are mainly active during daylight hours . They form herds of about 20 individuals , which are led by a dominant male . This camel feeds on foliage and desert vegetation ; several adaptations , such as the ability to tolerate greater than 30 % of the water content of the body , allow it to thrive in its desert habitat . Mating occurs annually and peaks in the rainy season ; females bear a single calf after a gestation of 15 months . The dromedary has not occurred naturally in the wild for nearly 2,000 years . It was probably first domesticated in Somalia or the Arabian Peninsula about 4,000 years ago . In the wild , the dromedary inhabited arid regions , including the Sahara Desert . The domesticated dromedary is generally found in the semi-arid to arid regions of the Old World , mainly in Africa , and a significant feral population occurs in Australia , and were also recently introduced to North America , more specifically , Nevada in the United States . Products of the dromedary , including its meat and milk , support several north Arabian tribes ; it is also commonly used for riding and as a beast of burden . Etymology The common name `` dromedary '' comes from the Old French dromedaire or the Late Latin dromedarius . These originated from the Greek word dromas , δρομάς ( ο , η ) ( GEN ( γενική ) dromados , δρομάδος ) , meaning `` running '' or `` runner '' , used in Greek in the combination ( dromas kamelos ) , literally `` running camel '' , to refer to the dromedary . The first recorded use in English of the name `` dromedary '' occurred in the 14th century . The dromedary possibly originated in Arabia and is therefore sometimes referred to as the Arabian camel . The word `` camel '' generally refers either to the dromedary or the congeneric Bactrian ; it may have been derived from the Latin word camelus , the Greek kamēlos , or an old Semitic language such as the Hebrew gāmāl or the Arabic ǧamal . Taxonomy and classification The dromedary shares the genus Camelus with the Bactrian camel ( C. bactrianus ) and the wild Bactrian camel ( C. ferus , sometimes considered a subspecies of the Bactrian camel ) . The dromedary belongs to the family Camelidae . The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle ( 4th century BC ) was the first to describe the species of Camelus . He named two species in his History of Animals ; the one-humped Arabian camel and the two-humped Bactrian camel . The dromedary was given its current binomial name Camelus dromedarius by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 publication Systema Naturae . In 1927 , British veterinarian Arnold Leese classified dromedaries by their basic habitats ; the hill camels are small , muscular animals and efficient beasts of burden ; the larger plains camels could be further divided into the desert type that can bear light burdens and are apt for riding , and the riverine type – slow animals that can bear heavy burdens ; and those intermediate between these two types . In 2007 , Peng Cui of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and colleagues carried out a phylogenetic study of the evolutionary relationships between the two tribes of Camelidae ; Camelini – consisting of the three Camelus species ( the study considered the wild Bactrian camel as a subspecies of the Bactrian camel ) – and Lamini , which consists of the alpaca ( Vicugna pacos ) , the guanaco ( Lama guanicoe ) , the llama ( L. glama ) and the vicuña ( V. vicugna ) . The study showed the two tribes had diverged 25 million years ago ( early Miocene ) , earlier than previously estimated from North American fossils . Speciation began first in Lamini as the alpaca came into existence 10 million years ago ( late Pleistocene ) . Nearly two million years later , the dromedary and the Bactrian camel emerged as two independent species . The dromedary and the Bactrian camel often interbreed to produce fertile offspring . Where the ranges of the species overlap , such as in northern Punjab , Persia and Afghanistan , the phenotypic differences between them tend to decrease as a result of extensive crossbreeding . The fertility of their hybrid has given rise to speculation that the dromedary and the Bactrian camel should be merged into a single species with two varieties . However , a 1994 analysis of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene showed the species display 10.3 % divergence in their sequences . Genetics and hybrids The dromedary has 74 diploid chromosomes , the same as other camelids . The autosomes consist of five pairs of small to medium-sized metacentrics and submetacentrics . The X chromosome is the largest in the metacentric and submetacentric group . There are 31 pairs of acrocentrics . The dromedary 's karyotype is similar to that of the Bactrian camel . Camel hybridisation began in the first millennium BC . For about a thousand years , Bactrian camels and dromedaries have been successfully bred in regions where they are sympatric to form hybrids with either a long , slightly lopsided hump or two humps – one small and one large . These hybrids are larger and stronger than their parents – they can bear greater loads . A cross between a first generation female hybrid and a male Bactrian camel can also produce a hybrid . Hybrids from other combinations tend to be bad-tempered or runts . Evolution The extinct Protylopus , which occurred in North America during the upper Eocene , is the oldest and the smallest-known camel . During the transition from Pliocene to Pleistocene , several mammals faced extinction . This period marked the successful radiation of the Camelus species , which migrated over the Bering Strait and dispersed widely into Asia , eastern Europe and Africa . By the Pleistocene , ancestors of the dromedary occurred in the Middle East and northern Africa . The modern dromedary probably evolved in the hotter , arid regions of western Asia from the Bactrian camel , which in turn was closely related to the earliest Old World camels . This hypothesis is supported by the fact that the dromedary foetus has two humps , while in the adult male an anterior vestigial hump is present . A jawbone of a dromedary that dated from 8,200 BC was found in Saudi Arabia on the southern coast of the Red Sea . In 1975 , Richard Bulliet of Columbia University wrote that the dromedary exists in large numbers in areas from which the Bactrian camel has disappeared ; the converse is also true to a great extent . He said this substitution could have taken place because of the heavy dependence on the milk , meat and wool of the dromedary by Syrian and Arabian nomads , while the Asiatic people domesticated the Bactrian camel but did not have to depend upon its products . Characteristics The dromedary is the largest camel after the Bactrian camel . Adult males range in height between at the shoulder ; females range between . Males typically weigh between 400 and ; females range between 300 and . The distinctive features are its long , curved neck , narrow chest and single hump ( the Bactrian camel has two ) , thick , double-layered eyelashes and bushy eyebrows . They have sharp vision and a good sense of smell . The male has a soft palate ( dulaa in Arabic ) nearly 18 cm long , which it inflates to produce a deep pink sac . The palate , which is often mistaken for the tongue , dangles from one side of the mouth and is used to attract females during the mating season . The coat is generally brown but can range from black to nearly white . Leese reported piebald dromedaries in Kordofan and Darfur in Sudan . The hair is long and concentrated on the throat , shoulders and the hump . The large eyes are protected by prominent supraorbital ridges ; the ears are small and rounded . The hump is at least 20 cm high . The dromedary has long , powerful legs with two toes on each foot . The feet resemble flat , leathery pads . Like the giraffe , dromedaries moves both legs on one side of the body at the same time . Compared with the Bactrian camel , the dromedary has a lighter build , longer limbs , shorter hairs , a harder palate and an insigificant or absent ethmoidal fissure . Unlike the camelids of the genus Lama , the dromedary has a hump , and in comparison has a longer tail , smaller ears , squarer feet and a greater height at the shoulder . The dromedary has four teats instead of the two in the Lama species . Anatomy The cranium of the dromedary consists of a postorbital bar , a tympanic bulla filled with spongiosa , a well-defined sagittal crest , a long facial part and an indented nasal bone . Typically , there are eight sternal and four non-sternal pairs of ribs . The spinal cord is nearly 214 cm long ; it terminates in the second and third sacral vertebra . The fibula is reduced to a malleolar bone . The dromedary is a digitigrade animal ; it walks on its toes , which are known as digits . It lacks the second and fifth digits . The front feet are 19 cm wide and 18 cm long ; they are larger than the hind feet , which measure 17 cm wide and 16 cm long . The dromedary has 22 milk teeth , which are eventually replaced by 34 permanent teeth . The dental formula for permanent dentition is , and for milk dentition . In the juvenile , the lower first molars develop by 12 to 15 months and the permanent lower incisors appear at 4.5 to 6.5 years of age . All teeth are in use by 8 years . The lenses of the eyes contain crystallin , which constitutes 8 to 13 % of the protein present there . The skin is black ; the epidermis is thick and the dermis is thick . The hump is composed of fat bound together by fibrous tissue . There are no glands on the face ; males have glands that appear to be modified apocrine sweat glands that secrete pungent , coffee-coloured fluid during the rut , located on either side of the neck midline . The glands generally grow heavier during the rut , and range from 20 to . Each cover hair is associated with an arrector pilli muscle , a hair follicle , a ring of sebaceous glands and a sweat gland . Females have cone-shaped , four-chambered mammary glands that are long with a base diameter of . These glands can produce milk with up to 90 % water content even if the mother is at risk of dehydration . The heart weighs around 5 kg ; it has two ventricles with the tip curving to the left . The pulse rate is 50 beats per minute . The dromedary is the only mammal with oval red blood corpuscles . The pH of the blood varies from 7.1 to 7.6 ( slightly alkaline ) . The individual 's state of hydration and sex , and the time of year can influence blood values . The lungs lack lobes . A dehydrated camel has a lower breathing rate . Each kidney has a capacity of 858 cm3 , and can produce urine with high chloride concentrations . Like the horse , the dromedary has no gall bladder . The grayish violet , crescent-like spleen weighs less than 500 g. The triangular , four-chambered liver weighs ; its dimensions are : 60 * . Reproductive system The ovaries are reddish , circular and flattened . They are enclosed in a conical bursa and have the dimensions 4 * during anestrus . The oviducts are 25 - long . The uterus is bicornuate . The vagina is 3 - long and has well-developed Bartholin 's glands . The vulva is 3 - deep and has a small clitoris . The placenta is diffuse and epitheliochorial , with a crescent-like chorion . The penis is covered by a triangular penile sheath that opens backwards ; it is about 60 cm long . The scrotum is located high in the perineum with the testicles in separate sacs . Testicles are 7 - long , deep and 5 cm wide . The right testicle is often smaller than the left . The typical mass of either testicle is less than 140 g ; during the rut the mass increases from 165 to . The Cowper 's gland is white , almond-shaped and lacks seminal vesicles ; the prostate gland is dark yellow , disc-shaped and divided into two lobes . Health and diseases The dromedary generally suffers from fewer diseases than other domestic livestock such as goats and cattle . Temperature fluctuations occur throughout the day in a healthy dromedary – the temperature falls to its minimum at dawn , rises until sunset and falls during the night . Nervous camels may vomit if they are carelessly handled ; this does not always indicate a disorder . Rutting males may develop nausea . The dromedary is prone to trypanosomiasis , a disease caused by a parasite transmitted by the tsetse fly . The main symptoms are recurring fever , anaemia and weakness ; the disease is typically fatal for the camel . Brucellosis is another prominent malady . In an observational study , the seroprevalence of this disease was generally low ( 2 to 5 % ) in nomadic or moderately free dromedaries , but it was higher ( 8 to 15 % ) in denser populations . Brucellosis is caused by different biotypes of Brucella abortus and B. melitensis . Other internal parasites include Fasciola gigantica ( trematode ) , two types of cestode ( tapeworm ) and various nematodes ( roundworms ) . Among external parasites , Sarcoptes species cause sarcoptic mange . In a 2000 study in Jordan , 83 % of the 32 camels studied tested positive for sarcoptic mange . In another study , dromedaries were found to have natural antibodies against the rinderpest and ovine rinderpest viruses . In 2013 , a seroepidemiological study ( a study investigating the patterns , causes and effects of a disease on a specific population on the basis of serologic tests ) in Egypt was the first to show the dromedary might be a host for the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus ( MERS-CoV ) . A 2013–14 study of dromedaries in Saudi Arabia concluded the unusual genetic stability of MERS-CoV coupled with its high seroprevalence in the dromedary makes this camel a highly probable host for the virus . The full genome sequence of MERS-CoV from dromedaries in this study showed a 99.9 % match to the genomes of human clade B MERS-CoV . Another study in Saudi Arabia showed the presence of MERS-CoV in 90 % of the evaluated dromedaries and suggested that camels could be the animal source of MERS-CoV . Fleas and ticks are common causes of physical irritation . In a study in Egypt , a species of Hyalomma was dominant in dromedaries , comprising 95.6 % of the adult ticks isolated from the camels . In Israel , the number of ticks per camel ranged from 20 to 105 . Nine camels in the date palm plantations in Arava Valley were injected with ivermectin , which is not effective against Hyalomma tick infestations . Larvae of the camel nasal fly Cephalopsis titillator can cause possibly fatal brain compression and nervous disorders . Illnesses that can affect dromedary productivity are pyogenic diseases and wound infections caused by Corynebacterium and Streptococcus , pulmonary disorders caused by Pasteurella such as hemorrhagic septicemia and Rickettsia species , camelpox , anthrax , and cutaneous necrosis caused by Streptothrix and deficiency of salt in the diet . Ecology The dromedary is diurnal ( active mainly during daylight ) ; free-ranging herds feed and roam throughout the day , though they rest during the hottest hours around noon . The night is mainly spent resting . Dromedaries form cohesive groups of about 20 individuals , which consist of several females led by a dominant male . Females may also lead in turns . Some males either form bachelor groups or roam alone . Herds may congregate to form associations of hundreds of camels during migrations at the time of natural disasters . The males of the herd prevent female members from interacting with bachelor males by standing or walking between them and somtimes driving the bachelor males away . In Australia , short-term home ranges of feral dromedaries cover 50 to ; annual home ranges can spread over several thousand square kilometres . Special behavioural features of the dromedary include snapping at others without biting them and showing displeasure by stamping their feet . They are generally non-aggressive , with the exception of rutting males . They appear to remember their homes ; females in particular remember the places they first gave birth or suckled their offspring . Males become aggressive in the mating season , and sometimes wrestle . A 1980 study showed androgen levels in males influences their behaviour . Between January and April when these levels are high during the rut , they become difficult to manage , blow out the palate from the mouth , vocalise and throw urine over their backs . Camels scratch parts of their bodies with their legs or with their lower incisors . They may also rub against tree bark and roll in sand . Free-ranging dromedaries face large predators typical of their regional distribution , which includes wolves , lions and tigers . Diet The dromedary 's diet consists mostly of foliage , dry grasses and desert vegetation – mostly thorny plants . A study said the typical diet of the dromedary is dwarf shrubs ( 47.5 % ) , trees ( 29.9 % ) , grasses ( 11.2 % ) , other herbs ( 0.2 % ) and vines ( 11 % ) . The dromedary is primarily a browser ; forbs and shrubs comprise 70 % of its diet in summer and 90 % of its diet in winter . The dromedary may also graze on or suck in tall , young , succulent grasses . In the Sahara , 332 plant species have been recorded as food plants of the dromedary . These include Aristida pungens , Acacia tortilis , Panicum turgidum , Launaea arborescens and Balanites aegyptiaca . The dromedary eats Acacia , Atriplex and Salsola when they are available . Feral dromedaries in Australia prefer Trichodesma zeylanicum and Euphorbia tannensis . In India , dromedaries are fed with forage plants such as Vigna aconitifolia , V. mungo , Cyamopsis tetragonolaba , Melilotus parviflora , Eruca sativa , Trifolium species and Brassica campestris . Dromedaries keep their mouths open while chewing thorny food . They use their lips to grasp the food and chew each bite 40 to 50 times . Its long eyelashes , eyebrows , lockable nostrils , caudal opening of the prepuce and a relatively small vulva help the camel avoid injuries , especially while feeding . They graze for 8–12 hours per day and ruminate for an equal amount of time . Adaptations The dromedary is specially adapted to its desert habitat ; these adaptations are aimed at conserving water and regulating body temperature . The bushy eyebrows and the double row of eyelashes prevent sand and dust from entering the eyes during strong windstorms , and shield them from the sun 's glare . The dromedary is able to close its nostrils voluntarily ; this assists in water conservation . The dromedary can conserve water by reducing perspiration by fluctuating the body temperature throughout the day from 31 to . The kidneys are specialised to minimise water loss through excretion . Groups of camels avoid excess heat from the environment by pressing against each other . The dromedary can tolerate greater than 30 % water loss , which is generally impossible for other mammals . In temperatures between 30 and , it needs water every 10 to 15 days . In the hottest temperatures the dromedary takes water every four to seven days . This camel has a quick rate of rehydration and can drink at 10 - per minute . The dromedary has a rete mirabile , a complex of arteries and veins lying very close to each other which uses countercurrent blood flow to cool blood flowing to the brain . This effectively controls the temperature of the brain . The hump stores up to 80 lb of fat , which the camel can break down into water and energy to meet its needs when resources are scarce ; the hump also helps dissipate body heat . If the hump is small , the animal can show signs of starvation . In a 2005 study , the mean volume of adipose tissues ( in the external part of the hump that have cells to store lipids ) is related to the dromedary 's unique mechanism of food and water storage . In case of starvation , they can even eat fish and bones , and drink brackish and salty water . The hair is longer on the throat , hump and shoulders . Though the padded hooves effectively support the camel 's weight on the ground , they are not suitable for walking on slippery and muddy surfaces . Reproduction Since camels have a slow growth rate ; they reach sexual maturity only in advanced years . The age of sexual maturity varies geographically and depends on the individual , as does the reproductive period . Both sexes might mature by three to five years of age , though successful breeding could take longer . Mating occurs once a year , and peaks in the rainy season . The mating season lasts three to five months , but may last a year for older animals . During the reproductive season , males splash their urine on their tails and nether regions . To attract females they extrude their soft palate – a trait unique to the dromedary . As thr male gurgles copious quantites of saliva turns to foam and covers the mouth . Males threaten each other for dominance over the female by trying to stand taller than the other , making low noises and a series of head movements including lowering , lifting and bending their necks backwards . Males tries to defeat other males by biting the opponent 's legs and taking the head between his jaws . Copulation begins with foreplay ; the male smells the female 's genitalia and often bites her there or around her hump . The male forces the female to sit , then grasps her with his forelegs . Camelmen often aid the male insert his penis into the female 's vulva . The male dromedary 's ability to penetrate the female on his own is disputed , though feral populations in Australia reproduce naturally . Copulation takes from 7 to 35 minutes , averaging 11 to 15 minutes . Normally , three to four ejaculations occur . The semen of a Bikaneri dromedary is white and viscous , with a pH of around 7.8 . A single calf is born after a gestation period of 15 months . Calves move freely by the end of their first day . Nursing and maternal care continue for one to two years . In a study to find whether young could exist on milk substitutes , two male , month-old camels were separated from their mothers and were fed on milk substitutes prepared commercially for lambs . For the first 30 days , the changes in their weights were marked . Each gained and 1 kg , respectively , per day . They were found to have grown properly and weighed 135 kg and 145 kg – normal weights for male calves of that age . Lactational yield can vary with species , breed , individual , region , diet , management conditions and lactating stage . The largest quantity of milk is produced during the early period of lactation . The lactation period can vary between nine and eighteen months . Dromedaries are induced ovulators . Oestrus may be cued by the nutritional status of the camel and the daylength . If mating does not occur , the follicle , which grows during oestrus , usually regresses within a few days . In one study , 35 complete oestrous cycles were observed in five nonpregnant females over 15 months . The cycles were about 28 days long ; follicles matured in six days , maintained their size for 13 days , and returned to their original size in eight days . In another study , ovulation could be best induced when the follicle reaches a size of . In another study , pregnancy in females could be recognized as early as 40 to 45 days of gestation by the swelling of the left uterine horn , where 99.5 % of pregnancies were located . Distribution The dromedary has not occurred in the wild for nearly 2,000 years . Wild dromedaries inhabited arid regions , particularly the Sahara Desert . The original range of the camel ’ s wild ancestors was probably southern Asia and the Arabian peninsula . Its range included hot , arid regions of northern Africa , Ethiopia , the Near East and western and central Asia . The dromedary typically thrives in areas with a long dry season and a short wet season . They are sensitive to cold and humidity , though some breeds can thrive in humid conditions . In the early 21st century , the domesticated dromedary is found in the semi-arid to arid regions of the Old World . Africa has more than 80 % of the world 's total dromedary population ; it occurs in almost every desert zone in the northern part of the continent . The Sahel marks the southern extreme of its range , which is nearly 2–3°S latitude where the annual rainfall is around 550 mm . The Horn of Africa has nearly 35 % of the world 's dromedaries , most of the region 's stock is in Somalia , followed by Sudan and Ethiopia ( as of the early 2000s ) . According to the Yearbook of the Food and Agriculture Organisation ( FAO ) for 1984 , eastern Africa had about 10 million dromedaries , the largest population of Africa . Western Africa followed with 2.14 million , while northern Africa had nearly 0.76 million . Populations in Africa increased by 16 % from 1994 to 2005 . Feral dromedary populations occur in Australia , where it was introduced in 1840 . The total dromedary population in Australia is 0.5 million as of 2005 . Nearly 99 % of the populations are feral , and have annual growth rate of 10 % . Most of the Australian feral camels are dromedaries , with only a few Bactrian camels . Most of the dromedaries occur in Western Australia , with smaller populations in the Northern Territory , Western Queensland and northern South Australia . In Asia , nearly 70 % of the population occurs in India and Pakistan . The combined population of the dromedary and the Bactrian camel decreased by around 21 % between 1994 and 2004 . The dromedary is sympatric with the Bactrian camel in Afghanistan , Pakistan , and central and southwestern Asia . India has a dromedary population of less than one million , with most ( 0.67 million ) in the state of Rajasthan . Populations in Pakistan decreased from 1.1 million in 1994 to 0.8 million in 2005 – a 29 % decline . According to

qb_3775--Dromedary.txt

What type of camel has two humps?

In biology , an organ or viscus is a collection of tissues joined in a structural unit to serve a common function . In anatomy , a viscus is an internal organ , and viscera is the plural form . Organs are composed of main tissue , parenchyma , and `` sporadic '' tissues , stroma . The main tissue is that which is unique for the specific organ , such as the myocardium , the main tissue of the heart , while sporadic tissues include the nerves , blood vessels , and connective tissues . Functionally related organs often cooperate to form whole organ systems . Organs exist in all higher biological organisms , in particular they are not restricted to animals , but can also be identified in plants . In single-cell organisms like bacteria , the functional analogue of an organ is called organelle . A hollow organ is a visceral organ that forms a hollow tube or pouch , such as the stomach or intestine , or that includes a cavity , like the heart or urinary bladder . Organ systems Two or more organs working together in the execution of a specific body function form an organ system , also called a biological system or body system . The functions of organ systems often share significant overlap . For instance , the nervous and endocrine system both operate via a shared organ , the hypothalamus . For this reason , the two systems are combined and studied as the neuroendocrine system . The same is true for the musculoskeletal system because of the relationship between the muscular and skeletal systems . Mammals such as humans have a variety of organ systems . These specific systems are also widely studied in human anatomy . * Cardiovascular system : pumping and channeling blood to and from the body and lungs with heart , blood and blood vessels . * Digestive system : digestion and processing food with salivary glands , esophagus , stomach , liver , gallbladder , pancreas , intestines , colon , rectum and anus . * Endocrine system : communication within the body using hormones made by endocrine glands such as the hypothalamus , pituitary gland , pineal body or pineal gland , thyroid , parathyroids and adrenals , i.e. , adrenal glands . * Excretory system : kidneys , ureters , bladder and urethra involved in fluid balance , electrolyte balance and excretion of urine . * Lymphatic system : structures involved in the transfer of lymph between tissues and the blood stream , the lymph and the nodes and vessels that transport it including the Immune system : defending against disease-causing agents with leukocytes , tonsils , adenoids , thymus and spleen . * Integumentary system : skin , hair and nails . * Muscular system : movement with muscles . * Nervous system : collecting , transferring and processing information with brain , spinal cord and nerves . * Reproductive system : the sex organs , such as ovaries , fallopian tubes , uterus , vagina , mammary glands , testes , vas deferens , seminal vesicles , prostate and penis . * Respiratory system : the organs used for breathing , the pharynx , larynx , trachea , bronchi , lungs and diaphragm . * Skeletal system : structural support and protection with bones , cartilage , ligaments and tendons . Other animals The organ level of organisation in animals can be first detected in flatworms and the more advanced phyla . The less-advanced taxons ( like Placozoa , Porifera and Radiata ) do not show consolidation of their tissues into organs . Plants The study of plant organs is referred to as plant morphology , rather than anatomy , as in animal systems . Organs of plants can be divided into vegetative and reproductive . Vegetative plant organs are roots , stems , and leaves . The reproductive organs are variable . In flowering plants , they are represented by the flower , seed and fruit . In conifers , the organ that bears the reproductive structures is called a cone . In other divisions ( phyla ) of plants , the reproductive organs are called strobili , in Lycopodiophyta , or simply gametophores in mosses . The vegetative organs are essential for maintaining the life of a plant . While there can be 11 organ systems in animals , there are far fewer in plants , where some perform the vital functions , such as photosynthesis , while the reproductive organs are essential in reproduction . However , if there is asexual vegetative reproduction , the vegetative organs are those that create the new generation of plants ( see clonal colony ) . History Etymology The English word `` organ '' derives from the Latin ' , meaning `` instrument '' , itself from the Greek word , ' ( `` implement ; musical instrument ; organ of the body '' ) . The Greek word is related to , ' ( `` work '' ) .Barnhart 's Concise Dictionary of Etymology The viscera , when removed from a butchered animal , are known collectively as offal . Internal organs are also informally known as `` guts '' ( which may also refer to the gastrointestinal tract ) , or more formally , `` innards '' . Aristotle used the word frequently in his philosophy , both to describe the organs of plants or animals ( e.g . the roots of a tree , the heart or liver of an animal ) , and to describe more abstract `` parts '' of an interconnected whole ( e.g . his philosophical works , taken as a whole , are referred to as the `` organon '' ) . The English word `` organism '' is a neologism coined in the 17th century , probably formed from the verb to organize . At first the word referred to an organization or social system . The meaning of a living animal or plant is first recorded in 1842 . Plant organs are made from tissue built up from different types of tissue . When there are three or more organs it is called an organ system . The adjective visceral , also splanchnic , is used for anything pertaining to the internal organs . Historically , viscera of animals were examined by Roman pagan priests like the haruspices or the augurs in order to divine the future by their shape , dimensions or other factors . This practice remains an important ritual in some remote , tribal societies . The term `` visceral '' is contrasted with the term `` '' , meaning `` of or relating to the wall of a body part , organ or cavity '' . The two terms are often used in describing a membrane or piece of connective tissue , referring to the opposing sides . 7 Vital Organs of Antiquity Some alchemists ( e.g . Paracelsus ) adopted the Hermetic Qabalah assignment between the 7 vital organs and the 7 Classical planets as follows :

bb_8494--Organ_(anatomy).txt

Hepatic relates to which organ of the human body?