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Another engulfment of cyanobacterial-like organisms led to the formation of chloroplasts in algae and plants. | Balɣamat iyyan n organizm tan chund cyanobacterial ewayan s iji n chloropast tan daɣ alage d ihishkan |
In January 2016, scientists reported that, about 800 million years ago, a minor genetic change in a single molecule called GK-PID may have allowed organisms to go from a single cell organism to one of many cells. | Daɣ ayor wan tǝndufan 2016, scientifik tan allăɣen as a ilăn ǝddǝkud n 800 mǝlyon n awătăy , amuti andărrăn daɣ etări daɣ molecule ǝyyăt s ǝsǝm net GK-PID ǝjraw turhăjăt ǝ organizm tan ad ǝfǝlăn organizm ǝlăn azăr ǝyyăn s wa ǝlăn ǝzǝwăn ajjotnen |
Various triggers for the Cambrian explosion have been proposed, including the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere from photosynthesis. | haratan ajjotnen id eraw nen abuqqi wan Cambria t aw ajjan addabara eha asidu n oxygen daɣ tesalsit n akal ɣur photosynthesis |
Artificial selection is the intentional selection of traits in a population of organisms. | Nefran n awadim eqqal nefran n ittus n samalan daɣ ichaɣib n organizm tan |
Proteins with valuable properties have evolved by repeated rounds of mutation and selection (for example modified enzymes and new antibodies) in a process called directed evolution. | Protein tan ilanen irizzejan n alqim amutayan s ijjit d nefran (almital enzyme tan ammiskalnen d antibiotik tan eynaynen) daɣ tamatikwayt s isim net amittu exkaman |
Breeding together different populations of this blind fish produced some offspring with functional eyes, since different mutations had occurred in the isolated populations that had evolved in different caves. | Asikkufad daɣ edag iyyan n ichaɣiban n eman wa addurɣalan eraw id aratan iyyad ilanen tettawen axdamnen ichmad imutiyan ajjotnen ijan daɣ ichaɣiban iskat nen idawalnen daɣ idaɣan |
Many human diseases are not static phenomena, but capable of evolution. | Torhinawen ajjotnen n addinat war aqqel nat a azzuken mucham addobat nat amutti |
It is possible that we are facing the end of the effective life of most of available antibiotics and predicting the evolution and evolvability of our pathogens and devising strategies to slow or circumvent it is requiring deeper knowledge of the complex forces driving evolution at the molecular level. | Addobat as n ewad amindi n tamudre timdat n antibiotik it illan tolas akayad daɣ tilkamat n amutti d tudabat n amutti n patogen tan nanaɣ d ikannan n tikarsiwen i afanaz meɣ aɣalay ilzam musnat ajjet n assahaten maqqornen t awaynen amutti s edag wn molecule |
He used evolution strategies to solve complex engineering problems. | Ijja tikarsiwen n amutti i ad ekin muchakil tan maqqornen n engineering |
In some countries, notably the United States, these tensions between science and religion have fuelled the current creation–evolution controversy, a religious conflict focusing on politics and public education. | Daɣ addawla tan tiyyad hullan daɣ Amerik, amšǝkki jir science d addin asammantas eɣan wan amarad n amutti , muchakil n addin ijjan fal folitik d teɣare |
The Scopes Trial decision of 1925 caused the subject to become very rare in American secondary biology textbooks for a generation, but it was gradually re-introduced later and became legally protected with the 1968 Epperson v. Arkansas decision. | Ašăreɣa wan Skopes daɣ awătăy wan 1925 eqqăl ǝddǝlǝl wa fal eqqăl majrăd wen a war n răqqǝs daɣ ǝlkǝttăbăn n lăkkol wan ammăs n Amerǝk i ǝššăɣǝb mušăm olas ǝjjuš sollăn dărăt awa tolas eqqăl daɣ a eɣlas aššăreɣa šund addăbăra wan Epperson v. Arkansas daɣ awătăy wan 1968 |
Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype. | Nefran wan batil eqqal tamudre tizlayat d arraw n addinat fal awa ijjan anmizlayan daɣ phenotype |
Variation exists within all populations of organisms. | Amutti ǝlle daɣ ǝššăɣǝb n organizm tan |
The environment of a genome includes the molecular biology in the cell, other cells, other individuals, populations, species, as well as the abiotic environment. | Ahinzazaɣ n genome ehay molecular biology daɣ azar, izirwan iyyad, addinat iyyad, ichaɣiban iyyad, ich-ikil n imudaran hak id ahinzazaɣ abiotik |
Natural selection is a cornerstone of modern biology. | Nefrăn n bătǝl eqqăl tǝjǝttăwt ǝ bioloji tan amărăd |
The concept of natural selection originally developed in the absence of a valid theory of heredity; at the time of Darwin's writing, science had yet to develop modern theories of genetics. | Isim wan nefran wan batil efes net wan alasal ijja ɣur iban mirda n etari fal tijja taridawt ; daɣ azzaman wan akatab wan Darwin, science ilzam tat efes n mirda tan eynaynen n genetics |
The classical arguments were reintroduced in the 18th century by Pierre Louis Maupertuis and others, including Darwin's grandfather, Erasmus Darwin. | Tamaɣinnant n alasal olas Pierre Louis Maupertuis az ujjuch daɣ awatay wan 1800 d iyyad eha amɣar n Darwin , Erasmus Darwin |
The success of this theory raised awareness of the vast scale of geological time and made plausible the idea that tiny, virtually imperceptible changes in successive generations could produce consequences on the scale of differences between species. | Arabax n mirda wen issewad ta-ite n tarrayt maqqoran n azzaman wan geology tolas ijja anazjum wan imuttiyan sadodnen daɣ ichaɣiban a addoben araw n tikmawen fal tarrayt n anmizlay jir ich-ikilan n imudaran |
"He was in the process of writing his ""big book"" to present his research when the naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace independently conceived of the principle and described it in an essay he sent to Darwin to forward to Charles Lyell." | “ Eha tamatikwayt tan akatab n “”alkittab net wa maqqoran” i ad isalmad fal farak net alwaq wa id naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace eɣna tasittiɣhal tolas affisar tat daɣ Essay isassaway i Darwin i a ti isassiki i Charles Lyell” |
In the 3rd edition of 1861 Darwin acknowledged that others—like William Charles Wells in 1813, and Patrick Matthew in 1831—had proposed similar ideas, but had neither developed them nor presented them in notable scientific publications. | Daɣ edisyon net wan karad Darwin erdaɣ 1861 as iyyad chund William Charles Wells daɣ awatay wan 1813 d Patrick Mattew daɣ awatay wan 1831 ijjan addabara inazjam olahnen mucham kala war ijjen efes nasan meɣ asilmadan fal as san daɣ ikitban nasan win scientifik |
"In a letter to Charles Lyell in September 1860, Darwin regretted the use of the term ""Natural Selection"", preferring the term ""Natural Preservation""." | “Daɣ tikarde ijja i Charles Lyell daɣ ayor wan sutambar n awatay wan 1860, Darwin ikme asaxdam n isim wan “nefran n batil””, assof isim wan “aɣalas n batil”” |
"However, natural selection remained controversial as a mechanism, partly because it was perceived to be too weak to explain the range of observed characteristics of living organisms, and partly because even supporters of evolution balked at its ""unguided"" and non-progressive nature, a response that has been characterised as the single most significant impediment to the idea's acceptance." | “” Hak id ijja awen, nefran wan batil eqqim eqqal a fal tija takalt fal as daɣ akayad war raqqis asifham n almaɣna n etaetar n samalan win organizm tan wi izzaɣnen tolas daɣ achrut fal as hak id addinat wi ilkam nen i amutti ankuran iban “iban awikkal net” d attabiɣa war n itimutti alwazab taqqalat samal n marsal maqqoran i aɣabal n anazjum’ |
With the early 20th century integration of evolution with Mendel's laws of inheritance, the so-called modern synthesis, scientists generally came to accept natural selection. | ɣur tizarat n awatay wan 1900 n ijjuch n amutti s achareɣa n Mendel wan etari, modern synthesis ta s itawan , sicentist tan ardahan fal nefran n batil |
"J. B. S. Haldane introduced the concept of the ""cost"" of natural selection." | “ H.B.S Haldane azzojach isim wan “alqim” wan nefran wan batil” |
"However, natural selection is ""blind"" in the sense that changes in phenotype can give a reproductive advantage regardless of whether or not the trait is heritable." | “ Hak id ijja awen, nefran wan batil eqqal a”addurɣalan” daɣ almaɣna n as imutiyan daɣ phenotype addoben ad akf in tinfa n araw war izlay ɣas samal eqqal in etari wala”” |
If the traits that give these individuals a reproductive advantage are also heritable, that is, passed from parent to offspring, then there will be differential reproduction, that is, a slightly higher proportion of fast rabbits or efficient algae in the next generation. | A fal samalan wi hakkinen addinat win tinfa n araw aqqalan etari awen amos as itiki ɣur emaraw s aratan dihen at imil araw izlayan, awen eqqal iddikud chajren n timarwalen armad nen meɣ alage olaɣan i ichaɣib n tilkamat |
This gives the appearance of purpose, but in natural selection there is no intentional choice. | Awen ehak ich-ikil n ittus mucham daɣ nefran ille nefran n attus |
This gave dark-coloured moths a better chance of surviving to produce dark-coloured offspring, and in just fifty years from the first dark moth being caught, nearly all of the moths in industrial Manchester were dark. | Awen ikfa tilken kawal nen irrizaɣ olaɣan i tamudre i araw n aratan n dumu kawalan tolas daɣ 50 n awatay n atarmis n tillek ta kawalat , tilken fuk daɣ industrial Manchester aqqal nat ti kawal nen |
If an organism lives half as long as others of its species, but has twice as many offspring surviving to adulthood, its genes become more common in the adult population of the next generation. | A fal organizm ǝzzăɣ tăzune n tăhăjǝt ta ǝch-ikil n ǝmudărăn wǝ yădnen mušăm ǝla arătăn annǝtfăs nen har ǝssǝn ǝzzăɣnen har wăssărăn ,jinu tan net a tan ahăr hullăn ǝšăɣǝb wan ǝmăwădan n ǝššăɣǝb wan tǝlkămăt |
"A distinction must be made between the concept of ""survival of the fittest"" and ""improvement in fitness"". """ | “ Anmizlay ilzam ad ijja jir isim wan “tamudre tan wi assohat nen “” d “”amutti n alxalat”” |
"Haldane called this process ""substitution"" or more commonly in biology, this is called ""fixation""." | “ Haldane eɣra tămătǝkwăyt ten s ǝsǝm wan “”anmǝchrăy” meɣ hullăn daɣ bioloji , awen ǝsǝm net “”oɣǝn”” |
The probability of a beneficial mutation occurring on some member of a population depends on the total number of replications of that variant. | Irrizaɣ wan as amutti taha tinfa itaj in fal addinat n ichaɣib ilkam i iddikud imdan n imasuɣilan n ich-ikil wen |
"In this experiment, ""improvement in fitness"" depends on the number of replications of the particular variant for a new variant to appear that is capable of growing in the next higher drug concentration region." | “Daɣ musnat ten “”amutti n alxalat” ilkam as iddikud n imasuɣilan n ich-ikil i ich-ikil eynayan i ad izjir awen tudabat n tiw-at n ijjit n taba daɣ rejion”” |
"Richard Lenski's classic E. coli long-term evolution experiment is an example of adaptation in a competitive environment, (""improvement in fitness"" during ""survival of the fittest"")." | “ Richard enski’s classic E. Colimusnat n amutti chajren eqqal almital n amatikway n amutti dav ahinzazaɣ (amutti n alxalat “”daɣ “”tamudre n win assohat nen””) |
The uncommon disruptive selection also acts during transition periods when the current mode is sub-optimal, but alters the trait in more than one direction. | Nefran war n ohar harat inta deɣ exaddam alwaq wan ikkuy net alwaq wa id dumu wa ijlan war n aqqel addabara hullan mucham ikma samal daɣ a ojjaran tasdik iyyat |
Some biologists recognise just two types: viability (or survival) selection, which acts to increase an organism's probability of survival, and fecundity (or fertility or reproductive) selection, which acts to increase the rate of reproduction, given survival. | Biologist tan iyyat ardahan fal issin ich-ikilan ɣas: nefran n tudabat n tamudre (meɣ tamudre) tisawadat irrizaɣ n organizm n tamudre d nefran n akarach n aratan (meɣ tudabat n akarach n aratan meɣ araw) isawadan iddikud n aratan ijraw nen tamudre |
In kin selection and intragenomic conflict, gene-level selection provides a more apt explanation of the underlying process. | Daɣ nefran n egadach d akinnas intragenomic, nefran n iddikud n gene ehak hullan almaɣna n tamatikwayt tijat |
Ecological selection is natural selection via any means other than sexual selection, such as kin selection, competition, and infanticide. | Nefran wa ecology eqqal nefran n batil s almaɣna iyyan war n amos wan nefran n jannsy chund nefran n egadach, tamadacht d tenaɣe n ilyadan |
However, in some species, mate choice is primarily by males, as in some fishes of the family Syngnathidae. | Hak id ijja awen, daɣ ich-ikilan iyyad, nefran wan tammiduwa meddan a ti tjjinen s tizarat chund daɣ egadach n imanan win Syngnathidae |
Since the discovery of penicillin in 1928, antibiotics have been used to fight bacterial diseases. | Alwaq wa id affukar penicillin daɣ awatay wan 1928, antibiotik tan assaxdaman tanat addinat i a iknis nat torhinnawen tin tiwikkawen |
Genetic variation is the result of mutations, genetic recombinations and alterations in the karyotype (the number, shape, size and internal arrangement of the chromosomes). | Amutti wan etari eqqal ittus n imuttiyan , anɣambalan n etari d amaskalan daɣ karyotype (iddikud, dumu d amukin wan ammas n chromosome tan) |
However, many mutations in non-coding DNA have deleterious effects. | Hak id ijja awen, imuttiyan ajjotnen daɣ DNA wr n akkodat ilan tikmawen |
Changes in these often have large effects on the phenotype of the individual because they regulate the function of many other genes. | Imuttiyan daɣ win alwaq iyyan ilan tikmawen fal phenotype n awadim fal as kan in alxidmat n gene tan iyyad ajjotnen |
When such mutations result in a higher fitness, natural selection favours these phenotypes and the novel trait spreads in the population. | Alwaq wa id imuttiyan chund win charrayan s alxalat chajret , nefran n batil assof phenotype tan win tolas samal n alkittab infaz daɣ ichaɣib |
However, it is intrinsic to the concept of a species that hybrids are selected against, opposing the evolution of reproductive isolation, a problem that was recognised by Darwin. | Hak id ijja awen ,eqqal id hullan isim wan ich-ikilan as albaxilan war n annafranan, war ardahan fal amutti n igadalan aratan muchakil fal erdah Darwin |
Phenotype is determined by an organism's genetic make-up (genotype) and the environment in which the organism lives. | Phenotype isalmad fal organism’s genetic make-up (genotype) d ahinzazaɣ wa daɣ izzaɣ organizm |
An example is the ABO blood type antigens in humans, where three alleles govern the phenotype. | Almital eqqal achni wan ABO antigens daɣ addinat edag s karad allele tan axkaman fal phenotype |
This process can continue until the allele is fixed and the entire population shares the fitter phenotype. | Tamatikwayt te taddobat iji har eqqin allele tolas uzan ichaɣib fuk net phenotype wa assohen |
Stabilizing selection conserves functional genetic features, such as protein-coding genes or regulatory sequences, over time by selective pressure against deleterious variants. | Asibdad n nefran eɣallas samalan axdam nen n etari chund akodi n gene tan win protein meɣ iddikud tan fal alwaq s ad-ad annufranan fal ich-ikilan ikmanen |
Some forms of balancing selection do not result in fixation, but maintain an allele at intermediate frequencies in a population. | Dumu tan iyyad n eket n nefran war id izjeran oɣin mucham ogazan allele daɣ iddikud tan n jarey daɣ ichaɣib |
Maintenance of allelic variation can also occur through disruptive or diversifying selection, which favours genotypes that depart from the average in either direction (that is, the opposite of over-dominance), and can result in a bimodal distribution of trait values. | ag-az n amutti n allele addobat ad ej s nefran eɣtasan meɣ assujatan , assofan genotype tan id affal nen edag n ammas daɣ tasdik fuk (awen a anmachrayan id ijiit) tolas addobat ad izjir daɣ bidomal distribution n alqiman n samal |
However, after a period with no new mutations, the genetic variation at these sites is eliminated due to genetic drift. | Hak id ijja awen, darat azzaman n iban imutiyan eynaynen , amutti wan etari daɣ sit tan win imas a hin fal genetic drift |
The exact outcome of the two processes depends both on the rate at which new mutations occur and on the strength of the natural selection, which is a function of how unfavourable the mutation proves to be. | Ittus wan tiditt n timitikwayen tin sanatat ilkam i iddikud wa s taj in imutiyan eynaynen tolas fal assahat n nefran n batil eqqalan alxidmat n immik wa s war ofa immik wa eqqal amutti |
The chance that such a reshuffle occurs between two alleles is inversely related to the distance between them. | Irrizaɣ wa s itaj amaskal chund wen jir allele tan issin eqqal fal ujjij wa jar essan |
A strong selective sweep results in a region of the genome where the positively selected haplotype (the allele and its neighbours) are in essence the only ones that exist in the population. | Ittusan n nefran assohatnen daɣ rejion n genome edag s inta ad haplotype wa innafranan (allele d inarhajan net) aqqalan ɣas wi it illanen daɣ ichaɣib |
Background selection is the opposite of a selective sweep. | Nefran n edag eqqal a anmachrayan id asafrad annufranan |
"In the words of the philosopher Daniel Dennett, ""Darwin's dangerous idea"" of evolution by natural selection is a ""universal acid,"" which cannot be kept restricted to any vessel or container, as it soon leaks out, working its way into ever-wider surroundings." | “ Daɣ majrad wa ijja philosopher Daniel Denett “anazjum n Darwin wa labasan” n amutti s nefran wan batil eqqal “asid i alɣalim” war n addobat atwigaz daɣ bato meɣ kontener fal as at anbij chik, ijru abara s ihandagan harok nen” |
These conditions are: heritability, variation of type, and competition for limited resources. | Tălɣǝwen tǝn aqqal nat: etări,tamutăyt n iššǝkǝl d tămădašt s alfăyda tan dărosnen |
Herbert Spencer and the eugenics advocate Francis Galton's interpretation of natural selection as necessarily progressive, leading to supposed advances in intelligence and civilisation, became a justification for colonialism, eugenics, and social Darwinism. | Herbert Spencer d eugenics azzuken i afaham n Francis Galton wan nefran n batil as eqqal a amitakwayan , ewayan s ikitan s data daɣ ta-ite d sivilizasyon, eqqal iddilil i alisteɣmar , eugenics d Social Darwinism |
"The racial idea as the basis of our state has already accomplished much in this respect.""" | Anasjum wan techne eqqal tajittawt n addawla nanaɣ ijja ajjen hullan daɣ semɣar wen”” |
The most prominent example of evolutionary psychology, notably advanced in the early work of Noam Chomsky and later by Steven Pinker, is the hypothesis that the human brain has adapted to acquire the grammatical rules of natural language. | Almital wa ojjaran amos wan psychology tahalat s data alxidmat tazzarat n Noam Chomskytolas darat awa Steven Pinker,eqqal mirda as akilkil wan awadim ilmad akarach n achareɣa win grammar n awal |
"He observed that organisms (pea plants) inherit traits by way of discrete ""units of inheritance""." | “Ikyad as organizm tan (ihishkan win pea) itran id samalan s immik n “etari iyyan”” |
Gene structure and function, variation, and distribution are studied within the context of the cell, the organism (e.g. dominance), and within the context of a population. | Edey wan gene d alxidmat net, amutti d tazunt at w aɣran daɣ azar, organizm (almital tijra) d daɣ ichaɣib |
Genetic processes work in combination with an organism's environment and experiences to influence development and behavior, often referred to as nature versus nurture. | Tamatikwayt n alxidmat tan genetic tilat ahinzazaɣ n organizm d musnaten i ad ikrichan assahat fal efes d alxal s alwaq iyyan itawan has nature vs nurture |
The modern science of genetics, seeking to understand this process, began with the work of the Augustinian friar Gregor Mendel in the mid-19th century. | Science n Genetics tan amarad, tittar afaham n tamatikwayt ten, t issinta alxidmat n Augustinian Friar Gregor Mendel daɣ tazune n awatay wan 1800 |
His second law is the same as what Mendel published. | Achareɣa net wan issin olah id awa iktab Mendel |
A popular theory during the 19th century, and implied by Charles Darwin's 1859 On the Origin of Species, was blending inheritance: the idea that individuals inherit a smooth blend of traits from their parents. | Mirda s izjar isim net hulla daɣ awtay wan 1800 tolas otas Charles Darwin daɣ awatay wan 1859 fal enatti n ich-ikil n imudaran, asurtay etari: anazjum n as addinat karrachan tartit n samalan daɣ imarawan nasan |
"In his paper ""Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden"" (""Experiments on Plant Hybridization""), presented in 1865 to the Naturforschender Verein (Society for Research in Nature) in Brünn, Mendel traced the inheritance patterns of certain traits in pea plants and described them mathematically." | “Daɣ alkad net” Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden"" (‘””musnaten fal albaxil n ahishk) , fal asilmad daɣ awatay wan 1865 i Naturforschender Verein (Society for Research in Nature) daɣ Brunn, Mendel allil adarich n etari n samalan n ahishk wan pea tolas affisar than s matematik” |
"William Bateson, a proponent of Mendel's work, coined the word genetics in 1905 (the adjective genetic, derived from the Greek word genesis—γένεσις, ""origin"", predates the noun and was first used in a biological sense in 1860)." | “ William Bateson, alxǝdmăt n Mendel t assohet, eɣna ǝd ǝsǝm wan jenetik daɣ awătăy wan 1905 (adjektif net jenetik, ǝd izjărăn attărex n ǝsǝm n Greek -γένεσις “””enătti” ezzăr ǝ- ǝsǝm tolas exdăm s tǝzărăt daɣ almăɣna wan bioloji daɣ awătăy wan 1860)” |
Over the next 11 years, she discovered that females only had the X chromosome and males had both X and Y chromosomes. | Daɣ iwityan win 11,t asafakkar id as deden ɣas a ilan chroosome X tolas meddan ilan chromosome tan X d Y fuk nasan |
James Watson and Francis Crick determined the structure of DNA in 1953, using the X-ray crystallography work of Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins that indicated DNA has a helical structure (i.e., shaped like a corkscrew). | James Watson d Francis Crick issanan edey wan DNA daɣ awatay wan 1953, axdaman s X-ray n alxidmat tan crystallography n Rosalind Franklin d Maurice Wilkins allaɣat nen as DNA ila edey amnannadan (chund corkscrew) |
The structure also suggested a simple method for replication: if the strands are separated, new partner strands can be reconstructed for each based on the sequence of the old strand. | Edey olas asilmad n immik raqqisan i amasuɣal: A fal azunnat tizawen , tiyyad eynaynen addobat nat edey iyyan fal as iyyat fuk t ijja fal iddikud n ta wassarat |
In the following years, scientists tried to understand how DNA controls the process of protein production. | Daɣ iwityan wi ilkamnen , sicentist tan araman afaham n immik wa s tawikkal tamatikwayt akarach n protein |
With the newfound molecular understanding of inheritance came an explosion of research. | Molecule ta teynayt tat ajrawat ad tidhil daɣ afaham n etari wa id erawan afuqqi n farak |
One important development was chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger. | Efes iyyan olaɣan amos chain-termination DNA Sequencey daɣ awatay wan 1977 ijja Frederick Sanger |
In his experiments studying the trait for flower color, Mendel observed that the flowers of each pea plant were either purple or white—but never an intermediate between the two colors. | Daɣ musnat net n teɣare n samal n dumu wan afrinkit, Mendel ikyad as iyyan n afrinkit n pea eqqalan i bahaw nen meɣ malul nen mucham kala war t illen dumu issin jar essan |
Many species, including humans, have this pattern of inheritance. | Ich-ikil n imudaran ajjotnen ahan addinat ila dumu wen n etari |
When organisms are heterozygous at a gene, often one allele is called dominant as its qualities dominate the phenotype of the organism, while the other allele is called recessive as its qualities recede and are not observed. | Alwaq wa id organizm tan amosan a ertayan daɣ gene alwaq iyyan allele isim net wa ojjaran fal as xudatan net ojjaran phenotype n organizm as ijja awen allele ijjaraw fal as xudatan net zajaran tolas war ilen akayad |
"Often a ""+"" symbol is used to mark the usual, non-mutant allele for a gene." | “Alwaq iyyan simbol wan “”+”” eqqal echwal n allele i gene”” |
One of the common diagrams used to predict the result of cross-breeding is the Punnett square. | Iyyan daɣ diagram tan ohar nen kala salmadan fal ittus he awid asirtay amos Punnett square |
Some genes do not assort independently, demonstrating genetic linkage, a topic discussed later in this article.) | Gene tan iyyad war anmawalan fal iman nasan, asilmadan fal atterw n etari, majrad ijja darat awa daɣ albab wen) |
Another gene, however, controls whether the flowers have color at all or are white. | Gene iyyan ,awikkal kud ina ifrinkittan ilan dumu fuk nasan meɣ i mallul nen |
Many traits are not discrete features (e.g. purple or white flowers) but are instead continuous features (e.g. human height and skin color). | Samalan ajjotnen war aqqelan samalan istarnen (almital ifrinkittan bahaw nen meɣ mallul nen) mucham aqqalan samalan ijlanen (almital tichijrit n awadim d dumu n elam net) |
The degree to which an organism's genes contribute to a complex trait is called heritability. | Iddikud wa s gene n organizm dahhalan s samal maqqoran isim net etari |
DNA is composed of a chain of nucleotides, of which there are four types: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T). | DNA ehay esassar n nucleotides s inta deɣ ahan ti akkoz ich-ikilan: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) d thymine (T) |
Viruses cannot reproduce without a host and are unaffected by many genetic processes, so tend not to be considered living organisms. | Birus tan war addoben akarach n aratan fal as a fal war illa wa isanaftaɣan tolas illan ti war tan ikmen timitikwayen ajjotnen n genetic daɣ awen war ijjen immik n a eqqalan organizm tan iddar nen |
This structure of DNA is the physical basis for inheritance: DNA replication duplicates the genetic information by splitting the strands and using each strand as a template for synthesis of a new partner strand. | Edey wen n DNA eqqal tajittawt n taɣissa i etari: amasuɣal wan DNA isanatfas isalan n genetic s tuzant n tizawen d axadam n tezawt fuk chund dumu n aklulu n tezawt teynayat |
These DNA strands are often extremely long; the largest human chromosome, for example, is about 247 million base pairs in length. | Tizawen tin n DNA alwaq iyyan ti chajrot nen; chromosome wa maqqoran n awadim daɣ almital ila iddikud n 247 n milyon daɣ tichijrit |
DNA is most often found in the nucleus of cells, but Ruth Sager helped in the discovery of nonchromosomal genes found outside of the nucleus. | DNA itawajraw daɣ esab n izirwan mucham Ruth Sager idhal daɣ asafukkar n nonchromosomal gene tan at ijraw nen s ajjama n esab |
While haploid organisms have only one copy of each chromosome, most animals and many plants are diploid, containing two of each chromosome and thus two copies of every gene. | Kud inta organizm tan win haploid ilan kopi iyyat n chromosome, irizzejan ajjotnen d ihishkan ajjotnen ilan diploid ahan issin daɣ chromosome fuk d sanatat kopi tan n gene fuk |
In humans and many other animals, the Y chromosome contains the gene that triggers the development of the specifically male characteristics. | Daɣ addinat d irizzejan iyyad ajjotnen, chromosome Y ahan ti gene tan id tirunen id efes n samalan win ahalis |
This process, called mitosis, is the simplest form of reproduction and is the basis for asexual reproduction. | Tamatikwayt ten s isim net mitosis taqqal dumu wa ojjaran tarɣisay n akarach n aratan tolas t aqqal tajittawt i akarach n aratan war n ijja s jansy |
Eukaryotic organisms often use sexual reproduction to generate offspring that contain a mixture of genetic material inherited from two different parents. | Organizim tan win eukaryotic alwaq iyyan tiruwan s jansy i ad ikrichan aratan eha amartay n asuj eqqalan etari n imarawan issin |
Some bacteria can undergo conjugation, transferring a small circular piece of DNA to another bacterium. | Tiwikkawen tiyyad iddas tanat anmartay, hak i nat afrus n DNA andarran i bacterium wa yadan |
In this way new combinations of genes can occur in the offspring of a mating pair. | S immik wen anmartayan n gene tan addoben ad aj in daɣ aratan n jawzan |
During crossover, chromosomes exchange stretches of DNA, effectively shuffling the gene alleles between the chromosomes. | Daɣ asalbaxil, chromosome tan t anakf-in em awan n DNA isartayan hullan gene allele tan jir chromosome tan |
The first cytological demonstration of crossing over was performed by Harriet Creighton and Barbara McClintock in 1931. | Asukni wa eezaran n asalbaxil tijje Harriet Creignhton d Barbara McClintok daɣ awatay wan 1931 |
For an arbitrarily long distance, the probability of crossover is high enough that the inheritance of the genes is effectively uncorrelated. | I ujij chajren n nefran, irrizaɣ n asalbaxil ikna tudabat hullan har as etari n gne tan war ohar harat hullan |
The specific sequence of amino acids results in a unique three-dimensional structure for that protein, and the three-dimensional structures of proteins are related to their functions. | Iddikud n amino acids itiwi s edey ila karad iketan i protein tolas iketan idey win karad n protein orakan s alxidmaten nasan |
Protein structure is dynamic; the protein hemoglobin bends into slightly different forms as it facilitates the capture, transport, and release of oxygen molecules within mammalian blood. | Edey n Protein eqqal a ijlan; protein hemoglobin it akrambi s dumu tan izlaynen fal as isarɣas aramas, asikil, d tayyit n oxygen molecule tan daɣ achni n arizzej wa ilan ifafan |