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Polish:
Cześć, jestem John Green a to jest Crash Course: Historia Świata a dzisiaj zrobimy
właściwie porównanie cywilizacji dla tych , którzy się tym interesują. Stan nie moge
się powstrzymać ale wydaje mi się że mamy tu za dużo globusów.
Tak lepiej. Dzisiaj będziemy uczyć się o przerażająco totalitarnych Persach oraz
świątobliwych kochających demokrację Grekach.
Ale oczywiście znamy tą historie:
Były jakieś wojny w których nikt nie nosił
żadnych podkoszulków i wszyscy byli wystarczająco wysportowani; Persowi byli źli; Grecy dobrzy;
Sokrates i Platon byli niesamowici, Persowie nawet nie filozofowali; Zachód jest najlepszy
Go Team!
No cóż, nie.
Zacznijmy od Perskiego Imperium, które stało się modelem dla większości lądowych
imperiów na całym świecie. Z wyjątkiem - czekajcie na to - MONGOŁÓW.
Większość tego co wiemy o Persach i ich imperium pochodzi z zewnętrznych pism
traktujących o nich i jest to coś co obecnie nazywamy historią , a pierwszym prawdziwym historykiem
Czech:
Ahoj, já jsem John Green,
tohle je "Crash Course: Světová historie".
Budeme se
zabývat komparací civilizací,
pro ty, které to zajímá.
Stane, nemůžu si pomoct,
ale mám pocit, že je tu až moc glóbů.
Tak je to lepší. Dnes se dovíme něco
o zlých zastáncích totality Peršanech
a ctnostných Řecích
milujících demokracii.
Ale určitě již
všichni víme, jak to bylo.
Proběhly války,
kde všichni chodili do půl těla
a zároveň byli docela slušně fit,
Peršané byli zlí, Řekové byli dobří,
Sókratés a Platón byli super,
Peršané ani nefilozofovali,
západ je nej
a jedeme, fandíme.
No, ne tak úplně.
Začněme Perskou říší,
která byla vzorem pro víceméně všechny
říše po celém světě.
Tedy kromě, počkejte si, Mongolů.
Hodně z toho,
co víme o Peršanech a jejich říši,
pochází z textů zvenčí Persie,
což je něco, co teď nazýváme historií,
a jedním z prvních
skutečných historiků byl Hérodotos,
English:
Hi, I’m John Green, this is Crash Course
World History, and today we’re going to
do some legitimate comp. civ., for those of
you into that kind of thing. Stan, I can’t
help but feel that we have perhaps too many
globes. That’s better.
Today we’re going to learn about the horrible
totalitarian Persians and the saintly, democracy-loving
Greeks. But of course we already know this
story — there were some wars in which no
one wore any shirts, and everyone was reasonably
fit. The Persians were bad; the Greeks were
good. Socrates and Plato were awesome; the
Persians didn’t even philosophize. The West
is the Best; Go Team! Yeah, well, no.
[theme music]
Let’s start with the Persian empire, which
became the model for pretty much all land-based
empires throughout the world. Except for — wait
for it — the Mongols. [Mongoltage]
Much of what we know about the Persians and
their empire comes from an outsider writing
about them, which is something we now call
history, and one of the first true historians
Thai:
สวัสดีครับ ผมจอห์น กรีน
คุณกำลังรับชม แครชคอร์ส วิชาประวัติศาสตร์โลก
และวันนี้เราจะเปรียบเทียบอารยธรรมกัน
สำหรับคุณบางคนที่ชอบเรื่องแบบนี้นะครับ สแตน...
เรามีลูกโลกเยอะไปมั้ยเน
วันนี้ เราจะมาเรียนรู้เกี่ยวกับชาวเปอร์เซียจอมเผด็จการ
กับชาวกรีกผู้รักในประชาธิปไตย
แน่นอนว่าใครๆก็รู้เรื่องนี้ - ก็มันเกิดสงครามไง
ที่ไม่มีใครไม่ใส่เสื้อเลยอะ
และทุกคนก็แข็งแรงสุดๆ พวกเปอร์เซียเป็นฝ่ายเลว
ส่วนกรีกเป็นฝ่ายดี
โสเครติส และเพลโตเจ๋งเป้ง
พวกเปอร์เซียไม่รู้จักปรัชญาด้วยซ้ำ
ตะวันตกจงเจริญ! สุดยอด! เย่!
เอิ่ม ไม่ใช่อย่างนั้นครับ
เรามาเริ่มกันที่อาณาจักรเปอร์เซีย ซึ่งถือเป็นต้นแบบของอาณาจักรบนแผ่นดินใหญ่เกือบทั้งหมด
เว้นแต่ว่า - เดี๋ยวนะ - คุณจะเป็นพวกมองโกล
เรื่องราวส่วนมากที่เรารู้เกี่ยวกับชาวเปอร์เซีย และอาณาจักรเปอร์เซีย มาจากบันทึกของคนภายนอกที่เขียนถึงพวกเขา
ซึ่งปัจจุบันเราเรียกสิ่งนี้ว่าประวัติศาสตร์ และนักประวัติศาสตร์คนแรกๆของโลกชื่อ เฮอรอโดทัส
Arabic:
مرحبا، أنا جون غرين،
وهذه سلسلة Crash Course World History،
واليوم سنقوم ببعض المقارنة بين الحضارات،
لأولئك منكم الذين يحبون هذه الأمور.
ستان، يراودني شعور
بأن لدينا الكثير من مجسمات الكرة الأرضية.
هذا أفضل.
اليوم سنتعرف على الفرس الشموليين الفظيعين
واليونانيين الطيبين المحبين للديمقراطية.
ولكننا بالطبع نعرف هذه القصة مسبقًا،
حيث كانت هناك حروب لم يرتد فيها أحد قميصًا،
وكان الجميع ذوي لياقة بدنية جيدة،
والفرس كانوا أشرارًا والإغريق كانوا أخيارًا.
وكان سقراط وأفلاطون رائعين
أما الفرس فهم لم يخوضوا حتى في الفلسفة.
الغرب هو الأفضل.
الى الامام يا فريقي! في الواقع، كلا.
"موسيقى الشارة"
دعونا نبدأ بالإمبراطورية الفارسية،
والتي أصبحت نموذجًا لجميع الإمبراطوريات
البرية تقريبًا في جميع أنحاء العالم.
باستثناء... المغول.
الكثير مما نعرفه عن الفرس وإمبراطوريتهم
مصدره شخص أجنبيّ كتب عنها،
وهو ما بتنا نسميه الآن بالتاريخ،
وكان أحد المؤرخين الحقيقيين هو هيرودوت،
Swedish:
Hej, jag heter John Green. Detta är Crash Course
World History och i dag ska vi
göra vissa legitima comp. civ., för de av er som gillar sånt. Stan, jag kan inte
låta bli att känna vi har kanske alltför många
glober. Det är bättre.
Idag ska vi lära om de fruktansvärda
totalitära perserna och helgonlika, demokrati älskande
grekerna. Men vi vet redan denna
berättelse - det fanns några krig där ingen
bar några skjortor, och alla var rimligt
vältränade. Perserna var dåliga, grekerna var
bra. Sokrates och Platon var fantastiska;
Perserna kunde inte ens filosofera. Västern
är bäst. Heja Väst! Ja, eller kanske inte.
[Intro musik]
Låt oss börja med det persiska riket, vilket
blev modellen för i stort sett alla landbaserade
välden över hela världen. Med undantag för - vänta
för det - mongolerna. [Mongoltage]
Mycket av vad vi vet om perserna och
deras imperium kommer från en utomståendes skrift
om dem, vilket är något som vi nu kallar
historia, och en av de första riktiga historikerna
Chinese:
大家好，我是約翰·葛林，這是世界歷史速成班，而今天我們要
做文化比較，若你感興趣那最好。
導演，我不禁覺得地球儀可能太多了。
好多了。
今天我們要學關於可怕的極權主義波斯人和
聖潔熱愛民主的希臘人。
當然，我們已經知道這個故事啦：
有一些戰爭中大家裸上身
每個人身材都相當好；
波斯人壞壞，希臘人是好人。
蘇格拉底和柏拉圖真棒；波斯人還沒哲學咧。
西方萬歲，主隊加油！
才怪。
從波斯帝國說起，
它成為世界所有陸地帝國典範。
除了，嗯，蒙古人。
我們對波斯人和波斯帝國
的認知大部分來自旁觀者的寫作
我們現在叫做「歷史」。
第一個真正歷史學家之一
Vietnamese:
Xin chào, tôi John Green, đây là Khóa học Lịch sử thế giới, hôm nay chúng ta sẽ
tìm hiểu chi tiết về những nền văn minh quan trọng, cho các bạn có hứng thú với nó. Stan,
tôi không thể ngưng cảm thấy khó chịu về việc chúng ta có quá nhiều quả địa cầu. Vậy tốt hơn
Hôm nay chúng ta sẽ tìm hiểu về những người Ba Tư với chế độ chuyên chế tồi tệ và người Hi Lạp thánh thiện, yêu dân chủ
Có lẽ một vài trong số chúng ta đã biết có một số cuộc chiến tranh mà
không một ai mặc áo, và ai cũng trông rắn rỏi và khỏe khoắn.
Người Ba Tư xấu, người Hi Lạp thì tốt
Socrates và Plato thật tuyệt vời; người
Ba Tư thậm chí còn không bao giờ bàn luận về triết lý
Phương Tây vô đối. Tiến lên!
Không
[Nhạc nền]
Hãy bắt đầu với đế chế Ba Tư, hình mẫu của mọi đế chế trên đất liền
Trừ Mông Cổ
Phần lớn những gì ta biết về người Ba Tư và đế chế của họ đến từ một nguồn thông tin bên ngoài
thứ mà nay ta gọi là lịch sử, và một trong các nhà sử học thực sự đầu tiên
iw:
היי, אני ג'ון גרין, זה "קראש- קורס"
בהיסטוריה עולמית, והיום אנחנו הולכים
לעשות קצת השוואה לגיטימית בין ציווליזציות, בשביל אלה
שאוהבים דברים כאלה. סטן, אני לא יכול
שלא להרגיש שיש לנו אולי יותר מדי
גלובוסים.
זה יותר טוב. היום אנחנו הולכים ללמוד על
הפרסים הטוטליטריים הנוראים ועל היוונים הקדושים ואוהבי הדמוקרטיה.
. אבל כמובן שאנחנו כבר מכירים את
הסיפור הזה - היו כמה מלחמות שבהן אף אחד לא לבש חולצה,
ולכולם היו קוביות בבטן. הפרסים היו רעים-היוונים היו טובים.
סוקרטס ואפלטון היו מגניבים בטירוף-
הפרסים אפילו לא עסקו בפילוסופיה!
המערב הכי טוב! יאללה הקבוצה שלנו! כן, טוב, לא.
בואו נתחיל עם האימפריה הפרסית,
שהיתה מודל חיקוי פחות או יותר לכל האימפריות על היבשה
ברחבי העולם!... למעט - חכו לזה, המונגולים.
הרבה ממה שאנחנו יודעים על הפרסים
מגיע מכתבים של אנשים שלא היו חלק מהאימפריה,
וזה משהו שאנחנו מכנים כיום -"היסטוריה", ואחד ההיסטוריונים האמיתיים הראשונים היה הרודוטוס,
Romanian:
Salut ,sunt John Green, acesta este Crash Course History și astăzi o să
facem civilizații comparate pentru cei care gustă tipul ăsta de demers. Stan, nu pot
să te ajut dar simt că avem poate prea multe globuri. Acum e mai bine.
Astăzi o să învățăm despre oribilul totalitarism persan și despre sfinții, iubitorii de democrație greci.
Dar desigur știm deja această poveste-au existat unele războaie în care
nimeni nu purta vreo haină și toată lumea era rezonabil de antrenată. Persanii erau răi, grecii erau
buni. Socrate și Platon erau grozavi, persanii nici măcar nu filosofau. Vestul e cel mai
tare, înainte Echipă!Da, ei bine , nu.
muzică
Să începem cu Imperiul persan care a devenit un model pentru aproape toate
imperiile întinse din toată lumea.Cu excepția-așteptați- a Mongolilor.
Mult din ceea ce știm despre persani și imperiul lor vine din scrierile externe despre ei
care e ceva ce numim astăzi istorie și unul dintre acești primi adevărați istorici
Hungarian:
Hello, én John Green vagyok, és ez a Crash Course Világtörténelem sorozata.
Ma szabályszerű civilizációkat fogunk összehasonlítani. Stan, az az érzésem,
hogy talán túl sok földgömbünk van...
Máris jobb.
Ma tanulunk a perzsák szörnyű önkényuralmáról és a szent, demokrácia-szerető görögökről.
De persze már ismerjük ezt a
történetet - volt néhány háború, ahol senki sem
viselt pólót, és mindenki baromira fitt volt. A perzsák a rosszak voltak, görögök meg a jók.
Szókratész és Platón királyak, míg a
Perzsák nem is filozofáltak.
A nyugat a legjobb. Hajrá, hajrá!
...nos, nagyon nem.
[zene]
Kezdjük a Perzsa Birodalommal, amely jó példaként szolgál sok szárazföldi
birodalom bemutatására szerte a világon.
Kivéve - na várjatok csak - a mongolokéra.
Sok minden, amit a perzsákról és birodalmukról tudunk, egy kívülálló elbeszéléséből van.
Ma ezt hívjuk történelemnek,
és őt az egyik első igazi történésznek.
Spanish:
Hola, soy John Green, ésto es Crash Course: Historia Mundial
y hoy vamos a hacer algo de comparación de civilizaciones, para los que estén interesados.
Stan, me parece que quizás tenemos demasiados globos terráqueos.
Así está mejor. Hoy vamos a aprender sobre los horribles persas totalitarios
y los griegos amantes de la democracia.
Por supuesto, ya conocemos esta historia: Habían unas guerras en las que nadie usaba
camisas y todos estaban rasonablemente en forma; los persas eran malos; los griegos, buenos;
Socrates y Plato eran greniales; los persas ni siquiera filosofaban.
¡Occidente para presidente, adelante!
Si, pues, no.
[música]
[música]
[música]
[música]
[música]
[música]
Empecemos con el Imperio Persa, que es el modelo para casi todos los imperios mediterraneos
alrededor del mundo. Excepto por —espérenlo— los mongoles.
Mucho de lo que sabemos de los persas y su imperio viene de escritos exteriores
acerca de ellos, que es algo que ahora llamamos historia, y uno de los primeros historiadores
French:
Bonjour, je suis John Green, vous êtes sur Crash Course Histoire du monde, et aujourd'hui,
nous allons faire un peu de civilisations comparées, pour ceux qui connaissent.
Stan, je ne peux pas m'empêcher de penser que nous avons peut-être trop de globes...
C'est mieux comme ça. Aujourd'hui, nous allons parler des Perses, horribles et totalitaires et des Grecs, saints et amoureux de la démocratie.
Mais bien entendu, nous connaissons déjà cette histoire: il y a eu des guerres
au cours desquelles tout le monde se baladait torse nu et était plutôt bien fichu. Les Perses étaient méchants,
les Grecs gentils, Socrate et Platon étaient géniaux, les Perses ne connaissaient même pas la philosophie.
L'occident est le meilleur! Allez l'occident!
Ouais... En fait non.
Commençons par l'empire perse, qui
est devenu le modèle pour à peu près tous les empires basés
sur le territoire à travers le monde. Sauf pour - vous l'attendiez - les Mongols.
La plupart des choses que l'on sait sur les perses et leur empire provient d''étrangers qui ont
écrit à leur propos, ce qu'on appelle aujourd'hui l'histoire. Et l'un des premiers vrais historiens
Turkish:
Merhaba, ben John Green, bu da Crash Course Dünya Tarihi.
Ve bugün okul müfredatına uygun bir konumuz olacak, müptelaları için ama Stan
çok fazla Dünyamız olduğunu fark etmeden edemiyorum.
Böyle daha iyi. Bugün korkunç zorba persleri ve demokrasi
aşığı Yunanları öğreneceğiz.
Tabii ki de bu hikayeyi biliyoruz: Herkesin
üstsüz ve taş gibi olduğu savaşlar vardı, persler kötü, yunanlar iyiydi
Sokrat ve Platon acayipti, persler felsefeden anlamazdı, Batı en süper olandı
Yürü Be!!
Eh, öyle değildi.
[giriş müziği]
[giriş müziği]
[giriş müziği]
[giriş müziği]
[giriş müziği]
[giriş müziği]
Dünya'daki bütün toprak odaklı imparatorluklara
model olan Pers İmparatorluğu ile başlayalım tabii -bi dakka- moğollar hariç
Persler hakkında bildiğimiz şeylerin çoğu onlara yabancı kişilerin yazdığı
şeylere dayanıyor ki biz buna tarih diyoruz ve ilk hakiki tarihçi
Dutch:
Hallo, ik ben John Green, dit is Crash Course: Wereld geschiedenis, en vandaag gaan we
het hebben over daadwerkelijk vergelijkbare beschavingen., voor de mensen die daar van houden.
Stan, ik heb het gevoel dat we misschien teveel wereldbollen hebben.
Vandaag gaan we leren over de verschrikkelijk totalitaire Perzen en
de heilige, democratie aanbiddende Grieken. Maar natuurlijk kennen we dit verhaal al:
Er waren een aantal oorlogen waarin niemand T-shirts droeg en iedereen een redelijke conditie had: De Perzen waren slecht en de Grieken waren goed.
Socrates en Plato waren geweldig, de Perzen filosofeerden niet eens.
Het westen is de beste! Ja, eigenlijk, niet.
[Muziek intro]
[Muziek intro]
[Muziek intro]
[Muziek intro]
[Muziek intro]
[Muziek intro]
Laten we beginnen met het Perzische rijk, wat het voorbeeld werd voor bijna alle landgebonden
rijken over de wereld. Met uitzondering van. even wachten... de Mongolen.
Veel van onze kennis over de Perzen en hun rijk komt van geschriften van buitenstaanders.
Deze verhalen noemen we nu geschiedenis, en een van de eerste echte historici
German:
Hi, ich bin John Green, das hier ist Crash Course Weltgeschichte und heute werden wir
zwei Zivilisationen vergleichen, für diejenigen von euch, die solche Sachen mögen. Stan, irgendwie habe ich
das Gefühl, dass wir zu viele Globen haben.
Das ist besser. Heute werden wir etwas über die furchtbar totalitären Perser und
die heiligen, Demokratie liebenden Griechen lernen.
Aber natürlich kennen wir diese Geschichte schon: Da gab es ein paar Kriege, in denen niemand
Oberteile getragen hat und alle waren halbwegs fit; die Perser waren böse, die Griechen waren gut;
Sokratet und Platon waren fantastisch; die Perser haben nicht mal philosopiert; der Westen ist der beste,
Go Team!.
Ja, äh, nein.
[Intro]
[Intro]
[Intro]
[Intro]
[Intro]
[Intro]
Lasst uns mit dem Perserreich beginnen, das das Vorbild für so ziemlich alle
landgestützten Imperien auf der ganzen Welt wurde. Außer für - wartet - die Mongolen.
Vieles, was wir über die Perser und ihr Reich wissen, stammt von Außenstehenden, die über sie geschrieben haben,
und das nennen wir Geschichte und einer der ersten Historiker war
Modern Greek (1453-):
Γεια σας είμαι ο John Green και αυτό είναι το Crash Course: Παγκόσμια Ιστορία και σήμερα θα κάνουμε
μια θεμιτή σύγκριση πολιτισμών, για όσους από εσάς ενδιαφέρεται για τέτοια πράγματα. Stan,
νομίζω πως ίσως έχουμε πάρα πολλές υδρόγειους.
Καλύτερα έτσι. Σήμερα θα μάθουμε για τους τρομερούς και απολυταρχικούς Πέρσες
και τους άγιους, εραστές της δημοκρατίας Έλληνες.
Αλλά φυσικά την ξέρουμε ήδη αυτή την ιστορία - έγιναν κάποιοι πόλεμοι στους οποίους
κανείς δεν φορούσε μπλούζες και όλοι ήταν εύλογα γυμνασμένοι. Οι Πέρσες ήταν κακοί, οι Έλληνες ήταν καλοί.
Ο Σωκράτης και ο Πλάτωνας ήταν φοβεροί, οι Πέρσες ούτε καν φιλοσοφούσαν. Η Δύση είναι η καλύτερη!
Πάμε ομάδα!
Ναι καλά, όχι.
Ας ξεκινήσουμε με την Περσική αυτοκρατορία, η οποία έγινε το πρότυπο για σχεδόν όλες τις χερσαίες
αυτοκρατορίες σε όλον τον κόσμο. Εκτός από -ετοιμαστείτε- τους Μογγόλους.
Πολλά από αυτά που γνωρίζουμε για τους Πέρσες και την αυτοκρατορία τους, προέρχονται από κάποιον ξένο που έγραφε
για αυτούς, κάτι που πλέον ονομάζουμε ιστορία, και ένας από τους πρώτους πραγματικούς ιστορικούς
Portuguese:
Oi, eu sou John Green, e esse é o Crash Course: História Mundial, e hoje nos vamos
ver legitimas civilizações, guerras e esse tipo de coisa. Stan, eu acho
que tem globos demais nessa mesa.
Melhorou. Hoje, nos vamos aprender sobre os Persas perversos e totalitaristas e
a pureza da democracia pacifista dos Gregos.
Mas claro que nos já conhecemos essa história: teve algumas guerra que nos não sabemos
o que provocou, e quem foi o responsável.
Mas claro que os Persas eram maus e os Gregos bons
Socrates e Platão eram sensacionais;
Os Persas nem filosofavam. Ocidente é
O MELHOR!
GO TEAM!
Bem, não.
Vamos começar com o Império Persa que foi modelo para muitos outros
impérios ao redor do mundo.
Exceto por um - um momento - os Mongóis
Muito do que sabemos sobre os Persas e seu império, veio de informações escritas
sobre eles algo que agora chamamos de história.
Um dos primeiros historiadores
Russian:
Привет, я Джон Грин. Это Crash Course по всемирной истории, и сегодня мы
займёмся сравнением цивилизаций если вы понимаете, о чём я.
Стэн, мне кажется,
или у нас тут слишком много глобусов?
Так-то лучше. Сегодня мы узнаем об ужасных тоталитарных персах и
свято любящих демократию греках.
Но мы, конечно, уже знаем эту историю: было несколько войн,
где никто не носил одежды выше пояса, и все были относительно стройными
Персы плохие. Греки хорошие.
Сократ и Платон классные, а Персы вообще не филосовствали
Запад круче всех! Вперёд, команда!
Ну да. Точнее, нет.
Давайте начнём с Персидской империи, которая стала моделью практически для
всех континентальных империй мира.
За исключением -погодите- монголов.
Многое из того, что мы знаем о персах и их империи пришло к нам из описаний, сделанных иностранцами.
Того, что мы сейчас называем историей, и одним из первых историков был Геродот,
Finnish:
Moi, olen John Green, tämä on Crash Course Maailman Historia, ja tänään
teemme oikeaa "sivilisaatioiden vertailua"(?). Stan, en voi olla
tuntematta, että meillä on ehkä liian monta karttapalloa.
Näin on parempi. Tänään opimme kaamean totalitaarisista persialaisista ja
pyhistä demokratiaa rakastavista kreikkalaisista.
Mutta tietenkin tiedämme jo tämän tarinan: Oli joitakin sotia, joissa kukaan ei pitänyt
paitaa päällä ja kaikki olivat kohtalaisen hyvässä kunnossa; persialaiset olivat huonoja;kreikkalaiset hyviä;
Sokrates ja Platon olivat mahtavia; persialaiset eivät edes filosofoineet; Länsi on
paras joukkue!
No, joo, ei.
[alkumusiikki]
[alkumusiikki]
[alkumusiikki]
[alkumusiikki]
[alkumusiikki]
[alkumusiikki]
Aloitetaan persialaisten imperiumista, josta tuli malli melkeimpä kaikille maalle sijoittuville
imperiumeille ympäri maailman. Lukuunottamatta -- odotas -- mongoleita.
Paljon mitä tiedämme persialaisista ja heidän imperiumistaan saamme ulkopuolisen kirjoituksista
heistä, mitä me nyt kutsumme historiaksi, ja yksi ensimmäisistä oikeista historoitsijoista
Romanian:
a fost Herodot a cărui faimoasă operă "Războaiele cu perșii" vorbește puțin despre persani.
Acum faptul că Herodot a fost grec e important pentru că ne introduce
în ideea de subiectivism istoric.Dar mai mult despre asta în a doua parte.
Deci dinastia persană Ahemenidă... Ahemenidă...stați puțin....
How JSay: Achimenid sau Achehmenid
Amândouă sunt corecte? Am avut dreptate de două ori?
În regulă, deci dinastia persană ahemenidă a fost fondată în 539 î.Hr. de regele Cyrus
cel Mare. Cyrus și-a condus războinicii săi nomazi și a cucerit cea mai mare parte a Mesopotamiei incluzând
pe babilonieni care a pus capăt unei perioade triste din istoria evreilor numită Exilul babilonian
ceea ce i-a asigurat lui Cyrus o presă foarte bună în Biblie.
Dar fiul său, Darius I a fost chiar mai mare, extinzând controlul persan până la vechea
noastră pritetenă, valea Indusului în Est, la vest până la noul nostru prieten Egipt și la nord până la nou-venita în Crash Course
Anatolie.Apropo, erau greci în Anatolia numiți greci ionieni care vor deveni relevanți mai târziu.
Deci chiar dacă nu erai persan, imperiul persan era aproape de vis. Persanii
au condus într-un mod luminat, regatelor cucerite li se permitea să-și păstreze regii lor
English:
was Herodotus, whose famous book The Persian
Wars talks about the Persians quite a bit.
Now the fact that Herodotus was a Greek is
important because it introduces us to the
idea of historical bias. But more on that
in a second.
So the Persian Achaemenid dynasty... Achaemenid?
Hold on...
HowJSay: AkEEmenid or AkEHmenid
They’re both right? I was right twice!?
Right, so the Persian AkEEmenid or AkEHmenid
dynasty was founded in 539 BCE by King Cyrus
the Great. Cyrus took his nomadic warriors
and conquered most of Mesopotamia, including
the Babylonians, which ended a sad period
in Jewish history called The Babylonian Exile,
thus ensuring that Cyrus got great press in
the Bible.
But his son, Darius the First, was even greater,
he extended Persian control east to our old
friend the Indus Valley, west to our new friend
Egypt, and north to Crash Course newcomer
Anatolia. By the way, there were Greeks in Anatolia
called Ionian Greeks who will become relevant shortly.
So even if you weren’t Persian, the Persian
Empire was pretty dreamy. For one thing, the
Persians ruled with a light touch, like, conquered
kingdoms were allowed to keep their kings
Dutch:
was Herodotus, zijn boek 'De Perzische Oorlogen heeft het veel over de Perzen.
Het feit dat Herodotus een Griek was is belangrijk omdat dat het
concept van historische bevooroordeeldheid introduceert. Maar daarover straks meer.
Dus the Perzische Achaemenid dynastie - Archaemenid? Wacht even...
[Computer uitspraak] AkEEmenid of AkEHmenid
Ze zijn beide goed? Dus ik had twee keer gelijk!
Oké, dus de Perzische AkEEmenid of AkEHmenid dynastie werd opgericht in 539 voor christus door koning Cyrus
de Grote. Cyrus nam zijn nomadische soldaten en veroverde grotendeels van Mesopotamië,
inclusief de Babyloniërs, wat een treurige periode in Joodse geschiedenis stopte genaamd de Babylonische ballingschap.
Om zo zeker te zijn van goede pers in de Bijbel.
Maar zijn zoon, Darius de eerste, was zelfs groten: Hij vergrote de Perzische heerschappij ten oosten van onze oude
vriend de Indus vallei, ten westen van onze nieuwe vriend Egypte, en ten noorde van de Crash Course nieuwkomer,
Anatolië.
Trouwens, er waren Grieken in Anatolië genaamd de Ionische grieken die straks voor ons belangrijk worden
Dus zelfs als je niet Perzisch was, was het Perzische rijk best goed.
Ten eerste, de Perzen regeerden met lichte hand: Bijvoorbeeld veroverde koninkrijken mochten.
koning en adel behouden zolang ze een trouw zworen aan de Perzische koning
French:
était Hérodote dont le fameux livre, les guerres Perses
parlait un peu des Perses.Le fait qu'Hérodote était Grec est important car cela
nous introduit au biais historique. Mais on en reparlera un peu plus tard.
La dynastie des Perses Achéménides... Achéménides? Attendez...
AKKEmenide ou AKEHmenide
Les deux sont bons, j'avais donc deux fois raison!
Donc la dynastie Perses Achéménide a été fondée en -539 par Cyrus
le grand. Cyrus a mobilisé ses guerriers nomades et conquis la majeure partie de la Mésopotamie, y compris
l'empire Babylonien, ce qui mit fin à une triste période de l'histoire Juive
connue comme l'Exil Babylonien ce qui assura à Cyrus une bonne réputation dans la bible.
Mais son fils, Darius 1er, était encore plus grand, il étendit l'empire Perse qui contrôlait désormais
les terres s'étendant de l'est de la vallée de l'Indus, notre vielle amie, à l'ouest de notre nouvelle amie, l'Egypte, jusqu'au nord
d'une nouvelle venue dans le cours: L'Anatolie. Pendant que j'y pense,
il y avait des Grecs en Anatolie, qu'on nommait Grecs Ioniens, et qui deviendront bientôt importants.
Même si vous n'étiez pas Perse, l'Empire Perse était plutôt sympathique.
La gouvernance Perse était légère, par exemple, les pays conquis pouvaient garder leurs propres rois
et leurs élites, à condition qu'ils prêtent allégeance au roi Perses et paient les taxes.
Thai:
ผู้ได้เขียนถึงชาวเปอร์เซียไว้นิดหน่อย
ในหนังสือชื่อดังของเขาที่ชื่อว่า The Persian Wars
ความจริงที่ว่าเฮอรอโดทัสเป็นชาวกรีกนั้นเป็นเรื่องที่สำคัญมาก เพราะนี่ทำให้เราเริ่มรู้จักกับอคติทางประวัติศาสตร์
แต่เดี๋ยวเราจะกลับมาพูดถึงเรื่องนี้ทีหลัง
ราชวงศ์เปอร์เซีย อะคีเมนิด...
อะเคเมนิด? แป๊บนะครับ
อะ-คี-เม-นิด หรือ อะ-เค-เม-นิด
ถูกทั้งคู่หรอ? ที่อ่านถูกสองรอบเลยหรอเนี่ย!?
เอาล่ะ ราชวงศ์เปอร์เซีย อะคีเมนิด หรือ
อะเคเมนิด ถูกสถาปนาขึ้นในปี 539 ก่อนคริสตกาล โดย พระเจ้าไซรัสมหาราช
พระเจ้าไซรัสนำทัพทหารเร่ร่อน และยึดครองพื้นที่เมโสโปเตเมียส่วนใหญ่ร่วมถึงบาบิโลเนียไว้ได้
ซึ่งนำไปสู่จุดสิ้นสุดของยุคสมัยที่น่าเศร้าของประวัติศาสตร์ยิวที่เรียกว่า การคุมขังแห่งบาบิโลเนีย
ทำให้พระเจ้าไซรัสได้รับการยกย่องในไบเบิล
แต่พระโอรสของพระองค์ ดาริอัสที่ 1 นั้น ยิ่งใหญ่ยิ่งกว่า พระองค์ขยายดินแดนเปอร์เซีย ทางตะวันออกไปถึงอินดัส วัลเล่ย์เพื่อนเก่า
ทางตะวันตกไปถึงอียิปต์เพื่อนใหม่ของเรา และทางเหนือไปถึง อานาโตเลีย เมืองหน้าใหม่ในแครสคอร์ส
ซึ่งในอานาโตเลียนั้น มีชาวกรีกที่เรียกว่า พวกไอโอเนียนอาศัยอยู่ อีกซักครู่พวกเขาจะเข้ามาเกี่ยวข้อง
ต่อให้คุณไม่ใช่คนเปอร์เซีย อาณาจักรเปอร์เซียก็ยังน่าอยู่ทีเดียว ด้วยเหตุผลหนึ่งคือ
ชาวเปอร์เซียปกครองแบบหลวมๆ เช่น อนุญาตให้กษัตริย์ และชนชั้นสูงของดินแดนที่ยึดครองมา สามารถปกครองตนเองต่อไปได้
Chinese:
是希羅多德，他名著《波斯戰爭》
對波斯人講得滿多的。
希羅多德是希臘人。這很重要因為
他作品帶有歷史偏見。
稍後會深入講。
所以波斯阿契美尼德王朝，阿奇美尼德？
等一下...
［電腦發音］
兩個發音都對？我竟然對兩次！
波斯阿契美尼德王朝於公元前539由居魯士大帝建立。
居魯士帶他的游牧戰士征服了
多部分的兩河流域，包括巴比倫，
結束了猶太歷史上巴比倫流亡的悲傷時期，
從而保證居魯士在聖經中被大書特書。
但他兒子大流士一世更偉大：
他把波斯帝國往東擴張伸向我們老朋友印度河流域，
西到我們新朋友埃及，
北至速成班新人安納托利亞。
當地希臘裔的愛奧尼亞人很快就會登場。
即使你不是波斯人，波斯帝國也相當夢幻。
一方面，波斯人統治不嚴厲：被征服的王國只要宣誓
Turkish:
Heredot'du, meşhur Pers Savaşları kitabında persler hakkında bayağı söz etti.
Heredot'un yunan olduğunu unutmayalım çünkü bu kendisinin
yanlı tarih anlayışına sebep oluyor ama ona sonra değineceğiz.
Pers Ahameniş hanedanlığı-Ahameniş? Bir dakika..
AhAAmeniş ya daAhAMeniş
İkisi de mi doğru? İki kere bildim!
Tamam, Büyük Pers AhAAmeniş ya daAhAMeniş hanedanlığı MÖ 539'da Kirok
tarafından kuruldu.
Kirok göçebe askerleriyle Mezopotamya'nın Babil de dahil çoğunu fethetti
ki bu da Yahudi tarihinde Babil Sürgünü olan dönemi başlattı. Böylece
Kirok İncil'de bayağı yer edindi.
Oğlu I. Darius daha da büyüktü. Pers hükümdarlığını doğuda İndus
Vadisi'ne, batıda Mısır'a ve kuzeyde Crash Course'a yeni dahil olan yere kadar büyüttü,
Anadolu'ya.
Bu sırada Anadolu'da İyonyalılar olarka bilinen Yunan kabileleri vardı
bunlar sonra önemli olacak.
Pers olmasanız da Pers İmparatorluğu oha falandı
Mesela, Persler hükmettiği yerlerde baskıcı değildi:
İşgal edilen krallıkların kralı ve elitleri bağlılık yemini ederse ve vergi
Russian:
чья известная книга "Персидские Войны" расказывает нам немного о персах.
Тот факт, что Геродот был греком, важен потому, что это демонстрирует нам
принцип исторической предвзятости.
Но об это чуть позже
Итак персидская династия Ахеменидов...
Ахеменидов? Погодите-ка.
То есть они оба правильные? Я был прав дважды!
Итак, персидская династия Ахеменидов была основана в 539 году до н.э королём Киром Великим.
Кир со своими воинами кочевниками завоевал большую часть Месопотамии, включая Вавилон
чем закончили грустный период Еврейской истории называемой Вавилонским пленом.
Что дало Киру хорошие отзывы в Библии
Но его сын, Дарий Первый, был ещё более великим. Он расширил власть персов на восток до наших старых друзей в долине реки Инд.
И на западе до наших новых друзей в Египте и на севере до новичка в Crash Course - Анатолии.
К слову, в Анатолии жили греки, называющиеся ионийцами, которые вскоре сыграют свою роль.
Даже если вы не были персом,
Персидская империя выглядела довольно привлекательно.
Во-первых, правление персов было мягким. Завоёванным королевствам разрешено
было оставить их прежних правителей при условии, что они признавали верховенство
персидского короля.
Arabic:
والذي تناول الفرس بإسهاب
في كتابه الشهير "الحروب الفارسية".
حقيقة أن هيرودوت كان إغريقيًا هو أمر مهم
لأنها المدخل لنا إلى فكرة التحيز التاريخي.
سأخوض أكثر في ذلك بعد قليل.
السلالة الفارسية الأخمينية...
الأخمنية؟ مهلًا...
أخمينية أو أخمنية.
كلاهما صحيح؟ لقد أصبت مرتين!
تأسست السلالة الفارسية الأخمينية
في 539 قبل الميلاد
على يد الملك قورش العظيم. غزا قورش
بمحاربيه الرُحّل معظم بلاد ما بين النهرين،
بما في ذلك البابليين،
مُنهيًا بذلك فترة حزينة في التاريخ اليهودي
تُسمى المنفى البابلي، وبذلك ضمن قورش
تلقّي المديح الوافر في الكتاب المقدس.
ولكن ابنه داريوس الأول، كان أعظم من ذلك،
وبسط السيطرة الفارسية شرقًا
إلى موضوع حلقتنا القديمة، وادي السند
وغربًا إلى موضوع حلقتنا الجديدة، مصر
وشمالًا إلى موضوع حلقة قادمة
هو الأناضول.
بالمناسبة، كان هناك يونانيون في الأناضول
يُدعون اليونانيين الإيونيين
والذين ستظهر صلتهم بموضوع الحلقة بعد قليل.
حتى لو لم تكن فارسيًا
كانت الإمبراطورية الفارسية واعدة جدًا.
أحد أسباب ذلك هو أن حكم الفرس كان ناعمًا،
فقد سُمح للممالك المفتوحة بالإبقاء على ملوكها
وفئاتها النخبوية طالما تعهدت
بالولاء للملك الفارسي ودفع الضرائب،
Swedish:
var Herodotos, vars berömda bok "De persiska
krigen" berättar en hel del om perserna.
Faktumet att Herodotos var grek är
viktigt eftersom det introducerar oss till
tanken på historiska tendenser. Men mer om det om en sekund.
Så persiska Akemenidiska dynastin ... Akemenidiska?
Vänta...
HowJSay: AkEEmenid eller AkEHmenid
De är båda rätt? Jag var rätt två gånger !?
Okay, så persiska AkEEmenid eller AkEHmenid
dynastin grundades 539 f.Kr. av kung Cyrus
den store. Cyrus tog sina nomadiska krigare
och erövrade större delen av Mesopotamien, inklusive
babylonierna, som avslutade en sorglig period
i judisk historia kallad "den babyloniska fångenskapen",
vilket säkerställer att Cyrus får bra press i
Bibeln.
Men hans son, Darius den första, var ännu större,
han utökar persiska kontroll österut till vår gamla
vän Indusdalen, västerut till vår nya vän
Egypten och norrut till snabbkurs nykomlingen
Anatolien. Förresten så fanns det greker i Anatolien
kallade joniska greker som snart är viktiga.
Även om du inte var perser var det persiska
imperiet ganska coolt. Som exempel
styrde perser med ett lugnt sinne, erövrade
riken fick behålla sina kungar
Hungarian:
Hérodotosz a híres A görög-perzsa háború c. könyvében részletesen ír a perzsákról.
Fontos megemlíteni, hogy Hérodotosz görög volt,
hiszen emiatt előítélettel írt a perzsákról.
De erről később mesélek még.
Tehát a perzsa Achaemenid dinasztia ...
Achaemenid? Na várjunk csak...
"Ökímenid" vagy "Akehmanid"
Mindkettő jó? Mindkétszer igazam volt?!
Tehát. A perzsa Ökímenid vagy Akehmanid dinasztiát ie. 539-ben alapította a Nagy Cyrus király
Cyrus majdnem egész Mezopotámiát elfoglalta nomád harcosaival,
beleértve a babiloniakat, ami véget vetett a zsidó történelem egy szomorú időszakának, az ún. babiloni fogságnak,
ezáltal biztosítva, hogy Cyrus nagyon jó sajtót kapott a Bibliában.
De fia, első Dáriusz, még nagyobb uralkodó volt, és tovább terjesztette a perzsa birodalmat keletre
régi barátunk, az Indus-völgye felé, nyugatra az új barátunk, Egyiptom felé, és északra az újonc
Anatólia felé. Egyébként Anatóliában éltek jón görögök, akiknek fontos szerepe volt a történelemben.
Tehát ha te nem is perzsa voltál, a Perzsa Birodalom elég káprázatos volt.
Pl. mert a meghódított királyságok megtarthatták királyukat, és az elit réteget,
German:
Herodot, dessen berühmtes Buch "Die Perserkriege" tatsächlich ein wenig von Persern handelt.
Die Tatsache, dass Herodot Grieche war, ist wichtig, denn sie führt uns zum Prinzip
der historischen Voreingenommenheit. Aber mehr dazu in einer Sekunde.
Also, die persische
Achaimenes-Dynastie - Achaimenes [andere Aussprache]? Wartet...[Computerstimme erklärt die englische Aussprache]
Ach, beide sind richtig? Ich hatte zweimal Recht!
Also, die persische Achaimenes- oder Achaimenes- [andere Aussprache] Dynastie wurde im Jahr 539 v. Chr. von König Kyros dem Großen
gegründet.
Kyros eroberte mit seinen Nomaden-Kriegern einen Großteil Mesopotamiens, inklusive Babyloniens,
was mit einer traurigen Episode der jüdischen Geschichte namens Babylonisches Exil endete, was wiederum dafür
sorgte, dass Kyros viel Presse in der Bibel bekam.
Aber sein Sohn, Darius I., war noch "größer". Er vergrößerte den persischen Einflussbereich nach Osten, zu unserem alten
Freund, dem Indus-Tal, westlich von unserem neue Freund Ägypten und nördlich von unserem Crash Course Newcomer
Anatolien.
Übrigens gab es dort Griechen, Ionier genannt, die in Kürze noch wichtig sein
werden.
Selbst wenn man kein Perser war, war das Perserreich ziemlich traumhaft.
Zum einen regierten die Peser mit lockerer Hand: Eroberte Königreiche durften ihre Könige
und ihre Eliten behalten, solange sie dem persischen König ihre Treue schworen
Spanish:
fue Heródoto, cuyo famoso libro "Las Guerras Persas" habla de los persas un poco.
Ahora, el hecho de que Heródoto era griego es importante porque nos introduce a la
idea del sesgo histórico. Pero más de eso en un momento.
Así que la dinastía aqueménida- ¿"aqueménide"?
Espera...
[pronunciación de la computadora] Aqueménida o "aqueménide".
(En inglés, hay dos pronunciaciones posibles.)
¿Así que ambas son correctas? ¡Estuve en lo correcto dos veces!
(Ambas pronunciaciones son correctas.)
De acuerdo, así que la dinastía aquemenida o "aqueménide"
(Éste no es el caso en español. Solo "aquemenida" es correcto.)
fue fundada por el rey Ciro II el Grande en el 539 a.C.
Ciro tomó a sus guerreros nómadas y conquistó la mayor parte de Mesopotamia, incluyendo a los babilonios,
lo cual culminó un triste período en la historia judía llamado el Exilio Babilónico, asegurando así
que Ciro consiguiera gran prensa en la Biblia.
Pero su hijo, Darío I, fue aún más grande: extendió el control persa al este hacia nuestro viejo
amigo el Valle del Indo, oeste a nuestro nuevo amigo Egipto y norte al recién llegado a Crash Course,
Anatolia.
Por cierto, hubo griegos en Anatolia llamados los jonios que serán relevantes
en poco tiempo.
Así que, incluso si no eras persa, el Imperio persa era bastante agradble.
Por un lado, los persas gobernaron con un ligero toque: los reinos conquistados eran permitidos
mantener sus reyes y su élite siempre y cuando prometieran lealtad al Rey Persa
Finnish:
oli Herodotos, jonka kuuluisa kirja, Persian sodat, kertoo persialaisista melko paljon.
Se, että Herodotos oli kreikkalainen, on tärkeää, koska se esittelee meille
idean historiallisista ennakkoasenteista. Enemmän siitä hetken kuluttua.
Persialainen Akhaimenidien hallitsijasuku-- Akhaimenid? Hetkinen...
Persialainen Akhaimenidien hallitsijasuku-- Akhaimenid? Hetkinen...
[tietokone lausuu] AkEEmenid. AkEHmenid. Eli molemmat on oikein? Olin kahdesti oikeassa!
Eli, persialainen Akhaimenidien hallitsijasuku perusti kuningas Cyrus Suuri vuonna 539 eaa.
Eli, persialainen Akhaimenidien hallitsijasuku perusti kuningas Cyrus Suuri vuonna 539 eaa.
Cyrus otti paimentolaissotilaansa ja valloitti suurimman osan Mesopotamiaa, mukaan lukien Babylonialaiset,
päättäen surullisen kauden juutalaisten historiassa, Babylonin vankeuden, ja varmistaen
Cyrukselle hyvän mainoksen Raamatusta.
Mutta hänen poikansa, Darius I, oli mahtavampi: Hän laajensi persialaisten valtaa itään kohti vanhaa
ystäväämme Indus-laaksoa, länteen kohti uutta ystäväämme Egyptiä, ja pohjoiseen Crash Coursen uuteen tulokkaaseen
Anatoliaan.
Sivumennen sanoen, Anatoliassa oli kreikkalaisia, Joonian kreikkalaiset, jotka tulevat oleellisiksi
kohta.
Joten, vaikka et ollut persialainen, Persian imperiumi oli melko unenomainen.
Ensiksikin persialaiset hallitsivat kevyellä kosketuksella: valloitettujen kuningaskuntien sallittiin
säilyttää kuninkaansa ja eliittinsä, kunhan he lupasivat uskollisuutensa Persian kuninkaalle
Portuguese:
foi Heródoto, um dos seus livros mais famosos, Guerras Persas, fala um pouco sobre os Persas.
Agora, pelo fato de Herodotus ser Grego é importante pois introduz a ideia histórica
de que os Persas eram bárbaros.
Falamos disso depois.
Então, a dinastia Persa Achaemenid - Achaemenid? Um segundo
AkEEmenid or AkEHmenid
Os dois estavam certos? Eu acertei nas duas?
Certo, então a dinastia AkEEmenid ou Akehmenid foi fundada em 539 A.C pelo Rei Cyrus
o Grande
Cyrus usou guerreiros nômades e conquistou grande parte da Mesopotâmia, incluindo a Babilonia
que terminou em um período triste para a história judaica chamada Exílio da Babilônia, uma passagem
que Cyrus retratou muito bem na Bíblia.
Mas seu filho, Darius primeiro, foi ainda melhor.
Ele estendeu o Império Persa para o leste no nosso
antigo amigo Vale Indo; oeste para nosso novo amigo Egito, e norte para o próximo tema do Crash Course, Anatolia.
A propósito tinham gregos em Anatolia
chamados de gregos Jônios, que serão relevantes
daqui a pouco.
Mesmo que você não fosse Persa.
O Império Persa era bem legal.
Por causa disso os Persas governavam com o toque de luz: depois de conquistar um reino
eles permitiam manter o rei local e seu governo, desde que eles jurassem lealdade ao Rei Persa,
Vietnamese:
là Herodotus với cuốn sách nổi tiếng ''Những cuộc chiến tranh Ba Tư", Trong đó có đề cập một ít về người Ba Tư
Nhưng việc Herodotus là người Hy Lạp rất quan trọng vì nó giới thiệu khái niệm
bẻ cong lịch sử. Một lát sau chúng ta sẽ nói về nó.
Triều đại Achaemenid của Ba Tư...Achaemenid? Đợi đã
HowJSay: AkEEmenid hoặc AkEHmenid
Cả hai đều đúng? Tôi đúng hai lần ư !?
Ok, triều đại AkEEmenid hay AkEHmenid của Ba Tư được thành lập năm 539 TCN bởi vua Cyrus Đại đế
Cyrus mang các chiến binh du mục của mình chinh phục phần lớn Lưỡng Hà, bao gồm
Babylonia, kết thúc một thời kì buồn trong lịch sử
Do Thái được gọi là Cuộc lưu đày ở Babylon, do đó
vì thế đảm bảo cho sức ảnh hưởng to lớn của Cyrus trong Kinh Thánh.
Nhưng con trai ông, Darius Đệ nhất, còn vĩ đại hơn, ông đã mở rộng tầm kiểm soát của Ba Tư
về phía Đông tới Thung lũng Ấn, phía Tây tới Ai Cập, phía Bắc tới Anatolia
Tiện thể, có người Hi Lạp ở Anatolia, gọi là người Hi Lạp Ionia, chúng ta sẽ sớm đề cập tới họ
Ngay cả khi bạn không phải là người Ba Tư thì bạn cũng sẽ thấy Đế quốc Ba Tư là một thiên đường. Bởi một lẽ
Ba Tư cai trị rất thoải mái và rộng rãi,. Các vương quốc bị chiếm được phép
iw:
שספרו המפורסם "המלחמות הפרסיות"
מדבר על הפרסים לא מעט.
עכשיו העובדה הרודוטוס היה יווני היא חשובה
משום שהיא מעלה בפנינו את הרעיון של:
"הטיה היסטורית".
אבל עוד על זה בעוד שניה.
אז השושלת האחמנית הפרסית... או אקמאנידית?
חכו שניה...
" אקמאנידית או האחמנית"
שניהם נכונים? צדקתי פעמים!?
בסדר, אז השושלת הפרסית האחמנית או האקמאנידית נוסדה בשנת 539 לפנה"ס על ידי המלך כורש הגדול (סיירוס)
כורש (סיירוס) לקח את הלוחמים הנוודים שלו וכבש את רוב מסופוטמיה, כולל
את הבבלים, דבר שסיים פרק עצוב
בהיסטוריה היהודית בשם "גלות בבל",
ובזה הבטיח שכורש קיבל פירסום חיובי בתנ"ך.
אבל בנו, דריוש הראשון, היה גדול עוד יותר, הוא הרחיב את
שליטת פרס במזרח לחברינו הותיקים בעמק האינדוס,
למערב אל חברתנו החדשה מצרים,
לצפון עד למגוייסת הטרייה בקורס שלנו- אנטוליה
אגב, היו יוונים באנטוליה שנקראו
יווניים איונים (Ionian) שייהפכו רלוונטים בקרוב.
אז גם אם לא הייתם פרסים, האימפריה הפרסית
הייתה די חלומית. דבר אחד בטוח,
הפרסים שלטו בצורה מתחשבת, למשל,
ממלכות כבושות הורשו לשמור על מלכיהם
Polish:
był Herodotus, którego sławna książka "Wojny Perskie" mówiła o Persach dość sporo.
Fakt , że Herodotus był Grekiem jest ważny ponieważ przedstawia nam to
zjawisko stronniczości historycznej. Ale więcej o tym za chwilę.
Więc Perska dynastia Achemenidów...
Achemenidów? Poczekajcie...
[AkEEmenid or AkEHmenid] (angielska wymowa)
Oba są poprawne ? Miałem rację dwa razy!
Tak, więc Perska dynastia Achemenidów albo Akchemenidów została założona w 539r. p.n.e przez Króla Cyrusa
Wielkiego
Cyrus wziął swoich koczowniczych wojowników i zdobył większość Mezopotamii włączając w to Babilonię
kończąc tym samym smutny okres w Żydowskiej historii zwany "Niewolą babilońską" , w ten sposób
Cyrus dostał świetną wzmiankę w Biblii.
Ale jego syn, Dariusz Pierwszy, był nawet lepszy. Rozciągnął kontrolę Persów na wschód do
naszych starych przyjaciół z doliny Indusu, na zachód do naszych nowych przyjaciół z Egiptu i na północ do nowego nabytku Crash Course
Anatolia
Przy okazji, w Anatolii byli Grecy zwani Grekami Jońskimi, którzy będą istotni.
Wkrótce.
Więc nawet jeśli nie byłeś Persem, to Perskie Imperium było marzeniem.
Dla jednego powodu, Persowie rządzili lekką ręką: Podbite królestwa mogły
zachować swoich królów oraz elity tak długo jak zobowiązywali się być posłuszni wobec Perskiego króla
Modern Greek (1453-):
ήταν ο Ηρόδοτος, του οποίου το διάσημο βιβλίο "Οι Περσικοί Πόλεμοι" αναφέρει αρκετά για τους Πέρσες.
Τώρα το γεγονός ότι ο Ηρόδοτος ήταν Έλληνας είναι σημαντικό γιατί μας εισάγει στην
ιδέα της ιστορικής προκατάληψης. Αλλά περισσότερα γι αυτό σε λίγο.
Έτσι η Περσική δυναστεία των Αχαιμενιδών...
Αχαιμενιδών? Μισό λεπτό...
AkEEmenid or AkEHmenid... Είναι και τα δυο σωστά? Είχα δίκιο και τις δυο φορές?
Σωστά, η Περσική δυναστεία των Αχαιμενιδών λοιπόν ιδρύθηκε το 539 π.Χ. από τον βασιλιά Κύρο τον Μέγα
ο σπουδαίος. Ο Κύρος πήρε νομαδική τους πολεμιστές του
και κατέκτησαν το μεγαλύτερο μέρος της Μεσοποταμίας, συμπεριλαμβανομένων
Ο Κύρος οδήγησε τους νομαδικούς πολεμιστές του και κατέκτησε το μεγαλύτερο μέρος της Μεσοποταμίας
συμπεριλαμβανομένων των Βαβυλώνιων, τερματίζοντας μια θλιβερή περίοδο της Εβραϊκής ιστορίας, γνωστή ως "Βαβυλώνια αιχμαλωσία"
εξασφαλίζοντας έτσι στον Κύρο μεγάλη δημοσιότητα στη Βίβλο.
Αλλά ο γιος του, Δαρείος Α, ήταν ακόμα πιο Μέγας, επέκτεινε τον έλεγχο των Περσών στα ανατολικά
στην παλιά μας φίλη, την κοιλάδα του Ινδού, δυτικά στη νέα μας φίλη, Αίγυπτο και βόρεια στην νεοφερμένη στο Crash Course, Ανατολία.
Επί τη ευκαιρία, υπήρχαν Έλληνες στην Ανατολία που ονομάζονταν Ίωνες, με τους οποίους θα ασχοληθούμε σύντομα.
Έτσι λοιπόν, ακόμα και αν δεν ήσουν Πέρσης,
η Περσική αυτοκρατορία ήταν αρκετά ονειρική.
Ένας λόγος ήταν η χαλαρή διακυβέρνηση των Περσών, όπως για παράδειγμα στα υποτελή βασίλεια επιτρεπόταν
να διατηρήσουν τους βασιλείς και την ελίτ εφόσον υπόσχονταν υποταγή στον Πέρση βασιλιά
Czech:
jehož slavné dílo "Řecko-perské války"
o Peršanech docela dost mluví.
Je důležité, že Hérodotos byl Řek,
protože nás to přivádí k tématu
historické předpojatosti.
Ale o tom více až za chvilku.
Perská Achaimenovská dynastie,
Achaeimenovská? Vydržte...
Akeemenid nebo Akehmenid.
Takže jsou obě správně?
Měl jsem pravdu dvakrát!
Perská Achaimenovská
dynastie byla založena
roku 539 př. n. l.
králem Kýrem Velikým.
Kýros s kočovnými bojovníky dobyl
většinu Mezopotámie včetně Babylonu,
čímž skončila smutná část židovské
historie nazývaná babylonský exil,
a tím si zajistil,
že se o něm bude hezky psát v Bibli.
Jeho syn Dareios I. byl ještě lepší.
Rozšířil perskou nadvládu na východ
až k našim známým v poříčí Indu,
na západ k novým přátelům z Egypta
a na sever k nováčkům
v našem pořadu: Malé Asii.
Mimochodem, v Malé Asii
byli Řekové, nazýváni Iónové,
a ti budou podstatní už za chvilku.
I když jste nebyl Peršan,
Perská říše byla skoro jako z pohádky.
Zaprvé, Peršané vládli lehkou rukou,
tak třeba dobytá království si směla
ponechat krále a elity za podmínky,
že přísahali věrnost perským králům
Spanish:
y pagaran impuestos, razón por la cual el Rey Persa era conocido como el "Rey de Reyes".
Además, los impuestos no eran tan altos y los persas mejoraban la infraestructura con mejores caminos
y tenían este servicio postal parecido al Pony Express del cual Heródoto dijo:
"...ni la nieve, ni la lluvia, ni el calor del sol, ni la noche las detiene, para que dejen de hacer con toda
brevedad el camino que les está señalado".
Y los persas adoptaron la libertad de religión.
Eran zoroastrianos, la cual tiene una demanda
de ser la primera religión monoteísta del mundo. Fue realmente el zoroastrismo el cual
introdujo el dualismo del bien/mal que todos conocemos tan bien. Ya sabes: Dios y Satanás o Harry
y Voldemort...
Pero los persas no estaban muy preocupados por convertir a la gente del Imperio a su
fe. Además, Zoroastrismo prohibia la esclavitud, asi que la esclavitud era casi desconocida
en el imperio Persa
En todo caso, si tuvieras que vivir en el siglo V a.C., el imperio Persa era quizas
el mejor lugar. A menos, claro, que le creas a Heródoto y a los griegos.
Todos sabemos sobre los griegos: arquitectura.
filosofía, literatura. La palabra música
viene del griego, asi como mucho en la cultura actual.
Finnish:
ja maksoivat veroja, minkä takia Persian kuningasta kutsutaan kuninkaiden kuninkaaksi.
Lisäksi verot eivät olleet liian korkeat ja persialaiset paransivat infrasrtuktuuria paremmilla teillä
ja heillä oli poni pikakuljetuksen tapainen postipalvelu, josta Herodotos sanoi:
"... heitä ei lumi, sade, lämpö eikä pimeys pysäytä toteuttaakseen
heille annettua reittiä täydellä vauhdilla."
Persialaiset omaksuivat uskonnonvapauden. He olivat zarathustralaisia, jotka väittävät
olevansa maailman ensimmäinen monoteistinen uskonto. Oikeastaan zarathustralaisuus
esitteli meille hyvä/paha dualismin, jonka tunnemme hyvin. Tiedäthän: jumala ja saatana tai Harry
ja Voldemort...
Mutta persialaiset eivät olleet huolissaan kääntämään imperiumin ihmisiä heidän
uskoonsa. Lisäksi, zarathustralaisuus kielsi orjuuden ja niinpä se oli ennenkuulumatonta
Persian imperiumissa.
Kaikkiaan, jos elit viidennellä vuosisadalla eaa., Persian imperiumi oli luultavasti
paras paikka elää. Ellet usko Herodotosta ja kreikkalaisia.
Tiedämme kaikki kreikkalaisista: Arkkitehtuuri. Filosofia. Kirjallisuus. Sana musiikki
tulee kreikasta, kuten moni muu nykyaikaisessa kulttuurissa.
Polish:
i płacili mu podatki, dlatego właśnie Perski król był nazywany Królem Królów.
Ponadto podatki nie były zbyt wysokie a Persowie ulepszali infrastrukturę lepszymi drogami
i mieli ten kucykowy ekspres - pocztę , o której Herodotus powiedział:
Nie straszne im śniegi czy deszcze, upały lub ciemności, nic ich nie powstrzyma przed dostarczeniem
przesyłki do celu z największą szybkością.
Persowie akceptowali wolność religii. Sami wyznawali Zaratusztrianizm , który uważa się
za pierwszą w świecie monoteistyczną religie. To Zaratusztrianizm
przedstawił nam dualizm dobra i zła , który znamy tak dobrze. Wiecie: Bóg i Szatan albo
Harry i Voldemort...
Ale Persowie nie byli zbyt zatroskani o przekonywanie ludzi z Imperium do swojej
wiary. Dodatkowo, Zaratusztrianizm zakazywał niewolnictwa więc było to zjawisko niemal nieznane w
Perskim Imperium
Koniec końców, jeśli miałbyś żyć w 5 wieku p.n.e , Perskie Imperium byłoby najprawdopodbniej
najlepszym miejscem do tego. Chyba , że wierzysz Herodotusowi i Grekom.
Wszyscy znamy Greków:
Architektura, Filozofia , Literatura , słowo "muzyka"
pochodzi z Grecji , podobnie jak wiele innych rzeczy w naszej obecnej kulturze.
Modern Greek (1453-):
και πλήρωναν φόρους, γι αυτό ο Πέρσης βασιλιάς ήταν γνωστός ως Βασιλιάς των Βασιλιάδων.
Επίσης οι φόροι δεν ήταν πολύ υψηλοί και οι Πέρσες βελτίωναν τις υποδομές με καλύτερους δρόμους
και είχαν και αυτό το γρήγορο σύστημα αλληλογραφίας με πόνυ, για το οποίο ο Ηρόδοτος είπε
"...αυτό δεν σταματούσε ούτε από το χιόνι, ούτε από τη βροχή, ούτε από την ζέστη, ούτε από το σκοτάδι,
προκειμένου να πετύχουν την ολοκλήρωση της καθορισμένης πορείας, με την προβλεπόμενη ταχύτητα"
Και οι Πέρσες υποστήριξαν την ανεξιθρησκεία. Πίστευαν στο Ζοροαστρισμό, ο οποίος
έχει το αξίωμα της πρώτης μονοθεϊστικής θρησκείας. Ήταν όντως ο Ζοροαστρισμός
ο οποίος μας εισήγαγε στο δυϊσμό του καλού/κακού που όλοι γνωρίζουμε τόσο καλά. Ξέρετε: Θεός και Διάβολος,
Χάρυ και Βόλντεμορτ...
Αλλά τους Πέρσες δεν τους απασχολούσε τόσο πολύ το να προσηλυτίσουν τους λαούς της αυτοκρατορίας τους στη θρησκεία τους.
Συν το ότι ο Ζοροαστρισμός απαγόρευε τη δουλεία και έτσι η δουλεία ήταν σχεδόν άγνωστη στην Περσική αυτοκρατορία.
Σε γενικές γραμμές, αν έπρεπε να ζήσεις τον 5ο αιώνα π.Χ., η Περσική αυτοκρατορία θα ήταν πιθανότατα
το καλύτερο μέρος, εκτός αν πιστεύετε τον Ηρόδοτο και τους Έλληνες.
Όλοι γνωρίζουμε για τους Έλληνες: αρχιτεκτονική, φιλοσοφία, λογοτεχνία. Η ίδια η λέξη μουσική
προέρχεται από τα ελληνικά, όπως και πολλά ακόμα στο σημερινό πολιτισμό.
Russian:
и платили налоги. Поэтому правитель Персии был известен как "Король Королей"
К тому же налоги не были слишком высокими и персы улучшали инфраструктуру и строили дороги.
А ещё у них была почтовая служба подобно Пони-Экспресс, о которой Геродот сказал следующее:
"...Их не остановит ни снег, ни дождь, ни жара, ни мрак.
Они доберутся до получателя настолько быстро, насколько возможно.
Ещё персы были за свободу религии. Сами персы были последователями зороастризма,
которая считается первой монотеистической религией.
Именно зороастризм ввёл дуалистическое понятие добра и зла.
Бог или Сатана
Гарри или Волдеморт
Но персы не очень заботились об обращении людей в свою религию.
Плюс зороастризм запрещает рабство, и оно практически отсутствовало в Персидской империи.
Поэтому если вы бы вам пришлось жить
в 5 веке до н.э., то Персидская империя, наверное, была бы наилучшим для этого местом.
Конечно же, при условии, что вы не верите Геродоту и грекам.
Все мы знаем о Греции.
Архитектура, философия, литература.
Само слово "музыка" пришло из греческого, также как и многие другие понятия современной культуры.
Czech:
a platili daně, proto se
perskému králi říkalo král králů.
Navíc daně nebyly moc vysoké,
také zlepšili infrastrukturu
kvalitnějšími cestami
a pro posílání dopisů
používali něco jako Pony Express,
o čemž Hérodotos řekl:
"Ani sníh, ani déšť,
ani vedro, ani noc jim nezabrání,
aby co nejrychleji
nepřekonali uloženou vzdálenost."
Peršané přijali náboženskou
svobodu. Vyznávali zoroastrismus,
o kterém se tvrdí, že byl prvním
monoteistickým náboženstvím na světě.
Právě zoroastrismus
zavedl dualitu dobra a zla,
již tak dobře známe.
Jako třeba Bůh a Satan
nebo Harry a Voldemort.
Peršané si ale nedělali
mnoho starostí s obracením
ostatních v říši na jejich víru.
Navíc víra zakazovala otroctví,
takže bylo
v Perské říši téměř nevídané.
Prostě kdybyste měli žít v 5. století
př. n. l., Perská říše by asi byla
tou nejlepší volbou.
Ledaže věříte Hérodotovi a Řekům.
Všichni známe Řeky:
architektura, filosofie, literatura...
Samotné slovo muzika pochází z Řecka,
jako mnoho dalšího
týkajícího se současné kultury.
iw:
והאליטות שלהם כל עוד הם הצהירו אמונים
למלך הפרסי ושלמו מסים,
שזו הסיבה מדוע המלך הפרסי
היה ידוע בתור "מלך המלכים".
בנוסף, המסים לא היו גבוהים מדי, והפרסים
בנו תשתית משופרת עם כבישים טובים יותר
והייתה להם מערכת שירותי דואר על סוסים
עליה הרודוטוס אמר:
"הם לא הוסטו ע"י שלג ולא גשם ולא חום ולא ע"י החושך על מנת
לפגוש את יעדם בכל המהירות. "
והפרסים אימצו את חופש הדת.
למשל הם היו מאמיני דת זרתוסטרא,
שיכולה לטעון שהיא הדת המונותיאיסטיות הראשונה בעולם.
וזו היתה למעשה דת הזרתוסטרא
שהמציאה את הדואליזם טוב/רע שכולנו מכירים.
אתם יודעים: אלוהים והשטן, או הארי וולדמורט ..
אבל הפרסים לא היו
מאוד מודאגים לגבי המרת אנשי האימפריה לאמונתם.
פלוס, דת הזרתוסטרא
אסרה על עבדות, וכך עבדות הייתה כמעט
בלתי מתקבלת על הדעת באימפריה הפרסית.
בסיכומו של דבר, אם יצא לך לחיות במאה ה5
לפנה"ס , האימפריה הפרסית הייתה כנראה
המקום הטוב ביותר לעשות את זה. אלא אם כן כמובן,
אתה רוצה להאמין להרודוטוס וליוונים.
כולנו מכירים את היוונים: ארכיטקטורה, פילוסופיה,
סִפְרוּת. המילה מוסיקה עצמה מגיעה מיוונית.
Thai:
ตราบใดที่คนเหล่านั้นปฏิญาณตนว่าจะจงรักภักดีต่อกษัตริย์เปอร์เซีย และจ่ายภาษี
ซึ่งเป็นเหตุผลที่กษัตริย์เปอร์เซียถูกเรียกว่าเป็น
กษัตริย์เหนือกษัตริย์
นอกจากนั้น ภาษีที่เรียกเก็บก็ไม่ได้สูงเกินไป แถมพวกเปอร์เซียยังเข้ามาพัฒนาโครงสร้างพื้นฐานต่างๆ อย่างปรับปรุงถนน
และมีการใช้ม้าเร็วสื่อสาร เหมือนกับไปรษณีย์ ซึ่งเฮอรอโดทัสได้กล่าวถึงไว้ว่า
"...ไม่ว่าจะฝน จะหนาว จะร้อน หรือจะมืดแค่ไหน พวกเขาก็ไปยังที่หมายได้อย่างเร็วที่สุด"
และชาวเปอร์เซียก็ยังใจกว้างในเรื่องศาสนาด้วย
เช่นพวกเขานับถือศาสนาโซโรอัสเตอร์
ซึ่งถือว่าเป็นศาสนาแรกของโลกที่เป็นเอกเทวนิยม
ศาสนาโซโรอัสเตอร์นี่เอง ที่เป็นต้นกำเนิดของเทพกับมาร แนวคิดทวินิยมที่เรารู้จักกันดี แบบพระเจ้ากับซาตาน
แฮรี่กับโวลเดอร์มอร์...แต่ชาวเปอร์เซียก็ไม่ได้สนใจที่จะบังคับประชาชนในอาณาจักรให้เปลี่ยนมานับถือศาสนานี้ตาม
รวมถึง ศาสนาโซโรอัสเตอร์มีข้อห้ามในเรื่องทาส
ดังนั้นทาสเป็นเรื่องที่แทบไม่เคยได้ยินเลยในอาณาจักรเปอร์เซีย
สรุปแล้ว ถ้าคุณจะต้องอยู่ในศตวรรษที่ 5 ก่อนคริสตศักราช อาณาจักรเปอร์เซียน่าจะเป็นที่ที่น่าอยู่ที่สุด
ยกเว้นคุณจะเชื่อเฮอรอโดทัส และชาวกรีก
เรารู้จักกรีกดีทั้ง สถาปัตยกรรม ปรัชญา วรรณกรรม
คำว่า Music ก็มาจากภาษากรีก
Hungarian:
ha hűségesküt tettek a perzsa királynak,
és megfizették az adót.
Ezért hívjuk a perzsa királyt a királyok királyának.
Plusz, az adók nem voltak túl magasak, és a perzsák az infrastruktúrát fejlesztették belőle jobb úthálózat építésével.
Volt egy Póni Express-szerű posta szolgáltatásuk, amiről Hérodotosz azt mondta:
~„... nem tántorította őket sem hó, sem eső,
sem a hőség, vagy sötétség.
Mindig időben teljesítették a kiszállítást.”
És a perzsák engedték a vallásszabadságot is. Például ott voltak a zoroasztriánok, akik azt álíították,
hogy övék a világ első monoteista vallás.
Tényleg a Zoroastrizmus vezette be
először a jó és rossz ellentétét,
amit mindannyian oly jól ismerünk.
Tudodjátok: Isten és a Sátán, vagy Harry és Voldemort...
A perzsákat nem érdekelte a hittérítés.
Plusz, Zoroasztrizmus tiltotta a rabszolgatartást,
így a Perzsa Birodalomban szinte egyáltalán nem is volt rabszolgatartás.
Mindent összevetve, ha te az ie. 5. században akarnál élni, a Perzsa Birodalom valószínűleg a legjobb hely erre.
Hacsak nem hiszel Hérodotosznak és a görögöknek.
Mind ismerjük a görög építészetet, filozófiát és irodalmat. Maga a szó, hogy zene a görög megfelelőjéből jön,
French:
C'est pour cela que le roi Perse était connu sous le nom de Roi des Rois.
De plus, les taxes n'étaient pas trop lourdes, et les Perses amélioraient les infrastructures existantes,
en construisant de meilleures routes par exemple. Et ils avaient un système de poste à propos duquel Hérodote
a déclaré: Ni la neige, ni la pluie, ni la chaleur,
ni l'obscurité ne les empêchent d'accomplir leur course à toute vitesse.
Et les Perses acceptaient la liberté de culte. Ils étaient Zoroastriens,
qui aurait été la première religion monothéiste du monde. C'est vraiment le Zoroastrianisme qui a
introduit la notion de dualité Bon/Mauvais que nous connaissons tous.Vous savez, Dieu et Satan,
Harry et Voldemort.Mais les Perses n'étaient pas intéressés par le fait de convertir les autres peuples de l'Empire à leur foi.
De plus, le Zoroastrianisme interdisait l'esclavage. L'esclavage était donc pratiquement inconnu au sein de l'empire Perse
En somme, si vous aviez à vivre au 5e siècle av. JC, l'empre perse était probablement
le meilleure endroit où vivre. À moins que vous croyez Hérodote et les Grecs
On connait tout sur les Grecs: l'architecture, la philosophie, la littérature. Le mot musique vient
Chinese:
效忠波斯王和繳稅金就可以保存原有王位和精英，
所以稱波斯國王為王中之王。
稅務沒有太高，而波斯人改善基礎建設，例如道路。
他們更有快馬般的郵件服務。希羅多德說：
「···他們是不論下雪或下雨，酷熱或黑夜都不能防止
依照指定路線與全速完成任務。」
而波斯人重視宗教自由。
他們信奉拜火教（祆教，索羅亞斯德門徒）
可能是世界上首個一神教宗教。
拜火教最先提出善良/邪惡的二元論。
你懂得：上帝和撒旦
或哈里與佛地魔...
波斯人不太堅持要把人民變成信徒這件事，
此外，祆教禁止奴役，
所以奴隸制在波斯帝國幾乎聞所未聞。
總而言之，如果你不得不住在公元前5世紀，
波斯帝國很可能是最佳選擇。
除非你相信希羅多德和希臘人。
我們都知道希臘人有建築、哲學、文學，
英文「音樂」這個詞也來自希臘語
很多其他的當代文化也來自希臘。
Turkish:
öderse yaşayabilirdi. Bu yüzden Pers kralı Kralların Kralı'ydı.
Ayrıca vergiler çok ağır değildi ve Persliler iyi yollarla altyapıyı güçlendirdi.
ve kendilerinde çok iyi bir posta servisi vardı ki Heredot bunu şöyle anlatır:
"...ne kar, ne yağmur, ne sıcak, ne de karanlık onları hedefe tam hızla
ulaşmasını engelleyemezdi."
Persler din hürriyetini benimsemişti. Kendileri zerdüşt idiler ki bu Dünya'nın ilk
tek tanrılı din olarak kabul edilir. Çok iyi bildiğimiz iyi ve
kötü çarpışmasını Zerdüştlük yarattı. Bilirsiniz: Tanrı ve Şeytan ya da Harry ve
Voldemort...
Persler imparatorluktaki insanları
kendi dinlerine geçirmeye pek uğraşmadı. Ayrıca Zerdüştlük köleliği yasaklar yani Pers İmparatorluğu'nda kölelik neredeyse
duyulmamıştı.
Sonuçta MÖ 5. yüzyılda Pers İmparatorluğu muhtemelen en
yaşanabilir yerdi. En azından Herodot ve yunanlara inanıyorsanız.
Yunanlar hakkında bildiklerimiz: Mimari, felsefe, edebiyat. Müzik sözcüğü bile
Yunanca, modern kültürdeki pek çok şey gibi.
Portuguese:
pagassem impostos, o motivo do Rei Persa ser conhecido como O Rei dos Reis.
Mas os impostos não eram altos e os Persas garantiam infraestrutura como melhores estradas
e eles tinham esse serviço de mensagem a cavalo o qual Heródoto disse:
"... Eles não paravam nem por causa da neve ou da chuva ou do calor ou da escuridão para realizar
seu trabalho com a devida velocidade."
E os Persas abraçaram a liberdade de religião.
Eles tinham Zoroastro, que clama
ser a primeira religião monoteísta.
Foi Zoroastrianismo que
nos introduziu a dualidade do Bem e Mal.
Você sabe, Deus e o Diabo. Harry
e Voldemort...
Mas os persas não estavam muito preocupados em converter pessoas do império pra sua
fé; além disso o Zoroastrianismo abolia a escravidão então ela quase não era praticada no
Império Persa.
Por tudo isso, se você vivesse no século V antes de Cristo; o Império Persa era provavelmente
o melhor lugar para morar.
A não ser que você acredite em Heródoto e nos Gregos.
Nós sabemos tudo sobre os Gregos, Arquitetura, Filosofia, Literatura, a palavra música
veio do Grego, como a maior parte da cultura contemporânea.
German:
und Steuern zahlten, weshalb der persische König als König der Könige bekannt war.
Zudem waren die Steuern nicht zu hoch und die Perser verbesserten die Infrastruktur mit besseren Straßen
und sie hatten diese ponyexpress-ähnlichen Postservice, von dem Herodot sagte:
"...weder Schne noch Regen noch Hitze noch Dunkelheit kann sie davon abhalten
ihren verabredeten Ablauf einzuhalten."
Außerdem begrüßten die Perser Religionsfreiheit. Sie waren Zoroastrier, was als erste
monotheistische Religion der Welt angesehen wird. Tatsächlich war es der Zoroastrismus, der
den gut/böse-Dualismus einführte, den wir so gut kennen. Ihr wisst schon: Gott und Satan oder Harry
und Voldemort.
Aber den Persern war es nicht so wichtig, die Bewohner ihres Reiches von ihrem Glauben
zu überzeugen. Außerdem verbot Zoroastrismus Sklaverei, sodass man im Persischen Reich fast nie von
Sklaverei gehört hatte.
Alles in allem war das Persische Reich, wenn man im 5. Jahrhundert v. Chr. leben musste, vermutlich
der beste Ort dafür. Außer, wenn man Herodot und den Griechen glaubt.
Wir alle kennen die alten Griechen: Architektur. Philosophie. Literatur. Das Wort Musik
stammt von den Griechen, wie so vieles andere aus der heutigen Kultur.
Vietnamese:
giữ lại vua và giới hoàng gia, quý tộc miễn là họ nguyện sẽ trung thành với vua Ba Tư và nộp thuế đầy đủ
vì vậy vua Ba Tư còn được mệnh danh là Vua của các Vua
Ngoài ra, thuế cũng không quá cao và người Ba Tư đầu tư cải thiện cơ sở hạ tầng với đường xá tốt hơn
họ có cả dịch vụ giống đưa thư bằng ngựa mà Harodotus nói
''...Chúng không bị trì hoãn bất kể bởi mưa, tuyết, nắng nóng hay bóng tối để hoàn thành quãng đường hết tốc lực"
Người Ba Tư tôn trọng tự do tôn giáo. Họ theo Bái Hỏa giáo, tôn giáo độc thần
đầu tiên trên thế giới. Chính Bái Hỏa giáo khai tâm Thuyết nhị nguyên tốt-xấu
mà ta đều biết rất rõ. Chúa và Satan, hay Harry và Voldemort...
Nhưng người Ba Tư không
quan tâm lắm đến việc cải đạo
dân chúng của theo đức tin của mình. Bái hỏa giáo cấm sự chiếm hữ nô lệ, nên nô lệ hầu như
không có ở Đế quốc Ba Tư
Nói chung, nếu phải sống ở thế kỉ 5 TCN, Đế quốc Ba Tư có lẽ
là nơi tốt nhất. Trừ phi bạn tin Herodotus và người Hi Lạp
Ta đều biết về Hi Lạp: kiến trúc, triết học, văn học. Ngay cả từ ''âm nhạc" cũng đến từ tiếng Hi Lạp
English:
and their elites as long as they pledged allegiance
to the Persian King and paid taxes, which
is why the Persian king was known as The King
of Kings.
Plus, taxes weren’t too high, and the Persians
improved infrastructure with better roads
and they had this pony express-like mail service
of which Herodotus said: “...they are stayed
neither by snow nor rain nor heat nor darkness from
accomplishing their appointed course with all speed.”
And the Persians embraced freedom of religion.
Like they were Zoroastrian, which has a claim
to being the world’s first monotheistic
religion. It was really Zoroastrianism that
introduced to the good/evil dualism we all
know so well. You know: god and Satan, or
Harry and Voldemort... But the Persians weren’t
very concerned about converting people of
the empire to their faith. Plus, Zoroastrianism
forbid slavery, and so slavery was almost
unheard of in the Persian Empire.
All in all, if you had to live in the 5th
century BCE, the Persian Empire was probably
the best place to do it. Unless, that is,
you believe Herodotus and the Greeks. We all
know about the Greeks: architecture, philosophy,
literature. The very word music comes from
Romanian:
și elitele lor atâta timp cât respectau legământul cu regele persan și plăteau taxe, iată de ce
Regele persan era numit și Regele Regilor.
În plus, taxele nu erau așa ridicate și perșii au îmbunătățit infrastructura cu drumuri mai bune
și ei aveau acest serviciu de poștă cu cai despre care Herodot spunea: ei nu erau opriți
nici de zăpadă sau ploaie sau arșiță sau întuneric de a realiza cursa urmărită cu toată viteza.
Și Persia îmbrățișa libertatea religioasă. Ei erau zoroastrieni, religie
despre care se crede că ar fi prima religie monoteistă. Știm prea bine că
Zoroastrismul a introdus dualismul bine-rău.Știți: Dumnezeu și Satan sau
Harry și Voldemort... Dar perșii nu erau prea interesați de convertirea popoarelor
imperiului la credința lor.În plus, Zoroastrismul înterzicea sclavia și astfel sclavia era aproape
necunoscută în Imperiul persan.
Una peste alta, dacă ai trăi în secolul V î.HR., Imperiul persan ar fi fost probabil
cel mai bun loc în care să o faci. Dacă nu, asta este îl credeți pe Herodot și pe greci. Știm
totul despre greci: arhitectură, filosofie, literatură.Muzica cu cuvinte vine de la greci
Dutch:
en belastingen betaalden, dit is waarom de Perzische koning bekend stond als de koning van koningen.
En de belastingen waren niet heel hoog en de Perzen verbeterde de infrastructuur met betere wegen
en ze hadden een soort pony express achtige mail service waar Herodotus over zei:
"... ze blijven noch door sneeuw, noch regen, noch warmte, noch duisternis van het vervullen van hun toegewezen route met snelheid."
En de Perzen omarmde vrijheid van religie. Alsof ze Zoroastrisch waren, wat een claim heeft
op het zijn van de werelds eerste monotheïstische religie. Het was echter Zoroastrisme dat
het goed/slecht dualisme introduceerde dat we zo goed kennen. Je weet wel: God en Satan of Harry
en Voldermort...
Maar de Perzen waren niet erg geïnteresseerd in het bekeren van het volk tot hun geloof.
Plus Zoroastrisme verbood slavernij, dus slavernij was bijna niet toepasing in het Perzische rijk.
Kortom, als je had moeten leven in de 5de eeuw voor christus, was het Perzische rijk waarschijnlijk
de beste keuze om het te doen. Tenzij je Herodotus en de Grieken gelooft.
We kennen allemaal de Griekse: Architecture, Filosofie Literatuur. Het woord muziek
komt van het Grieks, net zoals zo veel in de huidige cultuur
Swedish:
och deras eliter så länge som de lovade trohet
till den persiska kungen och betalde skatt, vilket
är varför den persiske kungen var känd som Konungarnas konung.
Plus, skatterna var inte för höga, och perserna
förbättrad infrastruktur med bättre vägar
och de hade denna ponnyexpress liknande posttjänst
som Herodotos beskrev med orden: "... de stannar
varken för snö eller regn eller värme eller mörker från att
följa deras utsedda bana med fart. "
Och perserna omfamnade religionsfrihet.
De var zoroastriska, en religion som har ett anspråk
att vara världens första monoteistiska
religion. Det var verkligen zoroastrianism som
introducerade den bra / ond dualismen vi alla
vet så väl. Du vet: Gud och Satan, eller
Harry och Voldemort ... Men perserna var inte
särskilt bekymrad över att konvertera folk av
riket till sin tro. Plus, zoroastrianism
förbjuder slaveri så slaveri var nästan
oförekommande i det persiska riket.
Allt som allt, om du var tvungen att leva på 500
talet fvt, var det persiska riket troligtvis
det bästa stället att göra det på. Såvida, det vill säga, om
du tror Herodotos och grekerna. Vi alla
vet mycket om grekerna: arkitektur, filosofi,
litteratur. Själva ordet musik kommer från
Arabic:
ولهذا كان الملك الفارسي يُلقّب بملك الملوك.
كما أن الضرائب لم تكن باهظة
وقد حسّن الفرس البنية التحتية والطرق
وكانت لديهم خدمة بريد على الأحصنة
قال عنها هيرودوت التالي:
"لا تردعهم الثلوج ولا المطر
ولا الحرارة ولا الظلمة
عن إكمال مسارهم المرسوم بأقصى سرعة".
كما تبنّى الفرس مفهوم حرية الأديان.
فهم كانوا يعتنقون الديانة الزرادشتية،
والتي يُقال إنها كانت
أولى الديانات التوحيدية في العالم.
فالزرادشتية في الحقيقة أول ديانة طرحت
فكرة ازدواجية الخير والشر التي نعرفها جميعًا.
كالملائكة والشياطين أو هاري وفولدمورت...
ولكن الفرس لم يهمهم كثيرًا
تحويل الناس في الإمبراطورية إلى معتقدهم،
كما أن الزرادشتية تُحرّم العبودية،
لذا لم يكن في الإمبراطورية الفارسية
وجود للعبودية تقريبًا.
آخذين كل شيء بالاعتبار، لو كان المرء
مضطرًا للعيش في القرن الخامس قبل الميلاد
لكانت الإمبراطورية الفارسية
على الارجح أفضل مكان للقيام بذلك،
ما لم تصدّق مزاعم هيرودوت والإغريق.
نحن جميعًا نعرف إنجازات الإغريق:
العمارة والفلسفة والأدب.
بل إن كلمة "موسيقى" بحد ذاتها يونانية،
Turkish:
Yunan şairler, matematikçiler, yazarlar, mimarlar ve
filozoflar günümüzde bile etkili bir kültür kurdular. Demokrasiden osuruk şakasına pek çok fikir ürettiler.
Yunanlar batıya ilk kollektif tarih yazıcılığını verdiler ve politika
terimlerini ürettiler.
Bir de demokrsi idealini sundular ki bu da Atina'daki
yönetim biçiminden geliyordu.
Bay Green, Bay Green, Bay Green, Bay Green -osuruk şakaları mı dediniz?
Uhhh. Dorik, İyonya veya Korint kolonilerini sormazsın. Platon'un mağara
allegorisini sormazsın. Sadece saçma şakaları merak ediyorsun.
Açık mektup zamanı mı? Cidden? Tamam.
Aristotales'e - Stan! Açık mektup.
Sevgili Aristotales, -Doğru, gizli göze bakmalıyım.
Stan, ne... oh. Teşekkürler, Stan. Sahte köpek kakası. Ne kadar da düşünceli.
Şimdi, iyi haber ve kötü haber, Aristofanes. Ölümünün üstünden 2,300 yıl
geçti, iyi haber, hala ünlü sayılırsın. 40 oyunundan 11 günümüze ulaştı ama yine de
Czech:
Řečtí básníci, matematici, architekti,
filozofové založili kulturu,
se kterou se dodnes ztotožňujeme.
Představili nám mnoho myšlenek
od demokracie po vtipy o prdění.
A Řekové dali západu dějepis,
dali nám politický slovník.
Obdarovali nás také naší idealizací
demokracie, jež pochází z formy vlády,
kterou měli v Aténách.
Pane Greene, pane Greene,
pane Greene, řekl jste vtipy o prdění?
Nezeptáš se na dórský,
ionský nebo korintský sloup.
Nezeptáš se
na Platónovo podobenství o jeskyni.
Myslíš jen na skatologický humor...
On už je čas na otevřený
dopis? Vážně? Už? Tak dobře.
Otevřený dopis...
STANE! Aristofanovi.
Milý Aristofane...
Aha, nejdřív se musím
podívat do tajné přihrádky.
Stane, co... Díky, Stane.
Falešný psí bobek. Jak milé.
Takže, dobrá zpráva a špatná zpráva,
Aristofane. 2300 let od tvojí smrti,
tohle je ta dobrá zpráva, jsi pořád
slavný. Jen 11 z tvých 40 her přežilo,
French:
du grec, tout comme beaucoup d'autres choses de la culture contemporaine. Les poètes grecs et mathématiciens
et les architechtes et les philosophes ont fondé une culture avec laquelle on s'identifie toujours.
Et ils ont introduit à plusieurs idées, de la démocracie aux blagues de pets.
Et les Grecs ont donné à l'occident notre première histoire dédiée, ils nous ont donné notre vocabulaire pour parler de politique.
De plus, ils nous ont offert notre idéalisation de la démocracie, qui vient du gouvernement qu'ils avaient à Athènes.
M. Green! M. Green! M. Green! M. Green! Est-ce que vous avez dit blagues de pets?
Ahhh... Tu demandes rien sur le dorien, les Inioniens ou les colones corinthiennes. Tu demandes rien
sur l'allégorie de la caverne de Platon. C'est que de l'humour scatologique avec toi!
C'est l'heure de la lettre overte? Vraiment? Déjà? Très bien.
Une lettre ouverte... [son de pet] Stan! ... À Aristophane. Cher Aristophane...
Oh oui, je dois regarder le compartiment secret. Stan, qu'est-ce que... Oh, merci Stan.
C'est une fausse crotte de chien. C'est si gentil.
Donc bonne et mauvaise nouvelles, Aristophane.
2 300 ans après ta mort, c'est la bonne nouvelle, tu es toujours raisonnablement
populaire. Seulement 11 de tes 40 pièces ont survécu mais malgré cela, on t'appelles le Père de
German:
Griechische Dichter und Mathematiker, Dramatiker und Architekten und Philosophen gründeten eine
Kultur, mit der wir uns immer noch identifizieren. Und sie führten uns in viele Ideen ein, von Demokratie bis Furz-Witzen.
Und die Griechen gaben dem Westen die Anfänge unserer Geschichte (?), sie gaben uns unser Vokabular, um über
Politik zu sprechen.
Außerdem schenkten sie uns die Idealisierung der Demokratie, was von der Regierung kam, die sie in
Athen hatten.
Mr. Green, Mr. Green, Mr. Green, Mr. Green - haben sie Furz-Witze gesagt?
Uuuh, du fragst nicht nach dorischen, ionischen oder korinthischen Säulen. Du fragst nicht nach
Platons Höhlengleichnis. Es ist nur der skatologische Humor für dich (?) - ist es Zeit
für den offenen Brief? Wirklich? Schon? Na gut.
[rollt herüber] Ein offener Brief [das Furzkissen-Geräusch ertönt] - Stan! - an Aristophanes.
Lieber Aristophanes, - Oh, stimmt, ich muss im Geheimfach nachgucken.
Stan, was... oh, Danke, Stan. Es ist künstliche Hundekacke. Wie aufmerksam.
Also, es gibt gute und schlechte Nachrichten, Aristophanes. 2300 Jahre nach deinem Tod, ist die gute Nachricht,
dass du immer noch halbwegs berühmt bist. Nur 11 deiner 40 Theaterstücke haben überlebt, aber trotzdem
iw:
כמו כל כך דברים אחרים בתַרְבּוּת העכשווית.
משוררים יווניים ומחזאים ומתמטיקאים
ואדריכלים ופילוסופים ייסדו
תרבות שאנחנו עדיין מזדהים איתה עד היום.
והם הציגו לנו רעיונות רבים, מדמוקרטיה לבדיחות גסות.
והיוונים נתנו למערב את ההיסטוריה המתועדת הראשונה שלנו,
הם נתנו לנו את אוצר המילים שלנו לדבר על פוליטיקה.
בנוסף הם הורישו לנו את אידיאל הדמוקרטיה,
אשר מגיע מהממשלה שהייתה להם באתונה.
מר גרין, מר גרין, מר גרין,
מר גרין — אמרת בדיחות פלוצים?
אהה. אתה לא שואל על הדורים,
האיונים, או עמודים קורינתיים.
אתה לא שואל על האלגוריה של אפלטון למערה.
זה הכל הומור נמוך איתך...
זה הזמן למכתב הגלוי? באמת? כבר?
בסדר.
מכתב פתוח ,
סטן! .
לאריסטופנס. אריסטופנס היקר ..
הו נכון, אני צריך לבדוק את התא הסודי.
סטן, מה ... אה. תודה, סטן.
זה קקי כלבים מפלסטיק, כמה מתחשב.
אז, חדשות טובות וחדשות רעות, אריסטופנס.
2,300 שנים לאחר מותך - זה
החדשות טובות - אתה עדיין יחסית מפורסם.
רק אחת-עשרה מחזות מתוך הארבעים שלך שרדו,
אבל בכל זאת, אתה נקרא "אבי הקומדיה"
Spanish:
Poetas y matemáticos y arquitectos y filósofos griegos fundaron una cultura con la cual
aún nos identificamos. Y nos introdujeron a muchas ideas. Desde la democracia hasta chistes de pedos...
Y los griegos le dieron al oeste nuestra primera historia dedicada, nos dieron nuestro vocabulario para
hablar acerca de política.
Además, nos dieron la idealización de democracia, que proviene del gobierno que tenían en Atenas.
Sr. Green, Sr. Green, Sr. Green, Sr. Green, ¿dijo chistes de pedos?
Ehhh... No preguntas sobre las columnas dóricas, jónicas o corintias. No preguntas sobre
la Alegoría de la Caverna de Platón. Para tí todo es humor escatológico—¿es hora de
la carta abierta? ¿En serio? ¿Ya? De acuerdo.
Una carta abierta- [sonido de cojín ruidoso] ¡Stan!
A Aristófanes.
Querido Aristófanes, —O, cierto. Tengo que revisar el el compartimento secreto.
Stan, qué...oh. Gracias, Stan. Es popó se perro falso. Que considerado.
Asi que, buenas y malas noticias, Aritófanes. 2 300 años después de tu muerte —esta es la
buena noticia— eres razonablemente famoso. Solo 11 de tus 40 obras sobrevivieron, pero
English:
Greek, as does so much else in contemporary
culture. Greek poets and mathematicians playwrights
and architects and philosophers founded a
culture we still identify with. And they introduced
us to many ideas, from democracy to fart jokes. And the
Greeks gave the west our first dedicated history,
they gave us our vocabulary for talking about politics.
Plus they gifted us our idealization of democracy,
which comes from the government they had in Athens.
Past John: Mr. Green, Mr. Green, Mr. Green,
Mr. Green — did you say fart jokes?
Present John: Uhh. You don’t ask about Doric,
Ionian, or Corinthian columns. You don’t
ask about Plato’s allegory of the cave.
It’s all scatological humor with you — It’s
time for the open letter? Really? Already?
Alright.
An open letter [the whoopee cushion sounds]...
Stan! To Aristophanes. Dear Aristophanes...
Oh right, I have to check the secret compartment.
Stan, what... oh. Thank you, Stan. It’s
fake dog poo. How thoughtful.
So, good news and bad news, Aristophanes.
2,300 years after your death — this is the
good news — you’re still a reasonably
famous. Only eleven of your forty plays survived,
but even so, you’re called the Father of
Chinese:
希臘詩人、數學家、建築師和哲學家
創立了我們依然認同的文化。
他們發起很多概念，從民主到屁的笑話都是。
而希臘人給了西方首本歷史專門書，還有政治詞彙。
再加上他們的民主理想，來自古雅典政府。
葛林先生，葛林先生，葛林先生，葛林先生，
你是說「屁的笑話」嗎？
唔。你不問陶立克式、愛奧尼亞式、科林斯式柱，
不問柏拉圖洞穴寓言。對你來說這一切都是糞便幽默。
已經要讀公開信了嗎？真的嗎？好吧。
公開信 ［坐到放屁坐墊］ - 導演啊！
阿里斯托芬 收。
親愛的阿里斯托芬，
喔對，我要檢查暗格。
太感恩了哦，貼心的導演。
是塑膠大便。
好消息和壞消息，阿里斯托芬。
好消息是你死亡2300年後，還相當有名。
40部劇本只有11部沒失傳，
Hungarian:
akárcsak sok más is kortárs kultúrából.
Görög költők, matematikusok, drámaírók,
építészek és filozófusok olyan kulturális alapot teremtettek, amivel a mai napig tudunk azonosulni.
Tőlük származnak olyan alapvető eszmék,
mint a demokrácia, na meg a fingós viccek is.
A görögök adták az alapot Európa történelmének,
adták a szókincset a politikához.
Plusz megajándékoztak az idealizált demokrácia eszményítésével, ami az athéni kormányzástól ered.
Múltbéli John:
Mr. Green, Mr. Green, Mr. Green! A fingós viccek is? Tényleg?
Jajj.
Téged nem a dór, a jón, vagy korinthoszi oszlopok érdekelnek?
Nem Platón barlanghasonlatáról kérdezel?
Csak a fingós viccek érdekelnek?!
Itt az ideje a nyílt levélnek? Igazán? Máris?
Hát jó.
Nyílt levél a...
Staaaan!
Arisztophanész-hez.
Kedves Arisztophenész!
Ó, mi van a titkos rekeszben?
Köszönöm, Stan.
Hamis kutya ürülék. Milyen figyelmes.
Szóval, van egy jó és egy rossz hírem, Arisztophanész.
2300 évvel a halálod után - ez a
jó hír - te még mindig meglehetősen híres vagy
Csak tizenegy drámád maradt fent az összesen negyvenből, de még így is te vagy a Komédia ún. Ősatyja.
Modern Greek (1453-):
Οι Έλληνες ποιητές, μαθηματικοί, αρχιτέκτονες και φιλόσοφοι ίδρυσαν έναν πολιτισμό
με τον οποίο ακόμα ταυτιζόμαστε. Και εισήγαγαν πολλές ιδέες, από τη δημοκρατία μέχρι αστεία με κλανιές.
Και οι Έλληνες έδωσαν στη Δύση την πρώτη μας αφιερωμένη ιστορία, μας έδωσαν το λεξιλόγιό μας
για να μιλάμε για πολιτικά...
Επίσης μας προσέφεραν την εξιδανίκευση της δημοκρατίας, που προέρχεται από τον τρόπο που κυβερνούσαν στην Αθήνα.
Κύριε Green, κύριε Green, κύριε Green, κύριε Green, είπατε αστεία με κλανιές?
Ωωω, δεν ρωτάς για κολώνες δωρικού, ιονικού ή κορινθιακού ρυθμού.
Δεν ρωτάς για την αλληγορία της σπηλιάς του Πλάτωνα. Είναι όλα κοπρολογικό χιούμορ με σένα!
Είναι ώρα για την ανοιχτή επιστολή?
Αλήθεια?
Κιόλας? Εντάξει
Μια ανοιχτή επιστολή... ΣΤΑΝ! ...στον Αριστοφάνη
Αγαπητέ Αριστοφάνη,
Ναι σωστά πρέπει να ελέγξω το μυστικό ντουλάπι
Σταν τι... ωωω! Ευχαριστώ Σταν. Είναι ένα ψεύτικο σκατό σκύλου. Πως το σκέφτηκες?
Λοιπόν Αριστοφάνη, έχουμε ευχάριστα και δυσάρεστα νέα. 2300 χρόνια μετά το θάνατό σου -αυτά είναι τα ευχάριστα-
είσαι ακόμα εύλογα διάσημος. Μόνο 11 από τα 40 έργα σου σώζονται,
Polish:
Greccy poeci i matematycy
architekci i filozofowie stworzyli
kulturę z którą wciąż się identyfikujemy. Przedstawili nam oni wiele idei , od demokracji do pierdzących dowcipów.
Grecy dali też zachodowi naszą pierwszą dedykowaną historię , czasowniki do mówienia
o polityce (demokracja pochodzi od Greckiego słowa 'demokratia' - popularnego rządu)
Dodatkowo dali nam naszą tendencję do idealizacji demokracji, która pochodzi właśnie z czasów ich rządu
w Atenach
Mr.Green, Mr.Green,Mr.Green,Mr.Green - czy Pan powiedział pierdzące żarty ?
Nie pytasz o Doryckie, Jońskie i Korynckie kolumny. Nie pytasz o
Platońską alegorie jaskini. Cały czas tylko ten skatologiczny humor - czy to pora
na list otwarty ? Naprawdę ? Już ? W porządku.
Otwarty list
-Stan...To Arystofanes.
Drogi Arystofanesie - No tak, muszę sprawdzić sekretną przegródkę.
Stan co ...Dzięki. To sztuczna psia kupa. Jak troskliwie.
Mam dobre i złe wieści.
Arystofalesie, 2300 lat po Twojej śmierci, to jest
dobra wiadomość, jesteś wciąż dość sławny. Tylko 11 z 40 Twoich sztuk przeżyło ale
Thai:
และอีกหลายอย่างในวัฒนธรรมสมัยใหม่
กวี นักคณิตศาสตร์
สถาปนิก และนักปรัชญาชาวกรีก ได้สร้างวัฒนธรรมที่เรายังคุ้นเคยกันอยู่ทุกวันนี้
และพวกเขายังริเริ่มแนวคิดมากมาย ตั้งแต่ประชาธิปไตยยันมุกตด
ประวัติศาสตร์ตะวันตกเริ่มขึ้นที่กรีก และพวกเขายังมอบคำศัพท์เกี่ยวกับการเมืองให้เราด้วย
นอกจากนั้น พวกเขายังให้แบบอย่างของประชาธิปไตย ซึ่งมาจากการวิธีการปกครองในเอเธนส์
คุณกรีน คุณกรีน คุณกรีนครับ คุณกรีน
คุณบอกว่ามุกตดเหรอครับ
โอยยย นายไม่สนใจจะถามเรื่องเสาดอริก ไอโอนิก คอรินเธียน
นายไม่ถามเรื่องถ้ำของเพลโต นายมันจะเอาแต่มุกทะลึ่งอย่างเดียวเลย
ได้เวลาอ่านจดหมายเปิดผนึกแล้วหรอ? จริงป่ะ? โอเค
จดหมายเปิดผนึก...[เสียงตด]...สแตน!
ถึงอริสโตฟาเนส เรียนอริสโตฟาเนส...
จริงสิ ผมลืมเช็คช่องลับไปเลย สแตน นี่มันอะไรน่ะ...
อืมม ขอบคุณมากสแตน
ขี้หมาปลอม ช่างคิดได้จริงๆ
เอาละ ผมมีทั้งข่าวดี และข่าวร้ายครับคุณอริสโตฟาเนส
2,300 ปีหลังจากที่คุณตาย...นี่ข่าวดีนะครับ...คุณยังคงโด่งดังอยู่
แม้ว่างานของคุณจะหลงเหลืออยู่เพียง 11 เรื่อง จาก 40 เรื่อง แต่คุณก็ยังได้ชื่อว่าเป็นบิดาแห่งเรื่องตลก
Dutch:
Griekse poëten en wiskundige en architecten en filosofen schaapte de
cultuur die wij nog steeds hebben. En ze introduceerde ons velen ideeën, van democratie naar scheet grappen.
En de Grieken gaven het westen de eerst geschreven geschiedenis, ze gaven ons onze vocabulaire om te praten
over politiek
En ze gaven ons onze idealisatie van democratie, dat komt van een regering die zij hadden in Athene.
Mr. Green, Mr. Green, Mr. Green, Mr. Green-- zei jij scheet grappen?
Uhhh. Je vraagt niet over Dorische, Ionische of Korinthische pilaren. Je vraagt niet over
Plato's gelijkenis van de grot. Het is allemaal humor met jou-- is het tijd
voor een open brief? Echt? Nu al? Oké.
Een open letter-- Stan! naar Aristophanes.
Beste Aristophanes,
--Oh ja, ik moet het geheime laadje checken.
Stan, wat... oh. Dank je, Stan. Het is een neppe honden drol. Wat attent.
Dus, het goede en het slechte nieuws, Aristophanes. 2300 jaar na jouw dood, dit is het
goede nieuws, je bent nog steeds best wel bekend. Alleen 11 van jouw 40 toneelstukken overleefde, maar zelfs
Vietnamese:
và còn rất nhiều thứ khác trong văn hóa đương thời. Các nhà thơ, nhà toán học, nhà viết kịch
kiến trúc sư và triết gia xây dựng một nền văn hóa mà ta vẫn hay biết. Họ giới thiệu với chúng ta
nhiều ý tưởng, từ nền dân chủ đến chuyện đùa về rắm
Người Hi Lạp cho phương Tây công trình sử học đầu tiên, từ vựng để nói về chính trị
Họ cho chúng ta sự lí tưởng hóa nền dân chủ, đến từ chính quyền của họ ở Athens
Mr.Green, anh vừa nói chuyện đùa về rắm ư?
Mày không hỏi về những tộc người Doric, Ionia, Corinthia. Mày không hỏi về
truyện ngụ ngôn về hang động của Plato. Mày chỉ biết có mấy cái hài bẩn bẩn thôi
Đến giờ mở thư? Thật à? Rồi à? ok
Một bức thư ngỏ. Stan!
Gửi Aristophanes. Thưa Aristophanes ...
Oh đúng, tôi phải kiểm tra hộc tủ bí mật
Stan, cái... oh. Cảm ơn, Stan.
Là cứt chó giả. Chu đáo thật
Tin tốt và tin xấu, Aristophanes
2.300 năm sau cái chết của ông - đây là tin vui - ông vẫn khá nổi tiếng
Chỉ 11 trong 40 vở kịch của ông còn tồn tại, nhưng kể cả thế, ông đươc gọi là
Finnish:
Kreikkalaiset runoilijat ja matemaatikot, näytelmäkirjailijat ja arkkitehdit ja filosofit perustivat
kulttuurin, johon yhä samaistumme. Ja se esittelivät meille monta ideaa demokratiasta pieru vitseihin.
Kreikkalaiset antoivat myös lännellen ensimmäisen omistetun historian, he antoivat meille sanaston puhumiseen
politiikasta.
Lisäksi he lahjoittivat meille demokratian ihannoinnin, joka periytyy hallinnosta, joka heillä oli
Ateenassa.
Herra Green, herra Green, herra Green, herra Green-- sanoitko pieru vitsejä?
Uhhh. Et kysy doorilaisista, joonialaisista tai korinttilaisista pylväistä. Et kysy
Platonin luolavertauksesta. Kaikki on vain vessahuumoria sinulle-- on aika
Avoimelle kirjeelle? Oikeasti? Nyt jo? Okei.
[rullaa] Avoin kirje [pierutyynyn ääni]- Stan! Aristofaneelle.
Rakas Aristofanes, -- Ai niin, unohdin katsoa salaisen lokeron.
Stan, mitä... ai. Kiitos, Stan. Se on lelu koirankakka. Miten huomaavaista.
Hyviä ja huonoja uutisia Aristofaneelle. 2300 vuotta kuolemasi jälkeen, tämä on
hyvä uutinen, olet yhä melko kuuluisa. 40:stä näytelmästä vain 11 säilyi, mutta
Romanian:
care a ajuns atât de mult altceva în cultura contemporană. Poeții și matematicienii greci, dramaturgii
și arhitecții și filosofii au clădit o cultură cu care încă ne identificăm. Ne-au introdus
atât de multe idei, de la democrație la glumele cu vânturi. Și grecii
au dat occidentului prima istorie dedicată nouă., ne-au dat vocabularul cu care să vorbim despre politică.
În plus ei ne-au dăruit idealizarea democrației care vine de la guvernarea pe care au avut-o în Atena.
John din Trecut: D-le Green, d-le Green, D-le Green- ați spus glume cu vânturi?
John din prezent: tu nu întrebi despre coloanele Dorice, Ionice și corintice. Nu întrebi
despre alegoria peșterii a lui Platon. Tot umorul scatologic e cu tine-
E timpul pentru scrisoarea deschisă? Într-adevăr? Deja? În regulă.
O scrisoare deschisă...Stan! pentru Aristofan. Dragă Aristofan...
O, corect! Trebuie să verific compartimentul secret. Stan, ce...ok. Mulțumesc Stan. E
un fals excrement de câine. Ce profund.
Deci, vești bune și vești rele, Aristofan.
2300 de ani după moartea ta-asta e vestea bună-ești încă rezonabil de faimos
Doar 11 din cele 14 piese ale tale au supraviețuit dar chiar și așa ești numit
Arabic:
شأنها شأن الكثير غيرها في الثقافة المعاصرة.
الشعراء وعلماء الرياضيات الإغريق
والمهندسون المعماريون والفلاسفة
أسسوا ثقافة ما زلنا نتماهى معها،
وقد قدموا لنا أفكار كثيرة، بدءًا بالديمقراطية
ووصولًا إلى نكات إخراج الريح.
كما قدم الإغريق للغرب أول تاريخ مخصص
ومنحونا مجموع مفرداتنا اللغوية
الخاصة بالسياسة.
كما أنهم نقلوا إلينا تمجيدنا للديمقراطية،
ومصدرها الحكومة التي نصبوها في أثينا.
سيد غرين، سيد غرين، سيد غرين.
هل قلت نكات إخراج الريح؟
لم تسأل عن الأعمدة الدوريسية
أو الإيونية أو الكورنثية،
ولم تسأل عن كهف أفلاطون.
أنت لا تفكر إلا في الفكاهة القذارة.
أحان وقت الخطاب المفتوح؟
أحقًا؟ بهذه السرعة؟ حسن.
خطاب مفتوح... ستان!
لأريستوفانيس. عزيزي أريستوفانيس
صحيح، علي التحقق من الحجرة السرية.
ستان، ما ... شكرًا لك يا ستان.
انها براز كلب زائف. يا لها من لفتة جميلة!
لدي أنباء سارة وأخرى سيئة لك يا أريستوفانيس.
بعد 2300 سنة من وفاتك - وهذا هو الخبر السار -
ما تزال مشهورًا إلى حد لا بأس به.
إحدى عشرة فقط من مسرحياتك الأربعين وصلتنا،
ولكنك مع ذلك تُلقّب بأبي الكوميديا
Portuguese:
A poesia grega e matemática e dramaturgia e arquitetura e filosofia fundou
a cultura que nós ainda nos identificamos.
Eles introduziram a ideias, que vão desde democracia até pegadinhas.
E os Gregos deram ao ocidente nosso primeiro conceito de história, eles nos deram nosso vocabulário para
discutir sobre política.
E mais, eles nos presentearam nossa idealização sobre democracia, que veio do tipo de governo que eles tinham
em Atenhas
Sr. Green, Sr. Green, Sr. Green, Sr. Green
Você falou pegadina?
Você não pergunta sobre colunas Doricas, Jônias ou Coríntias. Você não pergunta sobre
a alegoria da caverna de Platão.
É tudo humor escatológico para você - É hora
para a Carta Aberta? Sério? Já? Tudo bem
Uma Carta Aberta, Stan! Para Aristóteles
Querido Aristóteles -- Oh certo. eu tenho que checar o Compartimento Secreto.
Stan, o que? Oh. Obrigado Stan, é um cocô falso de cachorro. Que criativo
Então, boas e más notícias, Aristóteles.
2300 anos depois da sua morte, está a
boa notícia, você continua razoavelmente famoso. Apenas 11 das suas 40 peças sobreviveram, mas
Russian:
Греческие поэты, математики, драматурги, архитекторы и философы создали культуру, с которой мы отождествляем себя до сих пор.
Они познакомили нас с великим множеством идей, от демократии до пердёжных шуток.
Ещё греки дали западу первую специализированную историю и терминологию для разговоров о политике.
Плюс они подарили нам идеализацию демократии,
которая произошла от правительства, которое, было у них в Афинах.
Мистрех Грин, Мистер Грин, Мистер Грин!
Вы сказали пердёжные шутки?
О-о-х...
Ты не спрашиваешь о дорических, ионических или коринфских колоннах.
Ты не спрашиваешь о
Платоновском Мифе о пещере.
Тебе интересен лишь копрологический юмор!
Уже пришло время для открытого письма? Серьёзно? Уже? Ну хорошо.
Открытое Письмо-
Стэн!
-к Аристофану. Дорогой Аристофан.
Ах да, мне же нужно заглянуть в тайную полочку.
Стэн, что... Ох. Спасибо тебе, Стэн. Это фальшивая собачья какашка. Очень остроумно.
Итак, Аристофан, есть хорошие и плохие новости.
Спустя 2300 лет после твоей смерти ты всё ещё довольно известен, и это хорошая новость.
До нас дошли только 11 из 40 пьес.
Swedish:
grekiska, liksom så mycket annat i dagens
kultur. Grekiska poeter och matematiker, dramatiker
och arkitekter och filosofer grundade en
kultur vi fortfarande identifierar oss med. De introducerade
oss till många idéer, från demokrati till skämt om fisar.
Grekerna gav väst vår första dedikerade historia,
de gav oss vårt vokabulär för att prata om politik.
Plus de skapade vårt ideala koncept av demokrati,
som kommer från regeringen de hade i Aten.
Dåtidens John: Mr Green, Mr Green, Mr Green,
Mr Green - sa du skämt om fisar?
Uhg. Du frågar inte om Doric,
Joniska eller korintiska kolonner. Du frågar inte
om Platons allegori om grottan.
Det är bara skatologisk humor med dig - det är
tid för det öppna brevet? Verkligen? Redan?
OK.
Ett öppet brev [en pruttkudde låter] ...
Stan! Till Aristofanes. Kära Aristofanes ...
Åh just det, jag måste kontrollera hemliga facket.
Stan, vad ... oh. Tack, Stan.
Falskt hundbajs. Så omtänksamt.
Så bra och dåliga nyheter, Aristofanes.
2300 år efter din död - Det här är de
goda nyheterna- är du fortfarande någorlunda
känd. Endast elva av dina fyrtio pjäser överlevde,
men trots det kallas du för komedins fader.
Russian:
Но несмотря на это тебя называют отцом жанра комедии, и есть ученые, исследующие твои труды.
Теперь плохие новости. Хотя твои пьесы хорошо переведены и просто уморительно смешны,
дети в школах не любят их читать. Они всегда говорят что-то типа
Почему мы обязаны читать это скучное дерьмо?
И это наверняка тебя очень сильно бесит, потому ты большую часть своей карьеры только и делал,
что высмеивал всякое скучное дерьмо.
Конкретно в форме театральных трагедий.
Кроме того в своих шутках ты зачастую использовал настоящее дерьмо.
Например, в "Ахарнянах" хор описывает, как герой пьесы швыряет дерьмо в реального поэта,
который тебе не нравился.
Ты, Аристофан, который писал, что под каждым камнем скрывается политик,
кто назвал богатство
самым прекрасным из всех богов.
Ты, кто написал следующий диалог.
Утверждаю. Всё сделаться общим должно и во всем пусть участвует каждый.
Мы общественной сделаем землю,
Всю для всех, все плоды, что растут на земле, все чем собственник каждый владеет.
Кто же будет возделывать пашню?
Рабы.
И всё равно в тебе видят
лишь очередное нудное домашнее задание!
Вот это, мой друг, настоящая трагедия.
Finnish:
silti sinua kutsutaan komedian isäksi ja on tutkijoita, jotka ovat omistautuneet töillesi.
Nyt huono uutinen: Vaikka näytelmät ovat hyvin käännettyjä ja kerrassaan hulvattomia,
oppilaat eivät tykkää lukea niitä koulussa. He sanovat aina miksi meidän on luettava
tälläistä tylsää roskaa?
Tämän täytyy olla sinulle erityisen ärsyttävää, koska paljon, mitä teit urallasi
oli irvailla tylsästä roskasta, erityisesti teatraalisten tragedioiden muodossa. Lisäksi,
käytit oikeaa kakkaa tehdäksesi vitsejä.
Kuten esimerkiksi näytelmässäsi The Acharnians:in kertosäkeessä hahmon kuvittelemassa heittävän
kakkaa oikeaa runoilijaa, josta et pitänyt, kohti.
Sinä, Aristofanes, joka kirjoitit, että joka kiven alla lymyää poliitikko, joka kutsuu vaurautta
kaikkein mainioimmaksi jumalista...
Sinä, joksa olet vastuussa seuraavasta keskustelusta:
Praxagora: Haluan kaikille osan kaikesta ja kaiken olevan yleistä; ei tule
olemaan rikkaita eikä köyhiä; [...] minun on aloitettava tekemällä maasta, rahasta, kaikesta,
mikä on yksityisomaisuutta, tavallista kaikille. [...]
Blepyrus: Kuka sitten kyntää maan?
Praxagora: Orjat.
Blepyrus: Aa.
Ja silti olet kotitehtävänä! Orjatyötä! Se, ystäväni, on todellista tragediaa. Toisaalta,
French:
la comédie; il y a des spécialistes dédiés à tes oeuvres
Maintenant, la mauvaise nouvelle: même si tes pièces sont exceptionnellement bien traduites et absolument hilarantes,
les étudiants n'aiment pas les lire dans les écoles. Ils disent toujours "pourquoi on doit lire cette merde ennuyante?
Et ça doit être particulièrement exaspérant pour toi parce que beaucoup de ce que tu as fais dans ta carrière
était de ridiculiser les merdes ennuyantes, particulièrement sous forme de tragédies théâtrales.
En plus, tu utilisais souvent de la vraie merde pour faire tes blagues.
Comme la fois où tu as fait imaginer au choeur dans Les Acharniens un personnage qui lançait de la merde à un poète que tu n'aimais pas.
Toi, Aristophane, qui a écrit qu'en dessous de chaque pierre se cache un politicien qui considère la richesse
comme le plus excellent des dieux... Toi, qui est responsable de la conversation suivante:
"Praxagora: Je veux que tous aient une part de tout et que tout soit mis en commun;
il n'y aurait plus de riche ou de pauvres; [...] je vais commencer en rendant la terre, l'argent,
tout ce qui est de propriété privée, commun pour tous. [...]
Blepyrus: Mais qui va labourer la terre?
Praxagora: Les esclaves.
Blepyrus: Oh."
Et malgré ça, tu es vu comme un devoir! Une corvée! Ça, mon ami, c'est une vraie tragédie. Sur le
iw:
ישנם חוקרים שמקדישים עצמם לעבודה שלך.
ועכשיו לחדשות הרעות: למרות שהמחזות שלך
מתורגמות היטב ומצחיקות עד דמעות,
התלמידים לא אוהבים לקרוא אותם בבתי ספר.
הם תמיד כאילו: "למה אנחנו חייבים לקרוא-
את החרא המשעמם הזה?" וזה חייב להרגיז אותך במיוחד, כי כל כך הרבה ממה שעשית בקריירה שלך
היה ללעוג לשטויות משעממות,
במיוחד בשימוש בטרגדיות תיאטרליות.
בנוסף, אתה מרבה להשתמש בקקי אמיתי בבדיחות שלך...
למשל כשהיה לך פיזמון ב"האכארנים" על דמות
במחזה שזורקת קקי על משורר אמיתי שלא אהבת.
אתה, אריסטופנס, שכתב כי תחת כל
אבן אורב פוליטיקאי, שקרא לעושר:
"האל הכי טוב מכולם"... אתה,
שאחראי השיחה הבאה:
"פראקסאגורה: אני רוצה שלכולם יהיה חלק
מהכל והכל יהיה משותף,
לא יהיה עוד עשיר או עני!
נתחיל בכך שאדמה, כסף,
כל מה שהוא רכוש פרטי, יהיה משותף
לכל!
בלפירוס: אבל מי יעבד את האדמה?
פראקסאגורה: העבדים.
בלפירוס: הו ".
ובכל זאת אתה נתפס כ"שיעורי בית"! "עבודת פרך"!
וזה, ידידי, היא טרגדיה אמיתית...
Thai:
และมีนักวิชาการมากมายที่ศึกษางานของคุณ
ต่อไปเป็นข่าวร้ายนะครับ แม้ว่าบทละครของคุณจะถูกแปลป็นอย่างดี แล้วก็ตลกมากๆ
ในโรงเรียน พวกนักเรียนก็ยังไม่ชอบอ่านมัน พวกเขาคิดว่า...ทำไมตรูต้องมาอ่านอะไรน่าเบื่ออย่างกะขี้แบบนี้ด้วย?
และนี่น่าจะทำให้คุณเซ็งน่าดู เพราะงานส่วนใหญ่ของคุณ
คือการเอาเรื่องที่น่าเบื่อโดยเฉพาะพวกละครโศกนาฏกรรม มาทำให้ตลก
แถมคุณยังชอบเล่นมุกเรื่องขี้ด้วย เช่น
ที่คุณเขียนให้คอรัส ในเรื่อง The Acharnians จินตนาการว่าตัวละครในละครของคุณปาขี้ใส่กวีคนที่คุณไม่ชอบ
คุณ อาริสโตฟาเนส ผู้เขียนว่า ใต้หินทุกก้อนมีนักการเมืองแฝงอยู่
นักการเมืองที่เรียกความมั่งคั่งว่าเป็นที่สุดเหนือพระเจ้า... คุณ ผู้เป็นเจ้าของบทสนทนาที่ว่า:
"ข้าต้องการให้เราทุกคนแบ่งปันกัน และให้ทุกสิ่งเป็นของส่วนรวม
ต่อแต่นี้จะไม่มีรวยหรือจน ข้าจะเริ่มทำให้ที่ดิน สินทรัพท์
ทุกๆสิ่งที่เป็นทรัพท์สินส่วนบุคคลทั้งหลาย กลายเป็นของส่วนรวม
แล้วใครจะเป็นผู้ไถนาเล่า
ทาสไงล่ะ
อ่ออ"
แต่กระนั้น คุณก็ยังถูกมองว่าเป็นแค่การบ้านที่หนักหนาน่าเบื่อ เพื่อนยาก..ช่างเป็นเรื่องเศร้าซะจริงๆ
Turkish:
Komedi'nin Babası olarak anılıyorsun. Hayatını sana adamış akademisyenler var.
Şimdi kötü haber: Oyunların çevrilmiş ve çok komik olsa da öğrenciler onları
okulda okumayı sevmiyor. Böyle boktan şeyleri okumak zorunda mıyız?
okulda okumayı sevmiyor. Böyle iğrenç şeyleri okumak zorunda mıyız?
Bu seni rahatsız ediyor olmalı. Çünkü yazdığın çoğu şeyde
özellikle trajedi oyunlarında boktan şeylerle dalga geçtin. Ayrıca, sık sık
şaka yapmak için gerçek dışkı kullandın.
Öyle ki Akarnialılar oyunundaki koro sevmediğin
bir yazara dışkı attı.
Sen, Aristofanes, her taşın altından bir politikacı çıkar dedin, zenginliğin en
iyi tanrı olduğunu söyledin...
Sen şu konuşmanın nedenisin:
Praxagora: Ben her şeyi paylaşmalıyım ve her şey ortak olmalı.
Zengin ve fakir olmamalı.[...] Toprak, para ve özel mülk olan her şeyi
ortak yapmalıyım.
Blepyrus: Peki toprağı kim işleyecek?
Praxagora: Köleler.
Blepyruz: Oh.
Ve seni ödev olarak görüyorlar! Angarya! Bu, azizim, gerçek bir trajedi. İşin iyi tarafı,
Czech:
ale i tak tě nazýváme otcem komedie,
jsou tu učenci věnující se tvému dílu.
Teď ta špatná zpráva.
Přestože jsou tvé hry dobře
přeložené a naprosto k popukání,
studenti je ve školách neradi čtou.
Vždycky říkají: "Proč tyhle
nudné sračky musíme číst?"
To tě musí pěkně rozčilovat,
protože většina toho,
co jsi za svou kariéru dělal,
bylo dělat si z nudných sraček srandu,
konkrétně ve formě
divadelních tragédií.
Navíc jsi hojně používal
skutečné výkaly k vytvoření legrace.
Jako když jsi nechal sbor ve svém
díle Acharňané si představit postavu,
jak hází výkaly
na básníka, jehož jsi neměl rád.
Ty, Aristofane, kdo jsi napsal,
že pod každým kamenem číhá politik,
kdo nazval bohatství
nejlepším ze všech bohů...
Ty, kdo jsi zodpovědný
za následující konverzaci:
Všecko společné všem
být musí a všichni žít z téhož,
nesmí pak jeden
boháčem být a druhý chuďasem.
Nejprve veškerá země se musí
stát společným majetkem všech,
i stříbro a soukromé jmění.
Kdo nám bude chtít vzdělávat zem?
Přec otroci.
A přesto jsi považován za domácí úkol!
Hrůza! To je,
můj příteli, skutečná tragédie.
Swedish:
Det finns forskare ägnade åt ditt
arbete.
Nu, de dåliga nyheterna. Även om dina pjäser
är väl översatta och helt underbara,
så gillar inte elever att läsa dem i skolan.
Det är alltid "varför måste vi läsa den här"
tråkiga skiten?" Detta måste vara särskilt
irriterande för dig, eftersom så mycket av vad du
gjorde i din karriär var att göra narr av tråkig
skit, särskilt i form av teatraliska
tragedier. Plus, du använde ofta faktisk
skit till att skapa skämt. Till exempel när du hade
kören i The Acharnians föreställa sig hur en karaktär
i din pjäs kastade skit på en riktig poet du inte gillade.
Du, Aristofanes, som skrev att under alla
stenar lurar en politiker, som kallade rikedom
den mest utmärkta av alla gudar ... Du,
som är ansvariga för följande samtal:
"Praxagora: Jag vill att alla ska ha en andel på
allt och att allt ska vara gemensamt;
Det kommer inte längre att vara antingen rik eller fattig;
[...] Jag ska börja med att mark, pengar,
allt som är privat egendom, blir gemensamt
för alla. [...]
Blepyrus: Men vem brukar då jorden?
Praxagora: Slavarna.
Blepyrus: Jaha".
Och ändå ses du som läxor! Slit!
Det, min vän, är en sann tragedi. På den positiva sidan
Modern Greek (1453-):
αλλά ακόμα και έτσι, αποκαλείσαι ο πατέρας της κωμωδίας. Υπάρχουν μελετητές που έχουν αφιερωθεί στο έργο σου.
Τώρα τα δυσάρεστα: Αν και οι κωμωδίες είναι πολύ καλά μεταφρασμένες και απόλυτα ξεκαρδιστικές,
στους μαθητές δεν τους αρέσει να τους διαβάζουν στο σχολείο. Λένε πάντα γιατί πρέπει να διαβάζουμε αυτές τις βαρετές αηδίες?
Και αυτό πρέπει να είναι εξαιρετικά ψυχοφθόρο για σένα, γιατί τα περισσότερα από αυτά που έγραφες στη δουλειά σου
ήταν για να κάνεις πλάκα από βαρετές αηδίες, ειδικά στη μορφή θεατρικών τραγωδιών
Συν το ότι συχνά χρησιμοποιούσες πραγματικές κουράδες για να κάνεις αστεία.
Όπως όταν βάλατε τον Χορό στις "Αχαρνείς" να φανταστεί έναν χαρακτήρα στο έργο σας να πετάει κόπρανα σε έναν υπαρκτό ποιητή που αντιπαθούσατε.
Εσύ Αριστοφάνη, που έγραψες ότι κάτω από κάθε πέτρα κρύβεται ένας πολιτικός,
που αποκάλεσες τα πλούτη πιο εξαιρετικά από όλους τους θεούς...
Εσύ που είσαι υπεύθυνος για την παρακάτω στιχομυθία:
- Πραξαγόρα: Θέλω όλοι να έχουν μερίδιο από τα πάντα και όλα να είναι κοινά,
δεν θα υπάρχουν πλέον πλούσιοι ή φτωχοί, θα ξεκινήσω φτιάχνοντας γη, λεφτά,
οτιδήποτε είναι ιδιωτική περιουσία θα είναι κοινό για όλους.
- Βλέπυρος: Μα ποιος θα καλλιεργεί τη γη?
- Πραξαγόρα: Οι σκλάβοι...
- Βλέπυρος: Ααα...
Και όμως σε βλέπουν σαν μια εργασία! Αγγαρεία! Αυτό φίλε μου είναι πραγματική τραγωδία
German:
wirst du als Vater der Komödie bezeichtet; es gibt Wissenschaftler, die sich deinen Werken gewidmet haben.
Nun die schlechten Nachrichten: Obwohl deine Stücke gut übersetzt wurden und urkomisch sind,
lesen Schüler sie nicht gerne in der Schule. Da heißt es immer: Warum müssen wir so einen
langweiligen Mist lesen?
Und das muss besonders ärgerlich für dich sein, weil so vieles, was du während deiner Karriere gemacht hast,
Witze über langweiligen Mist waren, vor allem in Form von theatralischen Tragödien. Außerdem
hast du oft echten mist genommen, um Witze zu machen.
Zum Beispiel als du den Chor in in "Die Archarner" sich hast vorstellen lassen, wie ein Charakter in deinem Stück
echten Mist auf einen Dichter wirft, den du nicht mochtest.
Du, Aristophanes, der geschrieben hat, dass unter jedem Stein ein Politiker lauert; der Reichtum
den exzellentesten aller Götter genannt hat...
Du, der du für das folgende Gespräch verantwortlich bist:
Praxagora: Ich habe alles zu teilen, alles wird Gemeinsames sein, es wird kein
reich oder arm mehr geben; [...] Ich werde damit anfangen, Land, Geld, alles,
das privater Besitz ist, allen zugänglich zu machen.
Blepyrus: Aber wer wird den Boden pflügen?
Praxagora: Die Sklaven.
Blepyrus: Oh.
Und trotzdem wirst du als Hausaufgabe verwendet! Schinderei! Das, mein Freund, ist eine wahre Tragödie. Doch um es positiv zu sehen:
Chinese:
但即使如此，你還是叫做喜劇之父，
有學者專門研究你的作品。
壞消息是即使你的劇本翻譯得一絕，絕對爆笑，
學生就是不喜歡讀，而總是抱怨為什麼要讀
這無聊廢話。
而這必令你難堪，因為你生涯很多是
調侃無聊廢話，尤其是用悲劇的形式。
另外，你甚至經常使用糞便來開玩笑。
比如，在《阿卡奈人》，你讓合唱團演出向
你不喜歡的詩人丟擲糞便。
阿里斯托芬，你寫過每塊石頭下都藏著政客，
又稱財富所有神中之最。
你寫以下對話：
Praxagora：我要每人都分享一切，
不再有貧、富，而應從土地、金錢、一切
私有財產，共同於眾開始。
Blepyrus：那誰來耕田？
P：奴隸阿。
B：明解。
你卻被視為家庭作業、苦工！豈有此理！
這才是真正悲劇。
Spanish:
incluso así, eres llamado el Padre de la Comedia. Hay eruditos dedicados a tus trabajos.
Ahora, las malas noticias: A pesar de que tus obras estén bien traducidas y sean absolutamente graciosas,
a los estudiantes no les gusta leerlas en la escuela.
Dicen, "¿por qué tenemos que
leer esta caca aburrida?"
Y esto debe ser molesto para tí porque tanto de lo que hiciste en tu carrera fue
burlarte de caca aburrida, específicamente en la forma de tragedias teatrales. Además, usaste
frecuentemente caca de verdad para hacer chistes.
Como cuando hiciste que el coro en Los Arcanienses imaginara un personaje en tu obra tirando
caca a un poeta que no te gustaba.
Tú, Aristófanes, quien escribió que debajo de cada piedra está al acecho un político,
quien llamo a la riqueza el más poderoso de todos los dioses...
Tú, quien es responsable de la siguiente conversación:
Praxágoras: Quiero que todos los bienes sean comunes y que todos tengan igual parte en ellos;
que no sea éste rico y aquél pobre; [...] haré primero comunes los campos,
el dinero y las demás propiedades. [...]
Blépiro: Pero ¿quién cultivará la tierra?
Praxágoras: Los esclavos.
Blépiro: Oh...
¡Y aún así, eres visto como tarea! ¡Trabajo! Eso, mi amigo, es una verdadera tragedia. Por otro lado,
Romanian:
Tatăl comediei; sunt studenți devotați muncii tale.
Acum vestea rea. Chiar dacă piesele tale sunt bine traduse și absolut vesele,
studenților nu le place să le citească la școală. Spun mereu, de ce trebuie să citim
acest rahat plictisitor? Și asta ar trebui să fie în special exasperant pentru tine, pentru că atât de mult
din ce ai făcut în cariera ta a fost amuzant sau plictisitor sub forma tragediilor.
În plus, foloseai frecvent prostii actuale pentru a face glume. Ca atunci când
în Acarnienii ai pus corul să imagineze în piesa ta un personaj care să spună prostii despre un poet real care nu-ți plăcea.
Tu,Aristofan, care ai scris că sub fiecare piatră pândește un politician
care numește averea drept cel mai extraordinar din toți zeii....Tu ești responsabil pentru următoarea conversație:
"Praxagora: Vreau ca totul să fie împărțit de toți și totul să fie în comun;
nu vor mai fi bogați sau săraci; voi începe făcând pământul, banii,
tot ce este proprietate privată, comun pentru toți.
Blepyrus: Dar cine va cultiva pământul?
Praxagora: sclavii.
Blepyrus: Oh"
Și tu ești dat încă drept temă pentru acasă! Corvoadă! Am avut
Vietnamese:
Cha đẻ của Hài kịch, ông có các học giả tận tâm với tác phẩm của ông
Còn bây giờ, tin xấu: dù các vở kịch được phiên dịch tốt và chắc chắn là chúng hài hước,
học sinh không thích phải đọc chúng ở trong nhà trường. Tại sao chúng ta phải đọc
những chuyện tào lao và chán phèo này?
Hẳn là ông cảm thấy rất khó chịu, vì rất nhiều thứ ông làm trong sự nghiệp của mình
là cười nhạo mấy vấn đề nhàm chám,
nhất là dưới hình thức bi kịch
Ông còn hay dùng cứt thật để đùa. Ông có đoạn hát trong "The Acharnians"
ông đã tưởng tượng một nhân vật trong vở kịch ném cứt vào một nhà thơ có thật mà ông không ưa
Ông, Aristophanes, người đã viết những điều đó dưới các tảng đá ẩn giấu những chính trị gia, gọi sự giàu có
là thần thánh nhất trong tất cả các vị thần thánh... Ông, người chịu trách nhiệm cho cuộc đối thoại
"Praxagora: Tôi muốn mọi người đều được chia mọi thứ và mọi thứ là của chung
sẽ không còn giàu nghèo;
[...] Tôi sẽ bắt đầu bằng cách làm đất đai, tiền bạc,
mọi thứ tư hữu thành của chung
cho mọi người [...]
Blepyrus: Nhưng ai sẽ cày bừa?
Praxagora: Nô Lệ
Blepyrus: Oh ".
và ông được coi như bài tập về nhà nữa! Kiếp nô lệ! Đấy là bi kịch thực sự
Portuguese:
mesmo assim, você é chamado de Pai da Comédia, há especialistas que estudam seu trabalho.
Agora, a má notícia: Mesmo as suas peças tendo ótimas traduções e sendo extremamente hilárias
os alunos não gostam de lê-las na escola.
Eles sempre dizem "Porque temos que ler
essa porcaria chata?"
E, a parte mais engraçada é que você, durante toda sua carreira,
você fez piadas de porcarias chatas, especificamente na forma de tragédias teatrais. E mais,
você frequentemente usava merdas reais para fazer piadas.
Como quando você está em um coro em Os Acarnânios, imaginando um personagem jogando
merda de verdade no poeta que você não gosta.
Você Aristóteles, quem escreveu obras que até enganavam um político, foi chamado
de o maior produto dos deuses.
Você, que é responsável por esse diálogo
Praxagora: Eu quero dividir tudo para que tudo será da comunidade, então
não terá mais riqueza nem pobreza.
Eu devo começar cercando terras, e transformando
tudo em propriedade privada, comum a todos.
Blepyrus: Mas quem vai te sustentar?
Praxagora: Os escravos
Blepyrus: Oh.
E mesmo assim você é visto como lição de casa!
Difícil a vida! Isso, caro amigo, é uma verdadeira tragédia.
Dutch:
dan, ben je genoemd de Vader van Komedie, er zijn zelfs scholieren gewijd aan jouw werk.
Nu, het slechte nieuws: Zelfs ondanks je toneelstukken goed zijn vertaald en hilarisch zijn,
studenten houden er niet van om ze te lezen in school. Er zijn altijd van die mensen van, waarom moete wij deze
saaie zooi lezen?
En dit vooral moet knellend voor jouw zijn omdat zoveel van wat je deed in je carrière
was het leuk maken van saaie zooi, met name in de vorm van theater tragedies. En,
je gebruikte redelijk vaak schijt om grappen te maken.
Zoals wanneer u het koor in de Acharnians
had laten denken dat een karakter in je spel een
drol gooide tegen een echte poëet die je niet mocht.
Jij, Aristophanes, wie schreef dat onder elke steen een politicus schuilt, wie rijkdom
de beste noemde van alle goden...
Jij, wie verantwoordelijk is voor het volgende gesprek:
Praxogora: Ik wil dat iedereen van alles een deel heeft en alles is in grote hoeveelheid; er zal
niet langer rijk of arm zijn
Ik zal beginnen met het maken van geld, land, alles
dat privé eigendom is, gebruikelijk tot allen.
Blepyrus: Maar wie zal de grond bewerken?
Praxagora: De slaven.
Blepyrus: Oh.
En toch word je gezien als huiswerk! Gezwoeg!
Dat, mijn vriend, is pure tragedie. Aan de
Arabic:
وهناك باحثون كرسوا حياتهم لدراسة أعمالك.
والآن النبأ السيء: بالرغم من أن مسرحياتك
مترجمة ببراعة وأنها طريفة جدًا،
إلا أن الطلاب لا يحبون قراءتها في المدارس.
فلسان حالهم هو دائمًا،
"لماذا علينا قراءة هذه التفاهة المملة؟"
ولا بد أن هذا يثير سخطك
لأنك كرّست جزءًا كبيرًا من حياتك المهنية
للسخرية من التفاهات المملة،
وتحديدًا من التراجيديا المسرحية.
بالإضافة إلى أنك كثيرًا ما
كنت تستخدم برازًا حقيقيًا في نكاتك.
مثل عندما جعلت الجوقة في مسرحية
أهل أخارناي يتخيلون شخصية في المسرحية
ترمي البراز على شاعر حقيقي لم يعجبك.
أنت يا أريستوفانيس
من كتب أن تحت كل حجر يتربص سياسي
ومن وصف الثروة بأنها أفضل الآلهة
وأنت الذي كتب الحوار التالي:
"أريد أن يكون للجميع نصيب في كل شيء
وأن يكون كل شيء مشتركًا.
لن يعود هناك أغنياء أو فقراء،
(...) سأبدأ بجعل الأراضي والمال
وكل ما هو ملكية خاصة
مشتركًا بين الجميع. (...)
ولكن من سيحرث التربة؟
العبيد.
فهمت."
ومع ذلك يعتبرونك واجبًا منزليًا وعملًا شاقًا!
هذه يا صديقي مأساة حقيقية.
Polish:
mimo to jesteś nazywany Ojcem Komedii, są uczeni oddani w pełni Twoim pracom.
Teraz, złe wieści: Mimo tego że Twoje sztuki zostały w miarę dobrze przetłumaczone i absolutnie prześmiewczo
uczniowie nie chcą ich czytać w szkołach. Zawsze jest "Czemu musimy to czytać
to nudne badziewie?"
I to musi Cię szczególnie złościć , ponieważ większość tego co zrobiłeś w swoim życiu
było wyśmiewaniem się z nudnych badziewiów , szczególnie w formie tragedii teatralnych. Dodatkowo
często używałeś prawdziwych kup do robienia żartów
Na przykład wtedy kiedy miałeś chór w "Acharnejczykach" przedstawiający postać w Twojej sztuce, która rzuca
kupę na prawdziwego poetę , którego nie lubisz.
Ty Arystofanesie, który napisałeś że pod każdym kamieniem czai sie polityk, Ty który nazwałeś bogactwo
najwspanialszym z wszystkich bogów...
Ty, który jesteś odpowiedzialny za poniższą konwersację:
Praxagora: Będę musiała podzielić wszystko żeby stało się wspólne, nie będzie już
dłużej bogatych i biednych; [...] Zacznę tworzyć ziemię , zarabiać pieniądze a wszystko
co jest prywatną własnością stanie się wspólne dla wszystkich
Blepyrus: Ale kto będzie uprawiał pola ?
Niewolnicy.
Oh.
Mimo to wciąż jesteś postrzegany jako zadanie domowe, harówka! To mój przyjacielu, jest prawdziwa tragedia.
English:
Comedy; there are scholars devoted to your
work.
Now, the bad news: Even though your plays
are well-translated and absolutely hilarious,
students don’t like to read them in schools.
There always like, why do we gotta read this
boring crap? And this must be particularly
galling to you, because so much of what you
did in your career was make fun of boring
crap, specifically in the form of theatrical
tragedies. Plus, you frequently used actual
crap to make jokes. Such as when you had the
chorus in The Acharnians imagining a character
in your play throwing crap at a real poet you didn’t like.
You, Aristophanes, who wrote that under every
stone lurks a politician, who called wealth
the most excellent of all the gods... You,
who are responsible for the following conversation:
"Praxagora: I want all to have a share of
everything and everything to be in common;
there will no longer be either rich or poor;
[...] I shall begin by making land, money,
everything that is private property, common
to all. [...]
Blepyrus: But who will till the soil?
Praxagora: The slaves.
Blepyrus: Oh."
And yet you’re seen as homework! Drudgery!
That, my friend, is a true tragedy. On the
Hungarian:
Tudósok szentelik csak neked az idejüket.
A rossz hír: Annak ellenére, hogy drámáidat jól fordították le, és baromira viccesek,
a diákok nem szeretik olvasni őket.
Folyton csak panaszkodnak, hogy miért kell nekik ilyen unalmas "szart" olvasni.
Ez biztos nagyon dühítő neked.
Főleg, hogy legfőbb célod a pályafutásod során
pont az volt, hogy kigúnyold az élet unalmas "szarait", főleg színházi komédiák formájában.
Plusz, ehhez gyakran valódi szart használtál. Mint pl, amikor az egyik drámádban
az acharniani kórus tagjai elképzelték, hogy az egyik karakter szarral dobja meg azt a korodbeli költőt,
akit te nem kedveltél.
Te, Arisztophanész, aki azt írtad, hogy minden kő alatt egy politikus lapul. Te, aki a gazdagságot
a legkiválóbbnak nevezted az összes isten közül ...
Te, akinek köszönhetően ez a beszélgetés létezik:
„PRAXAGORA: Akarom hát, hogy mindenki egész vagyonát közjóra bocsássa, és abból éljenek [...]
az ne legyen, hogy dús ez, míg nyomorult az. [...]
egy közös életmód legyen és aszerint éljen csak a város. [...]
BLEPÜROSZ: De ki műveli majd a mezőt?
PRAXAGORA: rabszolgák.
BLEPÜROSZ: Oh.”
És mégis téged csak házifeladatként tartanak számon! Lélekölő robotolásként! Ez, barátom, ez az igazi tragédia.
Czech:
Světlá stránka je, že jsme se zbavili
otroctví. Zabralo nám to jen 2000 let.
S pozdravem,
John Green.
Když přemýšlíme o zlatém hřebu řecké
kultury, může nás napadnout Parthenón
nebo Aischylova dramata.
Skutečným hřebem jsou však Athény
ve 4. století př. n. l.,
rovnou po řecko-perských válkách.
Ale Řecko bylo víc než jen Athény.
Řekové žili v městských státech,
které sestávaly z města
a přilehlého okolí.
Ve většině těchto městských
států byla aspoň nějaká forma otroctví
a ve všech bylo občanství
vymezeno pro muže.
Promiňte, dámy...
Každý městský stát měl svou vlastní
formu vlády, od velmi demokratických,
pokud jste nebyli žena nebo otrok,
po absolutně diktátorské.
Lidé, kteří žili v těchto městech,
se považovali za občany těch měst,
ne něčeho, co se později pojmenovalo
Řecko. Aspoň do řecko-perských válek.
Mezi roky 490 a 480 př. n. l.
Peršané zaútočili na řecké státy.
Tohle byla ta válka,
při které se udála bitva u Thermopyl,
kde bojovalo
300 statečných Sparťanů s,
jestli věříte Hérodotovi,
pěti miliony Peršany.
English:
upside, we did take care of slavery. It only
took us two thousand years.
Best wishes,
John Green
When we think about the high point of Greek
culture, exemplified by the Parthenon and
the plays of Aeschylus, what we’re really
thinking about is Athens in the fourth century
BCE, right after the Persian Wars. But Greece
was way more than Athens; Greeks lived in
city-states which consisted of a city and
its surrounding area. Most of these city-states
featured at least some form of slavery, and in all
of them citizenship was limited to males. Sorry ladies...
Also, each of the city-states had its own
form of government, ranging from very democratic
— unless you were a woman or a slave — to
completely dictatorial. And the people who
lived in these cities considered themselves
citizens of that city, not of anything that
would ever be called Greece. At least until
the Persian wars.
So between 490 and 480 BCE, the Persians made
war on the Greek City states. This was the
war that featured the battle of Thermopylae
where three hundred brave Spartans battled
— if you believe Herodotus — five million
Persians.
Spanish:
nos encargamos de la esclavitud. Solo nos tomó 2 000 años.
Mis mejores deseos, John Green.
Cuando pensamos en la cúspide de la cultura griega, ejemplificado por el Partenón y
las obras de Esquilo, en lo que realmente pensamos es sobre es Atenas
en el siglo IV a. C., después de las Guerras Médicas.
Pero Grecia mucho más que Atenas. Los griegos vivian en ciudades-estado que consistían de
una ciudad y sus alrededores.
La mayoría de estas ciudades-estado presentaron al menos una clase de esclavitud, y en todas ellas
la ciudadanía se limitaba a los hombres.
Lo siento, señoras...
También, cada una de las ciudades-estado tenía su propia forma de gobierno, que van desde muy democráticas
—a menos que fueses una mujer o esclavo— hasta completamente dictatoriales.
Y la gente que vivía en estas ciudades se consideraba ciudadanos de esa ciudad, no de nada
que pudo haberse llamado Grecia. Al menos hasta las Guerras Médicas.
Así que, entre 490 y 480 a. C., los persas le hicieron guerra a las ciudades-estado griegas. Ésta fue la
guerra que incluyó la batalla de las Termópilas donde 300 valientes espartanos lucharon —si le crees
a Heródoto— 5 millones de persas.
Hungarian:
Viszont, mi gondoskodtunk a rabszolgatartásról.
És csak kétezer évbe telt...
Minden jót,
John Green
A görög kultúra csúcspontjaként a Parthenonra és Aiszkhülosz drámáira gondolunk,
Ez igazából Athén az ie. 4. században,
éppen a perzsa háborúk után.
De Görögország jóval több csupán Athénnál.
A görögök városállamokban és az őket körülvevő területeken éltek. A legtöbb városállamban jelen volt
valamilyen formában a rabszolgatartás, és mindben csak a férfiakat illették az állampolgársággal járó jogok.
Bocsánat, hölgyek.
Továbbá, az egyes városállamok mind saját közigazgatással rendelkeztek,
kezdve nagyon demokratikus államformával
- hacsak nem nő voltál vagy szolga -, egészen a teljesen diktatórikusig.
A lakosság a városállam polgárának tekintette magát, nem pedig Görögországénak.
- egészen a görög-perzsa háborúkig.
ie. 490 és 480 között, a perzsák hadban álltak a görög városállamokkal.
Ekkor történt a thermopülai csata,
ahol háromszáz bátor spártai harcos küzdött
- ha hiszünk Hérodotosznak -
ötmillió perzsával.
Arabic:
ولكن الناحية الإيجابية هي أننا تخلصنا
من العبودية. لم يستغرق ذلك سوى ألفي سنة.
مع أطيب التمنيات، جون غرين.
عندما نفكر في أوج الثقافة اليونانية القديمة،
والتي يُجسدها معبد البارثينون
ومسرحيات إسخيلوس، فإن ما نفكر فيه حقًا
هو أثينا في القرن الرابع قبل الميلاد
بُعيد الحروب الفارسية. ولكن أثينا
لم تكن ذروة سنام اليونان القديمة
فقد كان الإغريقيون يعيشون في دول مدن
تتألف من المدينة والمنطقة المحيطة بها.
كانت العبودية موجودة
في معظم دول المدن هذه بشكل أو بآخر،
واقتصرت المواطنة فيها جميعًا
على الذكور. آسف أيتها السيدات.
وكل من دول المدن هذه كان يحكمها شكل من أشكال
الحكومات يتراوح من الديمقراطي جدًا،
ما لم تكن امرأة أو عبدًا،
وصولًا إلى الديكتاتوري بشكل المطلق.
وسكان هذه المدن كانوا يعتبرون أنفسهم
مواطنين يدينون بالولاء لتلك المدن
وليس لأي نظام
من شأنه أن يُسمى يومًا باليونان.
على الأقل حتى الحروب الفارسية.
بين عامي 490 و 480 قبل الميلاد،
شن الفرس حربًا على دول المدن اليونانية،
وكانت هذه هي الحرب
التي تخللتها معركة ثيرموبيلاي
حيث حارب ثلاثمائة اسبرطي شجاع 5 ملايين
مقاتل فارسي، إذا ما صدقنا رواية هيرودوت،
Polish:
Przy okazji, zajęliśmy się niewolnictwem. Zajęło nam to tylko 2,000lat.
Najlepsze życzenia, John Green.
Kiedy pomyślimy o najważniejszym punkcie w greckiej kulturze, jak na przykład Panteon albo
sztuki Ajschylosa , tak naprawdę myślimy o Atenach
w 4 wieku p.n.e zaraz po Wojnach Perskich
Ale Grecja znaczyła dużo więcej niż Ateny.
Grecy żyli w miastach-państwach , które zawierały w sobie
miasto i teren wokół.
Większość tych miast-państw skończyła w różnych formach niewolnictwa a we wszystkich z nich obywatele
zostali ograniczeni wyłącznie do mężczyzn.
Wybaczcie, dziewczyny...
Również, większość tych miast-państw miało swoją własna formę rządów , zaczynając od bardzo demokratycznej
- chyba że byłeś kobietą lub niewolnikiem - na kompletnej dyktaturze kończąc.
A ludzie , którzy żyli w tych miastach uważali siebie za obywateli danego miasta , nie było niczego
co można by nazwać Grecją. Przynajmniej do początku wojen perskich.
A więc pomiędzy 490 a 480 r. p.n.e Persowie wypowiedzieli wojnę Greckim miastom-państwom. To była
wojna , w której miała miejsce między innymi bitwa pod Termopilami gdzie 300 dzielnych Spartan walczyło z - jeśli wierzyć
Herodotusowi - 5 milionami Persów.
Russian:
С другой стороны, мы избавились от рабства.
Это заняло у нас всего-то 2000 лет.
С наилучшими пожеланиями, Джон Грин.
Когда мы говорим о пике греческой культуры, олицетворяемой Парфеноном и пьесами Эсхила,
на самом деле мы подразумеваем Афины четвертого века до нашей эры.
Сразу после персидских войн.
Но Греция включала в себя не только лишь Афины. Греки жили в городах-государствах,
состоявших из собственно города и его окрестностей.
В большинстве их них существовала
та или иная форма рабства
и во всех из них гражданские права имели лишь...
мужчины
Мне жаль, дамы.
Кроме того, каждый из городов-государств имел свою собственную форму правления,
начиная от весьма демократических.
При условии что вы не были женщиной или рабом.
И закакнчивая абсолютно диктаторскими.
И люди, живущие в этих городах считали себя гражданами этого конкретного города,
а не чего-то под названием Греция.
По крайней мере до персидских войн.
Итак, между 490 и 480 г. до н.э. персы воевали с греческими городами.
В этой войне прошла битва при Фермопилах, где 300 отважных спартанцев,
если верить Геродоту,
сразились с пятью миллионами персов.
Thai:
ถ้ามองในแง่ดีละก็ เราจัดการเรื่องทาสได้แล้วล่ะ ใช้เวลาแค่ 2000 ปีเท่านั้นเอง
ด้วยความปรารถนาดี
จอห์น กรีน
เวลาที่เรานึกถึงยุคทองของวัฒนธรรมกรีก
ในยุคที่มีวิหารพาเทนอน และบทละครของอาชิลัส
เรากำลังนึกถึงกรุงเอเธนส์ในช่วงศตวรรษที่ 4 ก่อนคริสตกาล หลังสงครามเปอร์เซีย
แต่อันที่จริง กรีกไม่ได้หมายถึงกรุงเอเธนส์เท่านั้น
ชาวกรีกอาศัยอยู่ในหลายนครรัฐ ซึ่งแต่ละนครรัฐซึ่งประกอบไปด้วยเมืองๆหนึ่ง และพื้นที่โดยรอบของเมืองนั้น
นครรัฐเหล่านี้ส่วนใหญ่มีการใช้ทาส และสิทธิในการเป็นพลเมืองสงวนไว้ให้เฉพาะผู้ชายเท่านั้น เสียใจด้วยนะสาวๆ...
นอกจากนั้น นครรัฐแต่ละแห่งมีรูปแบบการปกครองของตัวเอง ตั้งแต่เป็นประชาธิปไตยอย่างมาก
ยกเว้นว่าคุณเป็นผู้หญิงหรือทาสนะครับ...
ไปจนถึงเผด็จการเบ็ดเสร็จ
และผู้คนที่อาศัยอยู่ในเมืองเหล่านี้ ก็ถือว่าตนเองเป็นพลเมืองของเมืองที่ตนอาศัยอยู่
ไม่มีอะไรที่เรียกว่ากรีกเลย อย่างน้อยก็จนกระทั่งเกิดสงครามเปอร์เซีย
ระหว่างปี 490 ถึง 480 ก่อนคริสตกาล เปอร์เซียได้ทำสงครามกับนครรัฐกรีก
ในสงครามนี้นี่เองที่เกิดยุทธการที่เทอมอพิลี ที่ทหารสปาร์ตาผู้กล้าหาญ 300 นาย
สู้กับทหารเปอร์เซีย 5 ล้านคน ถ้าคุณเชื่อเฮอรอโดทัสนะครับ
German:
Wir haben uns um die [Abschaffung der] Sklaverei gekümmert. Es hat nur 2000 Jahre gedauert.
Beste Wünsche, John Green.
Wenn wir über den Höhepunkt der griechischen Kultur, zum Beispiel den Parthenon und
die Stücke von Aischylos, nachdenken, denken wir an Athen
im 4. Jh. v. Chr., kurz nach den Perserkriegen.
Doch Griechenland war viel mehr als Athen. Die Griechen lebten in Stadtstaaten, die aus einer Stadt
und ihrer Umgebung bestanden.
Die meisten dieser Stadtstaaten bedienten sich mindestens einer Form der Sklaverei und in allen waren die Bürgerrechte
Männern vorbehalten.
Tut mir leid, Ladys.
Außerdem hatte jeder dieser Stadtstaaten seine eigene Regierungsform, von Demokratie - außer man war
eine Frau oder ein Sklave - zu totaler Diktatur.
Und die Menschen, die in diesen Städten lebten, nannten sich selbst Bürger dieser Stadt, nicht Bürger
eines Ortes namens Griechenland. Zumindest bis zu den Perserkriegen.
Zwischen 490 und 480 v. Chr. bekriegten die Perser die griechischen Städte. Dieser Krieg beinhaltete die
Schlacht von Thermopylen, in der - wenn man Herodot glaubt - 300 mutige Spartaner
fünf Millionen Perser bekämpften,
Turkish:
kölelikten kurtulundu. Sadece 2,000 yıl sürdü.
Saygılarımla, John Green
Yunan kültürünün zirvesini düşünüce aklımıza
Partenon ve Eshilos'un oyunları gelir. Aslında MÖ 4. yüzyıl
Atina'sını düşünürüz. Pers Savaşları'ndan hemen sonrasını.
Ama Yunanistan Atina'dan çok daha fazlasıdır. Yunanlar şehir ve çevresini kapsayan şehir-devletlerde yaşadı.
Ama Yunanistan Atina'dan çok daha fazlasıdır. Yunanlar şehir ve çevresini kapsayan şehir-devletlerde yaşadı.
Bunların çoğunda bir çeşit kölelik varı ve sadece vatandaşlık hakları erkeklerle sınırlıydı.
Bunların çoğunda bir çeşit kölelik varı ve sadece vatandaşlık hakları erkeklerle sınırlıydı.
Üzgünüm bayanlar...
Ayrıca, her şehir-devletin demokrasiden -kadın veya köle değilseniz-
diktatörlüğe değişen çeşitli hükümetleri vardı.
Bu şehirde yaşayan insanlar kendilerini o şehrin vatandaşı olarak
görürdü, Yunanistan'ın değil. En azından Pers Savaları'na kadar böyleydi.
Şimdi, MÖ 490 ve 480 arasında Persler, Yunan şehir devletleriyle savaştı. Bu sırada
Termoplyae Savaşı da gerçekleşti 300 cesur Spartalı -Herodot'a inanıyorsanız- beş milyon Pers ile
savaştı.
Finnish:
me hoidimme orjuuden. Siihen meni vain 2000 vuotta.
Terveisin, John Green
Kun ajattelemme kreikkalaisen kulttuurin kohokohtaa, esimerkkinään Parthenon ja
Aiskhyloksen näytelmät, mitä me todella ajattelemme on Ateena
neljännellä vuosisadalla eaa., juuri ennen persialaissotia.
Mutta Kreikka oli enemmän kuin vain Ateena. Kreikkalaiset asuivat kaupunkivaltioissa, jotka koostuivat
kaupungista ja sen lähialueista.
Suurimmassa osassa näistä kaupunkivaltioista oli ainakin jonkinlaista orjuutta ja kaikissa kansalaisuus
oli rajoitettu miehiin.
Anteeksi naiset...
Lisäksi jokaisella kaupunkivaltiolla oli oma hallintomuoto, vaihdellen erittäin demokraattisesta-- paitsi
jos olit nainen tai orja-- täysin diktatoriseen.
Kaupungeissa asuvat ihmiset pitivät itseään kaupunkinsa asukkaina, eivät minkään
jota voitaisiin kutsua Kreikaksi. Ainakin ennen persialaissotia.
Niinpä 490-480 eaa., persialaiset olivat sodassa Kreikan kaupunkivaltioiden kanssa. Tämä oli sota,
jossa Thermapylain taistelu käytiin, jossa 300 rohkeaa spartalaista taisteli-- jos uskot
Herodotosta-- viiden miljoonan persialaisen kanssa.
Portuguese:
Por outro lado, nós nos importamos com a escravidão. Levou apenas 2000 anos.
Tudo de bom, John Green
Quando pensamos no auge da sociedade Grega exemplificado pelo Parthenon e
as peças de Ésquilo.
No que realmente pensamos é em Atenas
no século IV antes de cristo.
Logo depois da Guerras Persas.
A Grécia muito maior que a Atenas, a Grécia era na verdade várias cidades-estados que constistiam
em uma cidade e a região ao redor.
A maioria das cidades mantinham algum tipo de escravidão e todas as cidades,
os cidadães eram limitado aos homens.
Desculpe mulheres...
Também, cada cidade tipo uma forma diferente de governo que variavam de sociedade democráticas - a não ser que
você fosse uma mulher os um escravo - para ditaduras violentas.
E pessoas que viviam nessas cidades, consideravam-se cidadãos da cidade, não
algo que seria chamado de Grécia.
Pelo menos até a guerra Persa.
Então, entre 490 e 480 A.C. os persas travaram guerra contra as Cidades Estados.
Essa guerra foi chamada de batalha das Termópilas, onde 300 bravos espartanos lutaram contra - se você acredita
em Herodoto - 5 milhões de Persas.
Swedish:
tog vi hand om slaveri. Det tog oss i och för sig två tusen år.
Bästa önskningar,
John Green
När vi tänker på den högsta punkten i den grekiska
kulturen, exemplifierad av Parthenon och
pjäserna av Aiskylos, tänker vi egentligen på Aten i det fjärde århundradet
FVT, direkt efter persiska krigen. Men Grekland
var mycket mer än Aten. Greker levde i
stadsstater som bestod av en stad och
dess omgivningar. De flesta av dessa stadsstater
hade åtminstone någon form av slaveri och hos ALLA
var det bara män som var medborgare . Tyvärr damer ...
Varje stadsstat hade också sin egen
regeringsform som sträcker sig från väldigt demokratisk
- om du inte var kvinna eller slav - till
helt diktatorisk. De människor som
bodde i dessa städer ansåg sig
medborgare i denna stad, inte av något som
någonsin skulle kunna kallas Grekland. Åtminstone tills
de persiska krigen.
Så mellan 490 och 480 FVT bedrev perserna krig mot de grekiska stadsstaterna. Detta var det
krig som inkluderade slaget vid Thermopylae
där tre hundra modiga Spartaner slogs mot
- Om du tror Herodotos - fem miljoner
Perser.
Chinese:
不過好的一面是我們廢了奴役（只花了2000多年）
心想事成 約翰·葛林 敬上
與希臘文化巔峰做聯想的帕德嫩神廟和埃斯庫羅斯戲劇
真正想的是在公元前第四世紀，緊接希波戰爭的雅典。
但希臘不只是雅典。希臘人住在城邦，也就是一座
城市及其緊鄰地區。
這些城邦大多都有某形式的奴役和
所有公民權僅限於男性。
抱歉女士們。
諸城邦各有政治系統
從直接民主（女人和奴隸除外）到強硬獨裁。
生活在這些城邦的人認同於自己所屬的城市，
沒有稱為希臘的地方，至少直到波斯戰爭。
公元前490至480波斯向城邦宣戰。
這場戰爭包括溫泉關之役，
期間希羅多德稱斯巴達三百壯士對抗五百萬波斯大軍，
Modern Greek (1453-):
Στα θετικά, όντως φροντίσαμε τη δουλεία. Μας πήρε μόνο 2000 χρόνια.
Με τις θερμότερες ευχές,
John Green
Όταν σκεφτόμαστε για το απόγειο του ελληνικού πολιτισμού, δίνοντας παράδειγμα τον Παρθενώνα
και τα έργα του Αισχύλου, αυτό που πραγματικά σκεφτόμαστε είναι η Αθήνα
του 4ου αιώνα π.Χ, αμέσως μετά τους Περσικούς πολέμους
Αλλά η Ελλάδα ήταν πολλά περισσότερα από την Αθήνα.
Οι Έλληνες ζούσαν σε πόλεις-κράτη που αποτελούνταν από μια πόλη και την γύρω περιοχή της.
Στις περισσότερες πόλεις υπήρχε κάποια μορφή δουλείας και σε όλες τις πόλεις δικαίωμα ψήφου είχαν
μόνο οι άντρες. Συγγνώμη κυρίες μου...
Επίσης κάθε πόλη-κράτος είχε δικό της τρόπο διακυβέρνησης, που κυμαίνόταν από πολύ δημοκρατικό
-εκτός αν ήσουν γυναίκα ή σκλάβος- έως πλήρη δικτατορικό.
Και οι άνθρωποι που ζούσαν σε αυτές τις πόλεις θεωρούσαν τους εαυτούς τους πολίτες της συγκεκριμένης πόλης
και όχι κάτι που θα μπορούσαμε ποτέ να αποκαλέσουμε Ελλάδα.
Τουλάχιστον μέχρι τους Περσικούς πολέμους.
Έτσι μεταξύ του 490 και 480 π.Χ. οι Πέρσες έκαναν πόλεμο εναντίον των ελληνικών πόλεων.
Σε αυτόν τον πόλεμο έλαβε χώρα η Μάχη των Θερμοπυλών όπου 300 γενναίοι Σπαρτιάτες
πολέμησαν -αν πιστεύετε τον Ηρόδοτο- 5 εκατομμύρια Πέρσες
Dutch:
zonnige kant, we hebben afgerekend met slavernij. Het koste ons alleen maar 2000 jaar.
Beste wensen,
John Green
Wanneer we denken aan het hoogte punt van Griekse cultuur, geïllustreerd door het Parthenon en
de toneelstukken van Aeschylus,
waar we echt over nadenken is Athene
in de 4de eeuw voor christus, net na de Perzische oorlog.
Maar Griekenland was veel meer dan Athene. Grieken leefde in stadstaten die bestonden uit een
stad en zijn omgeving.
Meeste van deze stadstaten hadden een soort van slavernij en in alle stadstaten was het burgerschap
gelimiteerd tot de mannen.
Sorry dames...
Daarnaast, had elke stadstaat zijn eigen regering, van helemaal democratisch --- tenzij
je een vrouw of slaaf was --- tot een totalitaire dictatuur.
En de mensen die in deze steden leefde waren beschouwd als burgers van de stad, niet van ook maar iets
dat ooit Griekenland genoemd wordt. Ten minste tot de Perzische oorlogen.
Dus tussen 490 en 480 voor christus, maakte de Perzen oorlog met de Griekse stadstaten. Dit was de
oorlog waaronder de slag van Thermopylae viel, waar 300 dappere Spartanen vochten --- Als je Herodotus geloofde ----
met 5 miljoen Perzen.
Vietnamese:
Thực tế, chúng tôi có quan tâm vấn đề nô lệ. Chúng tôi chỉ mất 2000 năm thôi.
Thân ái,
John Green
Khi chúng ta nghĩ về đỉnh cao của văn hóa Hy Lạp, ví dụ Parthenon và kịch của Aeschylus,
điều ta nghĩ đến thực ra là Athens vào thế kỉ 4 TCN
ngay sau các cuộc chiến tranh Ba Tư. nhưng Hy Lạp không chỉ là Athens; người Hy Lạp sống tại
các thành bang bao gồm một thành phố và vùng xung quanh. Hầu hết các thành bang
đưa ra ít nhất vài hình thức của chế độ nô lệ, và tất cả đều giới hạn quyền công dân chỉ cho đàn ông
Ngoài ra, mỗi thành bang có chính quyền riêng, từ rất dân chủ
- trừ khi bạn là phụ nữ hay một nô lệ - đến hoàn toàn độc tài. Và những người
sống ở các thành phố này tự coi mình là công dân của thành phố đó, không có cái nào
được gọi là Hy Lạp. Ít nhất là cho đến
Chiến tranh Ba Tư
Giữa 490 và 480 TCN, người Ba Tư gây chiến với các thành bang Hy Lạp. Đây là cuộc chiến
mà nổi bật là trận Thermopylae
nơi 300 chiến binh Sparta dũng cảm tham chiến
- nếu bạn tin Herodotus - 5 triệu quân
Ba Tư
French:
bon côté, on s'est occupé de l'esclavage. Ça nous a seulement pris 2000 ans.
Meilleurs voeux,
John Green
Lorsqu'on pense à l'apogée de la culture grecque, illustrée par le Parthénon et
les pièces d'Eschyle, ce à quoi on pense vraiment c'est Athènes au 4e siècle av. JC,
tout de suite après les guerres médiques. Mais la Grèce était beaucoup plus qu'Athènes: les grecques vivaient
dans des cités-États qui englobaient une cité et sa périphérie. La plupart de ces cités-États
comportaient au moins une certaine forme d'esclavage et dans chacune, la citoyenneté était réservée aux hommes. Désolé mesdames...
Aussi, chaque cité-État avait sa propre forme de gouvernement, allant de très démocratique
- sauf si vous étiez une femme ou un esclave - à la dictature totale. Et les gens qui
vivaient dans ces cités se considéraient comme des citoyens de cette cité, et non quoi que ce soit qui
qu'on pourrait appeler Grèce. Du moins jusqu'aux guerres médiques.
Donc, entre 490 et 480 av. JC, les perses ont fait la guerre aux cités-États grecques. C'est la
guerre qui comprend la bataille des Thermopyles où 300 braves Spartiates ont combattu
- si vous croyez Hérodote - 5 millions de Perses.
iw:
על הצד החיובי, טיפלנו בעבדות. וזה רק
לקח לנו אלפיים שנה.
איחולים לבביים,
ג'ון גרין
כאשר אנו חושבים על נקודת השיא של תרבות
יוון, מיוצגת ע"י הפרתנון
והמחזות של אייסכילוס, אנחנו בעצם
חושבים רק על אתונה במאה הרביעית לפנה"ס
מיד אחרי המלחמות עם הפרסים. אבל יוון
היתה הרבה יותר מאשר אתונה.
היוונים חיו בערי-מדינה אשר כללה עיר
וסביבתה. ברוב ערי-המדינה האלו
היתה עבדות בצורה זו או אחרת, ובכולן
האזרחות הוגבלה לגברים בלבד. מצטער נשים...
כמו כן, לכל אחת מערי-המדינה היתה
צורת ממשל אחרת, החל ממאוד דמוקרטית
אלא אם כן היית אישה או עבד,
עד דיקטטורה במלוא מובן המילה.
והאנשים שחיו בערים האלו ראו את עצמם
אזרחי העיר, לא של משהו שקראו לו-
"יוון". לפחות לא עד
"מלחמות פרס- יוון".
אז בין 490 לבין 480 לפנה"ס, הפרסים הכריזו
מלחמה על ערי המדינה היווניות.
זו היתה המלחמה שכללה את קרב תרמופילאי
שם שלוש מאות הספרטנים האמיצים נלחמו ב-
אם אתה מאמין להרודוטוס -
חמישה מיליון פרסים!...
Romanian:
grijă de sclavie. Ne-a luat doar două mii de ani.
Cele mai bune urări, John Green.
Când ne gândim la apogeul culturii grecești exemplificat de Parthenon
și piesele lui Eschil, ne gândim de fapt la Atena din secolul V î.Hr
chiar după războaiele cu perșii.Dar Grecia a fost mai mult decât Atena; Grecii au trăit
orașe -stat care erau formate din oraș și zona înconjurătoare. Cele mai multe dintre aceste orașe-stat
aveau cel puțin o formă de sclavie și în toate cetățenia era limitată la bărbați.În pare rău doamnelor...
De asemenea, fiecare oraș-stat avea propria sa formă de guvernare variind de la
cele foarte democratice-dacă nu erai femeie sau sclav- la cele complet dictatoriale. Și oamenii care
locuiau în aceste orașe se considerau cetățeni ai orașului nu ai
Greciei. Cel puțin până la războaiele persane.
Deci între 490 și 480 î.hr. perșii au fost în război cu orașele-stat grecești. A fost războiul
care a avut bătălia de la Termopile unde trei sute de viteji spartani s-au bătut
- dacă îl credem pe Herodot- cu cinci milioane de perși.
Thai:
และเกิดยุทธการที่มาราธอน
ซึ่งเป็นที่ราบห่างจากเอเธนส์ 26.2 ไมล์
สงครามนี้เกิดขึ้นเพราะเอเธนส์ได้ให้การสนับสนุน
ชาวกรีกไอโอเนียน
ในการก่อกบฏกับเปอร์เซียที่เมืองอานาโตเลีย ซึ่งทำให้กษัตริย์เซอร์ซิสแห่งเปอร์เซียโกรธมาก
จึงได้นำทัพไปรบกับเอเธนส์ถึงสองครั้ง เอเธนส์ได้ขอความช่วยเหลือจากนครรัฐกรีกอื่นๆ เพื่อมาช่วยทำสงคราม
และจากชัยชนะที่ได้รับร่วมกันนี่เอง
ที่ทำให้ผู้คนในกรีกเริ่มมองตัวเองว่าเป็นชาวกรีก
ไม่ใช่ชาวสปาร์ตา ชาวเอเธนส์ หรืออย่างอื่น
หลังจากนั้น เอเธนส์ก็ได้กลายเป็นเมืองหลวงของกรีก
และเข้าสู่ยุคทอง
ซึ่งเป็นอะไรที่นักประวัติศาสตร์ตั้งขึ้นมาเอง แต่ความยิ่งใหญ่ต่างๆ ก็เกิดขึ้นในยุคทองจริงๆ
รวมไปถึงมหาวิหารพาเธนอน วิหารที่กลายมาเป็นโบสถ์ จากนั้นก็เป็นสุเหร่า
และมาเป็นคลังอาวุธ จนกระทั่งมาเป็นซากปรักหักพังในปัจจุบัน
และยังมีรัฐบุรุษอย่าง เพริคลิส ผู้ได้กล่าวคำปราศัยอันโด่งดังในพิธีศพ
เกี่ยวกับประชาธิปไตยของเอเธนส์ ด้วยโวหารที่ยังร่วมสมัยอยู่จนทุกวันนี้
"ทุกคน มีค่าเท่ากันในทางกฎหมาย...
หากผู้ใดรับใช้รัฐได้ แม้เขาจะไม่ใช่บุคคลสำคัญก็ควรได้รับความยุติธรรมอย่างเท่าเทียม"
Czech:
A také bitva u Marathonu,
na planině asi 42 km od Athén.
Celá válka začala, protože Athéňané
podpořili již dříve zmíněné Ióny
při jejich povstání
v Malé Asii proti Peršanům.
To tak naštvalo perského velkokrále
Xerxe, že vedl dvě významná tažení
proti Athéňanům a Athéňané naverbovali
všechny ostatní řecké městské státy.
Jako následek tohoto
sdíleného řeckého vítězství se Řekové
začali vidět jako Řekové, spíše než
jako Sparťané nebo Athéňané a tak.
Pak se Athény staly de facto
hlavním městem a zažily zlatý věk,
což je něco,
co si vymysleli historici.
Během zlatého věku se stalo
mnoho velkých věcí i Parthenon, chrám,
který byl jeden čas kostelem,
pak mešitou a pak zbrojnicí,
než se konečně
uvelebil v podobě ruiny.
Byli tu také státníci jako Periklés,
jehož slavná pohřební řeč vychvaluje
zlatou demokracii
Athén prázdnými řečmi,
které by se
neztratily ani v dnešním světě.
"Podíváme-li se
na zákony, umožňují stejné
zacházení se všemi
i v jejich soukromých odlišnostech.
Pokud je člověk schopen sloužit státu,
nejsou tyto odlišnosti překážkou."
English:
And also the battle of Marathon, which is
a plain about 26.2 miles away from Athens.
The whole war started because Athens supported
those aforementioned Ionian Greeks when they
were rebelling in Anatolia against the Persians.
That made the Persian king Xerxes mad, so
he led two major campaigns against the Athenians,
and the Athenians enlisted the help of all
the other Greek city-states. And in the wake
of that shared Greek victory, the Greeks began
to see themselves as Greeks, rather than as
Spartans, or Athenians or whatever.
And then Athens emerged as the de facto capital
of Greece and then got to experience a Golden
Age, which is something that historians make
up. But a lot of great things did happen during
the Golden Age, including the Parthenon, a
temple that became a church and then a mosque
and then an armory until finally settling
into its current gig as a ruin.
You also had statesmen like Pericles, whose
famous funeral oration brags about the golden
democracy of Athens with rhetoric that wouldn’t
sound out of place today. “If we look to
the laws, they afford equal justice to all
in their private differences... if a man is
able to serve the state, he is not hindered
by the obscurity of his condition.”
Portuguese:
E também teve a batalha de Maratona, localizada cerca de 42 quilometros de Atenas.
Toda a história começou porque Atenhas apoiou os sortudos Gregos Jônicos que
estavam se rebelando em Anatolia, contra os persas.
Isso deixou Xerxes, o rei Persa enfurecido, então ele provocou as duas maiores campanhas contra Atenas
e os atenienses pediram ajuda para todas as cidades estado gregas.
Isso despertou o sentimento de pertencimento, os Gregos começaram a se ver como Gregos
assim como se viam como Espartanos e Atenienses, ou vocês entenderam.
E quando Atenas estava se tornando a capital da Grécia, deu inicio a Era
De Ouro, como os historiadores chamam essa época.
Mas, muitas coisas legais aconteceram na Era de Ouro, incluindo o Parthenon
uma templo que se tornou uma igreja, depois um mosteiro, depois um forte até ser destruído,
chegando nas ruínas que conhecemos hoje.
Tem tinha representante de Estado como Pericles que durante um famoso discurso, falou sobre
a grandeza da democracia de Atenas, com argumentos que funcionariam ainda hoje.
"Se nós olharmos para as leis, elas nos garantem igualdade de justiça para todos, em suas particularidades
... se um homem é capaz de servir ao exercito, e não se esconder na obscuridade da sua condição."
Vietnamese:
và cả trận đánh ở Marathon, một đồng bằng cách Athens khoảng 26,2 dặm
Toàn bộ cuộc chiến bắt đầu vì Athens ủng hộ người Hy Lạp Ionian nói trên khi họ
nổi dậy ở Anatolia chống lại người Ba Tư.Điều đó khiến vua Ba Tư Xerxes nổi giận,
ông chỉ huy hai chiến dịch lớn chống lại người Athen, và người Athens tranh thủ sự giúp đỡ
từ thành bang Hi Lạp khác. Theo sau thắng lợi chung đó, người Hi Lạp bắt đầu
tự coi mình là người Hi Lạp, hơn là người Sparta hay Athens
Rồi Athen nổi lên là thủ đô trên thực tế của Hi Lạp và trải qua Thời đại vàng
thứ mà các sử gia nghĩ ra. Nhưng nhiều thứ tuyệt vời đã thật sự
diễn ra ở Thời đại vàng, gồm Parthenon, ngôi đền mà sau trở thành nhà thờ, rồi nhà thờ Hồi giáo
rồi kho vũ khí tới khi trở thành như hiện tại là một tàn tích
Có cả các chính khách như Pericles, người có diễn văn trong tang lễ nổi tiếng khoe khoang
nền dân chủ vàng Athens với những lời nói ngày nay nghe vẫn phù hợp
"Nếu chúng ta đẻ ý đến các luật lệ, chúng ban công bằng cho tất cả trong chính sự khác biệt về cá nhân của họ
nếu một người có thể phụng sự đất nước, anh ta không bị cản trở bởi hoàn cảnh tăm tối của mình"
Chinese:
離雅典26.2英里的馬拉松之役。
（碰巧是馬拉松賽跑全程）
戰爭起因是雅典支持希臘裔愛奧尼亞人
起義反抗波斯。
波斯帝王薛西斯一怒則兩次出兵討伐雅典，
而雅典尋求希臘其他城邦協助。
希臘團結勝仗便開始自我認為希臘人，
不再只是各城邦的人。
雅典後來事實上成希臘首都。
隨後經歷歷史學家捏造的「黃金時期」。
此時有許多成就，例如
建設帕德嫩神廟（後改做教堂、清真寺、彈藥庫，至今用途是廢墟）
此時也出如伯利克里的政治家，他發表《國殤講詞》中
誇耀民主金黃時期口吻在今天發表也不為過。
「法律上每位市民無論如何都平等
若任何人能為國效力，他必不被外在因素否決。」
這種用詞意境清高
Russian:
А также битва при Марафоне, равнине приблизительно в 26,2 милях (42 км) от Афин.
Война началась, потому что Афины поддержали упомянутых выше ионийцев,
когда они восстали против персов в Анатолии.
Это разозлило персидского короля Ксеркса, так что он провёл два похода против Афинян.
А Афины в свою очередь обратились за помощью к остальным греческим городам.
После совместной победы греки стали считать себя собственно греками,
а не спартанцами, афинянами или ещё кем.
А потом Афины де-факто стали греческой столицей и начался их золотой век.
Который придумали историки.
Но многое произошло в этот золотой век.
Включая Парфенонон. Храм, который стал церковью, потом мечетью, потом арсеналом,
и в конце концов сейчас остановился на своей текущей роли руин.
Ещё там были государственные деятели вроде Перикла, который в своей надгробной речи
воспевал золотую демократию Афин такими словами, которые актуально звучат и по сей день.
"По отношению к частным интересам законы наши предоставляют равноправие для всех...
...скромность звания не служит бедняку препятствием к деятельности, если только он может оказать какую-либо услугу государству."
Arabic:
وكذلك معركة ماراثون،
وهو سهل يبعد 26،2 ميلًا عن أثينا.
بدأت الحرب كلها لأن أثينا
ساندت الإغريق الأيونيين آنفي الذكر
في تمردهم في الأناضول ضد الفرس.
أثار هذا سخط الملك الفارسي أحشويروش،
فقاد حملتين عسكريتين كبيرتين ضد الأثينيين،
فلجأ الأثينيون بدورهم
إلى سائر دول المدن اليونانية الأخرى للمساعدة.
وفي أعقاب ذلك النصر اليوناني المشترك،
بدأ الإغريق ينظرون إلى أنفسهم على أنهم إغريق
بدلًا من اسبارطيين أو أثينيين أو أيًا كان،
ثم اعتُبرت أثينا عاصمة اليونان القديمة
بحكم الأمر الواقع،
ومن ثم حظيت بعصر ذهبي،
وهو شيء من ابتكار المؤرخين.
ولكن أشياء كثيرة عظيمة حدثت بالفعل خلال
العصر الذهبي، بما في ذلك معبد البارثينون،
وهو معبد أصبح كنيسة ثم مسجدًا ثم مستودع أسلحة،
إلى أن استقر في نهاية المطاف
على وضعه الحالي كأطلال أثرية.
كما كان هناك أيضًا رجالات دولة أمثال بريكليس،
والذي تفاخر في خطاب تأبينه الشهير
بديمقراطية أثينا الذهبية بلغة طنانة
شبيهة بلغة سياسيي عصرنا.
"إن القوانين تضمن العدالة بالتساوي للجميع
بغض النظر عن اختلافاتهم الخاصة.
فإذا كان الرجل قادرًا على خدمة الدولة،
فإن خمول ذكره لن يمنعه عن ذلك".
Romanian:
Și de asemenea bătălia de la Maraton care e o câmpie la 26,2 mile distanță de Atena.
Războiul a început din cauză că Atenienii i-au sprijinit pe înainte menționații greci ionieni
când ei s-au revoltat în Anatolia împotriva perșilor. Asta l-a înfuriat pe regele Xerxes,
deci el a condus două mari campanii împotriva atenienilor și Atenienii au fost ajutați
de alte orașe-stat grecești.Și în bucuria victoriei împărtășite, Grecii au început
să se vadă pe sine ca Greci mai mult decât spartani sau atenieni sau oricare ar fi fost.
Și Atena s-a ridicat drept capitala de facto a Greciei și a trecut printr-o
Epocă de Aur așa cum spun istoricii. Dar o mulțime de lucruri mărețe s-au întâmplat în timpul
Epocii de Aur, inclusiv Parthenonul, un templu care a devenit biserică apoi moschee
și apoi depozit de arme până în final a ajuns o ruină.
L-a avut de asemenea pe omul de stat Pericle, al cărui faimos discurs funerar laudă
democrația de aur a Atenei cu o retorică care n-ar suna străin astăzi: Dacă privim
la legi, ele permit dreptate egală pentru toți în probleme private... dacă un om e
capabil să servească statul, el nu este împiedicat de obscuritatea condiției sale.
Modern Greek (1453-):
Και επίσης τη μάχη του Μαραθώνα, που είναι μια πεδιάδα 42 χιλιόμετρα μακριά από την Αθήνα
Ο πόλεμος ξεκίνησε επειδή η Αθήνα υποστήριζε τους Ίωνες που προαναφέραμε,
οι οποίοι επαναστάτησαν στην Ανατολία κατά των Περσών
Αυτό έκανε έξαλλο τον Πέρση βασιλιά Ξέρξη, έτσι έκανε δυο μεγάλες εκστρατείες εναντίων των Αθηναίων
και οι Αθηναίοι ζήτησαν τη βοήθεια από όλες τις υπόλοιπες πόλεις-κράτη.
Και στον απόηχο της αυτής της κοινής Ελληνικής νίκης, οι Έλληνες άρχισαν να θεωρούν τους εαυτούς τους Έλληνες
παρά σαν Σπαρτιάτες, Αθηναίους ή οτιδήποτε.
Και τότε η Αθήνα αναδείχθηκε σαν de facto πρωτεύουσα της Ελλάδας και τότε γνώρισε έναν Χρυσό Αιώνα
που είναι κάτι που επινόησαν οι ιστορικοί
Αλλά πολλά σπουδαία γεγονότα όντως συνέβησαν τον Χρυσό Αιώνα, συμπεριλαμβανομένου του Παρθενώνα,
ενός ναού που έγινε εκκλησία, μετά τέμενος και μετά οπλοστάσιο,
μέχρι που πήρε τη σημερινή του μορφή σαν ερείπιο.
Είχατε επίσης πολιτικούς όπως ο Περικλής, του οποίου ο διάσημος "Επιτάφιος"
καυχιέται για τη Χρυσή Αθηναϊκή Δημοκρατιά με ρητορική που δεν διαφέρει από τη σημερινή
"Αν δούμε τους νόμους, προσφέρουν ισονομία σε όλους με τις προσωπικές τους διαφορές...
Αν ένας άνδρας είναι ικανός να υπηρετήσει το κράτος, δεν παρεμποδίζεται από αδιαφάνεια της κατάστασής του."
iw:
וגם את קרב מרתון, שנמצאת
במישור במרחק 42 קילומטרים מאתונה.
המלחמה כולה התחילה בגלל שאתונה תמכה
ביוונים יוניים שהזכרנו קודם
בשעה שהם התמרדו באנטוליה נגד הפרסים.
זה הטריף את המלך הפרסי סרקסס (אחשוורוש)
אז הוא הוביל שני מערכות עיקריות אל מול האתונאים,
והאתונאים גייסו את עזרתם של -
כל ערי-המדינה היוונית האחרות. וכתוצאה מניצחון משותף זה, היוונים החלו לראות עצמם כ-"יווניים"
ולא פשוט כספרטנים, אתונאים וכולי...
ואז אתונה הגיחה כבירה דה-פקטו
של יוון והחלה את תור זהב שלה
שזו הגדרה שהיסטוריונים אוהבים להמציא,
אבל הרבה דברים קרו במהלך תור הזהב,
כולל הפרתנון,
מקדש שהפך לכנסייה ולאחר מכן למסגד
ואז לנשקייה עד שלבסוף הפך
לחלטורה הנוכחית שלו כחורבה.
היו לנו גם מדינאים כמו פריקלס,
שנאום ההספד המפורסם שלו בו הוא מתרברב
על הדמוקרטיה המדהימה של אתונה עם רטוריקה שלא היתה נשמעת מוזרה היום.
"אם נסתכל על החוק, הוא מתנה צדק שווה לכל,
ללא הבדלים... אם אדם מסוגל לשרת את המדינה
הוא לא מוגבל כאדם
על ידי מצבו האישי."
Dutch:
En ook de slag om Marathon, wat een vlakte is van ongeveer 26,2 mijl van Athene.
Deze hele oorlog startte omdat Athene de al genoemde Ionische Grieken hielp toen zij
tegen Perzië aan het rebelleren waren in Anatolia.
Dat maakte de Perzische koning Xerxes boos waardoor hij 2 grote acties voerde tegen de Atheners,
en de Atheners haalde de hulp van alle andere Griekse stadstaten.
In het begin van die Griekse overwinning begonnen de Grieken zichzelf ook te zien als Grieken
in plaats van Spartanen of Atheners of wat dan ook.
En toen de Atheners eindigde als de hoofdstad van Griekenland onderging het ook een gouden
eeuw, wat iets is dat historici verzinnen.
Maar een hoop goede dingen gebeurde in deze gouden eeuw, waaronder het Parthenon, een
tempel die een kerk werd en toen een moskee en toen een arsenaal totdat het uiteindelijk werd
verandert tot zijn huidige benoeming als ruïne.
Je had ook staatslieden zoals Pericles, die bekend waren voor hun grafrede die opschept over de gouden
democratie van Athene wiens retoriek niet misplaatst zou zijn vandaag de dag.
"Als we kijken naar de wet, geven zij gelijke recht aan alle met hun privé verschillen
.... Als een man mogelijk is om de staat te dienen, hij niet gehinderd is door de duisternis van zijn conditie."
Turkish:
Bir de Maraton Savaşı var. Atina'dan 26.2 mil (42.2 km) uzaklıktaki Maraton ovasında gerçekleşti.
Bütün savaşın nedeni Atina'nın, İyonya Yunanlarını Anandolu'da, Perslere
karşı isyan edince desteklemesiydi.
Bu Pers kralı Serhas'ı o kadar kızdırdı ki Atinalılara karşı iki büyük saldırı düzenledi ve
Atinalılar diğer Yunan şehir-devletlerden yardım istedi.
Yunan zaferinden sonra Yunanlar kendini Atinalı, Spartalı veya başka
bir şey yerine Yunan olarak görmeye başladı.
Atina kendiliğinden Yunanistan'ın başkenti oldu ve altın çağını yaşadı.
Tarihçilerin uydurduğu bir şey.
Yine de Altın Çağ'da büyük şeyler oldu. Mesela, Partenon, tapınak olarak
inşa edilen ama sonra kilise, sonra cami, daha sonra cephanelik ve son olarak
bir ören yeri inşa edildi.
Bir de devlet adamı Perikles yaşadı. Ünlü cenaze nutkunda Atina'nın altın
demokrasisinden bahseder ki günümüzden çok uzak bir üslup kullanmaz.
"Eğer kanunlara bakarsak, kendi özel farklılıklarıyla herkese eşit adalet sağlarlar...
eğer bir adam devlet hizmet edebiliyorsa kendi unutulmuşluğundan kurtulur."
Spanish:
Y también la batalla de Maratón, que es una planicie a unos 42 kilómetros de Atenas.
La guerra comenzó porque Atenas apoyaba a los mencionados jonios cuando se estaban
rebelando en Anatolia contra los persas.
Eso hizo enojar al rey persa, Jerjes, asi que inició dos campañas contra los atenienses,
y los atenienses pidieron la ayuda de todas las otras ciudades-estado griegas.
Y a raíz de esa victoria griega compartida, los griegos comenzaron a verse a sí mismos como griegos
en lugar de espartanos o atenienses o lo que sea.
Y entonces Atenas surgió como la capital de facto de Grecia y luego llegó a experimentar una Edad
de Oro, que es algo que los historiadores inventan.
Pero muchas cosasimportantes ocurrieron durante la Edad de Oro, incluyendo el Partenón,
un templo que se volvió una iglesia, y luego una mezquita, y luego una armería, hasta finalmente
convertirse en su estado actual: Una ruina.
También tenías políticos como Pericles, cuyo famoso Discurso Fúnebre se jacta de la democracia
dorada de Atenas con una retórica que no suena fuera de lugar hoy en día.
"[...] Si observamos las leyes, las mismas brindan igualdad de justicia para todos en sus diferencias privadas [...]
[...] si un hombre es capaz de servir al Estado, él no es relegado por la oscuridad de su condición. "
Polish:
Oraz bitwa pod Maratonem , która toczyła się około 26.2 mil od Aten.
Cała wojna zaczęła się bo Ateńczycy wsparli wymienionych już wcześniej Jońskich Greków , kiedy oni
wzniecili powstanie w Anatolii przeciw Persom.
To sprawiło, że Perski król Kserkes tak się wściekł że zorganizował dwie kampanie wojskowe przeciw Ateńczykom
a Ateńczycy poprosili o pomoc inne greckie miasta.
W rezultacie tego wspólnego zwycięstwa, Grecy zaczęli widzieć siebie bardziej jako Greków
niż jako Spartę , Ateny czy cokolwiek innego.
Wtedy Ateny wyrosły de facto na stolicę Grecji i doświadczyły Złotej Ery
przynajmniej tak to nazywają historycy.
Ale pełno świetnych rzeczy wydarzyło się podczas Złotej Ery, w tym Panteon
czyli świątynia , która stała się kościołem , następnie meczem potem zbrojownią a na końcu
zamieniła się obecną ruinę.
Zapewne znacie też mężów stanu jak Perykles , którego słynna mowa pogrzebowa wychwalała złotą
demokracją w Atenach z retoryką niespotykaną w dzisiejszych czasach.
Jeśli spojrzymy na prawa , to dawały one równość wszystkim w ich prywatnych sporach
...jeśli mężczyzna jest w stanie służyć swojemu miastu , nie może być dyskryminowany względu na swoje pochodzenie.
German:
und die Schlacht von Marathon, was ungefährt 26,2 Meilen [ca. 42.2 km] von Athen entfernt liegt
Der ganze Krieg begann, weil Athen die bereits erwähnten Ionischen Griechen unterstützte, als diese
in Anatolien gegen die Perser rebellierten.
Das machte den persischen König Xerxes wütend, sodass er zwei große Kämpfe gegen Athen ausfocht,
und die Athener holten sich Hilfe bei den anderen griechischen Stadtstaaten.
Und infolge dieses gemeinsamen griechischen Sieges begannen die Griechen, sich selbst als Griechen zu sehen
statt als Spartaner oder Athener oder was auch immer.
Und dann wurde Athen die Hauptstadt von Griechenland und erlebte ein goldenes Zeitalter,
was etwas ist, dass sich Historiker ausdenken.
Doch es passierten eine Menge toller Sachen in diesem goldenen Zeitalter, einschließlich des Parthenon, ein
Temple, der eine Kirche wurde und dann eine Moschee und dann eine Waffenkammer und schließlich
dann eine Ruine - sein heutiger Zustand.
Es gab auch Staatsmänner wie Perikles, dessen berühmte Gefallenenrede von der goldenen
Demokratie Athens mit einer Rhetorik schwärmt, die auch heute nicht fehl am Platz wäre.
"Wenn wir auf die Gesetze schauen, bieten sie gleiche Gerechtigkeit für alle mit all ihren privaten Verschiedenheiten
... wenn ein Mann in der Lage ist dem Staat zu dienen, wird er nicht durch die Misslichkeit seiner Lage davon abgehalten."
Hungarian:
Ekkor volt a marathóni csata is, ami
úgy 40 km-re van Athéntól.
Az egész háború azért kezdődött,
mert Athén támogatta a jón görögöket,
amikor fellázadtak a perzsák ellen Anatóliában.
Ez persze feldühítette Xerxész perzsa királyt,
úgyhogy két nagy hadjáratot indított Athén ellen, akik az összes többi városállam segítségét igénybe vették.
A görög győzelem nyomán éledt fel az egységes görög nemzeti tudat,
az emberek már görögnek látták magukat, nem pedig spártainak, vagy athéninek, vagy másnak.
Athén vált Görögország fővárosává, és ekkor élte Görögország az Aranykorát,
ami egy olyan név, amit a történészek találtak ki. Számos szuper dolog köthető
az Aranykorhoz, köztük a Parthenon, a
templom ami aztán mecsetté vált,
majd egy fegyverraktárrá, míg végül elérte jelenlegi szerepét: antik rom lett belőle.
Ekkor élt a nagy államférfi: Periklész, aki híres az elesett athéniak temetésén mondott beszédéről, amiben kérked
az athéni demokráciáról, és amit olyan remek retorikával mondott, amely a mai napig megállná a helyét:
„Törvényeink szerint a személyes ügyeket tekintve mindenki egyenjogú, [...] itt nem a társadalmi helyzet, hanem a kiválóság ér többet,
és ha valaki olyasmire képes, ami a város javára van, szegény sorsa és így jelentéktelen társadalmi rangja nem áll útjában."
Swedish:
Och även slaget vid Marathon, som är
en slätt cirka 26,2 miles från Aten.
Hela kriget började för Aten gav stöd
till de ovannämnda joniska grekerna när de
gjorde uppror i Anatolien mot perserna.
Det gjorde den persiske kungen Xerxes galen, så
han ledde två stora kampanjer mot Atenarna,
och Atenarna tog hjälp av alla
de andra grekiska stadsstaterna. I kölvattnet
av den delade grekiska seger, började grekerna
att se sig själva som greker, snarare än som
Spartaner, eller Atenarna eller något annat.
Sedan blev Aten den de facto huvudstaden av
Grekland och fick uppleva en gyllene
ålder, vilket är något som historiker gör
upp. Men en hel del bra saker hände under
guldåldern, inklusive Parthenon, ett
tempel som blev en kyrka och sedan en moské
och sedan en arsenal tills slutligen den fick
sitt nuvarande gig som ruin.
Du hade också statsmän som Perikles, vars
berömda liktal skryter om den gyllene
demokratin i Aten med retorik som inte skulle
låta udda idag. "Om vi ser till
lagarna, de ger lika rättvisa för alla
i deras privata skillnader ... om man
kan tjäna staten, han ska inte hindras
på grund av hans tillstånd. "
Finnish:
Lisäksi käytiin Marathonin taistelu, joka on tasanko 42km päässä Ateenasta.
Koko sota syttyi, koska Ateenalaiset tukivat edellä mainittuja Joonian kreikkalaisia kun he
kapinoivat Anatoliassa persialaisia vastaan.
Tämä suututti Persian kuninkaan Kserkseksen, joten hän johti kahta sotaretkeä Ateenalaisia vastaan,
ja Ateenalaiset pestasivat apua muista kaupunkivaltioista.
Jaetun Kreikan voiton herättäminä kreikkalaiset alkoivat nähdä itsensä kreikkalaisina
enemmän kuin spartalaisina tai ateenalaisina tai muina sellaisina.
Ja sitten Ateenasta muodostui tosiasiallinen Kreikan pääkaupunki ja sai kokea
Kulta-ajan, jonka historoitsijat ovat sepittäneet.
Mutta paljon hyviä asioita tapahtui Kulta-aikana, mukaanlukien Parthenon,
temppleli, josta tuli kirkko ja sitten moskeija ja sitten arsenaali, kunnes vihdoin vakiintui
nykyiseen hommaansa raunioina.
Oli myös valtiomiehiä kuten Perikles, jonka kuuluisa hautajaispuhe kerskuu Ateenan
kultaista demokratiaa puhetaidolla, joka sopisi tähän päiväänkin.
"Jos tarkastelemme lakeja, ne tarjoavat tasa-arvoista oikeutta kaikille heidän erilaisuuksissaan
... jos mies pystyy palvelemaan valtiota, häntä ei estä tilansa epämääräisyys."
French:
Et également la bataille de Marathon, qui est une plaine à environ 42,2 km d'Athènes.
La guerre a commencé parce qu'Athènes supportaient les Grecs Ioniens susmentionnés lors qu'ils
se sont rebellés en Anatolie contre les Perses. Ça a fâché le roi Perse Xerxès, donc
il a mené deux campagnes majeurs contre les Athéniens et les Athéniens ont demandé l'aide de toutes
les autres cités-États grecques. À la suite de cette victoire partagée des Grecs, ils ont commencé
à se voir comme étant Grecs, plutôt qu'étant Spartiates ou Athéniens ou peu importe.
Puis Athènes a émergé comme la capitale de facto de la Grèce et a vécu son âge d'or,
ce qui est une invention des historiens.
Mais beaucoup de choses se sont produites pendant cet âge d'or, incluant le Parthénon,
un temple qui est devenu une église, puis une mosquée, puis un arsenal,
avant de se stabiliser comme attraction en tant que ruine.
Il y avait aussi des hommes d'État comme Périclès, dont le fameux discours funéraire vante la démocracie
d'Athène avec une rhétorique qui ne semblerait pas hors propos aujourd'hui.
"Si nous regardons les lois, elles permettent une justice égale pour tous dans leurs différences individuelles.
Si un homme est capable de servir l'État, il n'est pas gêné par l'obscurité de son état."
Portuguese:
Quando você combina essa teoria bem desenvolvida com o inconfundível poder da beleza
da arte e da filosofia que foi criada na Atenhas antiga, não é difícil ver
a fundação da civilização Ocidental.
E se você acreditar nisso, deveria ficar agradecido pelos gregos terem ganhado as Guerras Persas.
Mas mesmo se você deixar a escravidão de lado junto com outras injustiças, ainda
é complicada.
Tenho mesmo que dizer isso, sério? Ótimo, complicado, bem aquele na cidade junto a capital T
que rima com P e onde estava a guerra do Peloponeso.
O discurso de Pericles aconteceu em uma guerra mais tarde, durante a Guerra do Peloponeso, ela durou 30 anos e
foi um conflito entre Atenas e Esparta.
Os Espartanos não abraçaram a democracia e sim uma monarquia ditatorial
porque havia uma enorme classe de escravos brutais e mal tratados.
Mas para ser claro, a guerra não foi motivada por Atenas tentando transformar Esparta em uma democracia
dificilmente há guerras assim.
Ela foi sobre recurso e poder, e os Atenienses que inocentemente tinha tudo isso,
como mostra o famoso Diálogo de Melian.
Vamos para Thought Bubble
Então, uma das histórias mais famosas da guerra do Peloponeso foi a passagem de Tucídides.
Os atenienses
Polish:
Kiedy połączymy tą wysoko lotną retorykę z niezaprzeczalną siłą i pięknem
sztuki i filozofii , które powstały w starożytnych Atenach , nie jest trudno widzieć to jako fundamenty
Zachodniej Cywilizacji
I jeśli to kupujesz , musisz się cieszyć że to Grecy wygrali Wojny Perskie.
Ale nawet jeśli odkładasz na bok niewolnictwo i inne niesprawiedliwości w Greckim społeczeństwie
to ciągle masz problem
Mowa pogrzebowa Peryklesa pochodzi z ostatniej wojny , Wojny Peloponeskiej
30 letnim konflikcie między Atenami a Spartą.
Spartianie nie przyjęli demokracji , zamiast tego wprowadzili system królów
który funkcjonował tylko dzięki dużej dozie brutalności w stosunku do niewolników.
Ale żeby być szczerym, powodem wojny nie była chęć Aten do wprowadzenia demokracji w Sparcie.
wojny rzadko o to się toczą.
Konflikt był o zasoby i siłę. I Ateńczycy nie byli do końca święci w tym wszystkim
jak zaświadcza słynny dialog Meliana
Użyjmy "Thought Bubble"
Jedną z najsłynniejszych historii opisanych przez Tukidydesa w Wojnie Peloponeskiej jest wyprawa Ateńczyków
English:
When you combine that high-minded rhetoric
with the undeniable power and beauty of the
art and philosophy that was created in ancient
Athens, it’s not hard to see it as the foundation
of Western civilization. And if you buy into
this, you have to be glad that the Greeks
won the Persian Wars. But even if you put
aside the slavery and other injustices in
Greek society, there’s still trouble.
Do I have to say it, seriously? FINE. TROUBLE
RIGHT HERE IN RIVER CITY WITH A CAPITAL T
AND THAT RHYMES WITH P AND THAT STANDS FOR
PELOPONNESE.
Pericles’s funeral oration comes from a
later war, The Peloponnesian War, a thirty
year conflict between the Athenians and the
Spartans. The Spartans did not embrace democracy
but instead embraced a kingship that functioned
only because of a huge class of brutally mistreated
slaves. But to be clear, the war was not about
Athens trying to get Sparta to embrace democratic
reform; wars rarely are. It was about resources
and power. And the Athenians were hardly saintly
in all of this, as evidenced by the famous
Melian Dialogue. Let’s go to the Thought Bubble.
So in one of the most famous passages of Thucydides’
history of the Peloponnesian War, the Athenians
Modern Greek (1453-):
Και όταν συνδυαστεί αυτή η υψηλής ηθικής ρητορική με την αδιαμφισβήτητη δύναμη και ομορφιά
της τέχνης και της φιλοσοφίας που δημιουργήθηκε στην αρχαία Αθήνα,
δεν είναι δύσκολο να το δει κανείς σαν τα θεμέλια του δυτικού πολιτισμού.
Και αν το πιστέψεις αυτό, θα πρέπει να νιώθεις περήφανος που οι Έλληνες κέρδισαν τους Περσικούς πολέμους.
Αλλά ακόμα και αν παραμερίσεις τη σκλαβιά και άλλες αδικίες στην ελληνική κοινωνία
υπάρχει ακόμα πρόβλημα.
Πρέπει να το πω? Σοβαρά? Εντάξει. Πρόβλημα
Ακριβώς εδώ στην River City με κεφαλαίο Τ που κάνει ρίμα με το Π που σημαίνει Πελοπόννησος.
Ο "Επιτάφιος" προέρχεται από έναν μεταγενέστερο πόλεμο, τον Πελοποννησιακό,
ο οποίος ήταν μια τριακονταετής διαμάχη μεταξύ Αθηναίων και Σπαρτιατών.
Οι Σπαρτιάτες δεν υιοθέτησαν τη δημοκρατία, αντιθέτως είχαν βασιλεία η οποία ήταν λειτουργική
μόνο επειδή υπήρχε μια τάξη βάναυσα κακομεταχειρισμένων σκλάβων.
Αλλά για να είμαστε ξεκάθαροι, ο πόλεμος δεν έγινε για να αναγκάσουν οι Αθηναίοι τους Σπαρτιάτες να υιοθετήσουν δημοκρατικές μεταρρυθμίσεις.
σπάνια το κάνουν αυτό οι πόλεμοι
Έγινε για τους πόρους και τη δύναμη. Και οι Αθηναίοι δεν ήταν άγιοι σε όλο αυτό,
όπως αποδείχθηκε από το διάσημο διάλογο Αθηναίων-Μηλίων.
Ας πάμε στη Φούσκα της Σκέψης
Σε ένα, λοιπόν, από τα πιο γνωστά εδάφια στην Θουκυδίδου Ιστορία του Πελοποννησιακού πολέμου,
οι Αθηναίοι έπλευσαν στη Μήλο, που ήταν αποικία της Σπάρτης,
German:
Wenn man diese hochgeistige Rhetorik mit der unbestreitbaren Kraft und Schönheit der
Kunst und Philosophie kombiniert, die im alten Athen erschaffen wurden, ist es nicht schwer, das als die Gründung
der westlichen Zivilisation zu sehen.
Und wenn man das so sieht, muss man froh sein, dass die Griechen die Perserkriege gewonnen haben.
Doch selbst wenn man die Sklaverei und andere Ungerechtigkeiten in der griechen Gesellschaft außer Ach lässt, gibt
es noch immer Probleme.
Muss ich es wirklich sagen? Na gut. Probleme genau hier in einer Stadt am Fluss mit einem großen T,
das sich auf P reimt und das steht für "peloponnesisch".
Perikles' Gefallenenrede stammt aus einem späteren krieg, dem Peloponnessichen Krieg, einem 30 Jahre
andauernden Konflikt zwischen Athen und den Spartanern.
Die Spartaner hatten keine Demokratie sondern stattdessen ein Königtum, das nur aufgrund einer großen Gruppe
brutal mishandelter Sklaven funktionierte.
Um das klarzustellen, in dem Krieg ging es nicht darum, dass Athen versucht hätte, Sparta zur
Demkoratie zu bewegen; darum geht es in Kriegen selten.
Es ging um Ressourcen und um Macht. Und die Athener haben sich darin kaum heilig verhalten,
wie man im berühmten Melierdialog sehen kann.
Lasst uns zur Thought Bubble kommen.
In einer der berühmtesten Passagen aus Thukydides' Geschichte des Peloponnesischen Krieges, segelten die Athener
Swedish:
När du kombinerar denna högsinnade retorik
med den obestridliga makt och skönhet
hos konsten och filosofin som skapades i det gamla
Aten, är det inte svårt att se det som grunden
för den västerländska civilisationen. Och om du köper det här måste du vara glad att grekerna
vann persiska krigen. Men även om du bortser från slaveri och andra orättvisor i
Grekiska samhället finns fortfarande problem.
Måste jag säga det, allvarigt? Ok. PROBLEM!
Här i River City med stort T
OCH som rimmar med P OCH som står för
Peloponnesos.
Pericles begravningstal kommer från ett
senare krig, det peloponnesiska kriget, en trettio
år lång konflikt mellan Atenarna och
Spartanerna. Spartanerna anammade inte demokrati
utan anammade istället ett kungadöme som bara fungerade
på grund av en stor klass av brutalt misshandlade
slavar. Men för att vara tydlig, kriget var inte om att
Aten försökte få Sparta att omfamna demokratiska
reformer; krig är sällan det. Det handlade om resurser
och makt. Atenarna var knappast helgonlika
i allt detta, vilket framgår av den kända
Melian dialogen. Låt oss kolla på tankebubblan.
Så i en av de mest kända passager av Thukydides
historia om det peloponnesiska kriget,
Finnish:
Kun yhdistää korkea mielisen puhetaidon kiistämättömällä voimalla ja taiteen
kauneuden ja filosofian, joka tulee muinaisesta Kreikasta, ei ole vaikea huomata sitä pohjana
Läntiselle sivilisaatiolle.
Jos sinua kiinnostaa tämä, sinun on oltava iloinen, että kreikkalaiset voittivat persialaissodat.
Vaikka sivuutat orjuuden ja muut vääryydet kreikkalaisessa yhteiskunnassa, on vielä
olemassa ongelmia.
Onko minun sanottava se oikeasti? Okei. Ongelmia juuri täällä jokikaupungissa, joka alkaa T:llä,
joka rimmaa P:n kanssa ja kannattaa peloponnesoslaisia.~
Perikleen hautajaispuhe tulee myöhäisemmästä sodasta, Peloponnesolaissodasta, 30 vuotinen
konflikti Ateenan ja Spartan välillä.
Spartalaiset eivät suosineet demokratiaa, mutta sen sijaan suosivat kuninkuutta, joka toimi
vain suuren, julmasti kaltoinkohtellun orjajoukon ansiosta.
Selvennökseksi sotaa ei käyty, jotta Ateena saisi Spartan suosimaan demokratiaa;
sotia harvoin käydään sen vuoksi.
Sitä käytiin resurssien ja vallan takia. Ateenalaiset tuskin olivat pyhimyksiä tässä kaikessa,
kuten huomataan kuuluisasta Melos-dialogista.
Mennäänpä Ajatuskuplaan.
Yhdessä kuuluisimmista Thukydideen Peloponnesolaissodan historian otteessa ateenalaiset
Russian:
И когда вы прибавите к этой высокоморальной реторике всю красоту и силу
искусства и философии, которые были созданы в античных Афинах,
то становится нетрудно разглядеть в этом фундамент западной цивилизации.
И если вы на это купились, то вы должны быть рады, что греки выиграли Греко-персидские войны.
Но даже если забыть про рабство и другие несправедливости греческого общества, то проблемы всё равно были
Я должен сказать это?
Серьёзно?
Хорошо.
Проблема. Вот здесь. В городе на реке на букву Т. Рифмуется на П и значит Пелопонесс.
Надгробная речь Перикла была произнесены после более позденй войны - Пелопонесской.
Это был 30-летний конфликт
между афинянами и спартанцами.
Спартанам не нравилась демократия, зато им была по душе олигархия,
которая держалась лишь за счёт огромного числа ужасно угнетаемых рабов.
Но, честно говоря, война была не из-за того, что Афины хотели заставить Спарту провести демократические реформы.
Из-за этого редко случаются войны.
Всё было из-за ресурсов и власти.
И афиняне в этом деле были отнюдь не святошами.
Свидетельством чего является известный Мелосский диалог.
Давайте обратимся к Thought Bubble.
Итак, в одном из самых известных эпизодов "Истории Пелопоннесской войны" Фукидида
Chinese:
加上雅典藝術及哲學無可否認的實力和美麗
將這時期視為西方文明基礎並不難。
你若相信此說，也一定認為幸好是希臘人勝仗。
但就算將奴役等不公義置一邊，社會還是問題無窮。
我非得要說嗎？
［歡樂音樂妙無窮裡的歌詞］
《國殤講詞》來自更久之後為期三十年的伯羅奔尼撒戰爭，
戰爭兩方為雅典及斯巴達。
斯巴達並不民主，而沿用一種
靠壓榨屬社會絕多數的奴隸階層才不垮台的君王制。
先說明戰爭不是因為雅典要斯巴達實現民主改革
（戰爭鮮少是為了要民主）
此戰爭是為了資源和權力
由《米洛斯對話》可見雅典人絕不聖潔
看看Thought Bubble動畫教學吧。
修昔底德《伯羅奔尼撒戰爭》一作最著名的章節之一
雅典派軍船去斯巴達殖民地米洛斯島，
Hungarian:
Ha kombináljuk a magasröptű retorikát a tagadhatatlan hatalommal, és a művészeti és filozófiai szépséggel,
ami az ókori Athénban sarjadt,
könnyű a nyugati civilizációk alapjaként tekinteni rá.
És ha ez ínyedre való, örülj, hogy a görögök nyerték a görög-perzsa háborúkat.
De még ha el is tekintünk a rabszolgatartástól, és az egyéb igazságtalanságtól, ami jelen volt a társadalomban,
még mindig vannak problémák.
Muszáj kimondanom, most komolyan? Hát jó.
BAJ.
Itt, a folyó menti városban,
baj van, és ezt a bajt Peloponnészosz-nak hívják.
Periklész egy későbbi háború miatt mondta temetési beszédét: a peloponnészoszi háború 30 éven át tartó
konfliktus volt az athéniak és a spártaiak között.
A spártaiak nem fogadták el a demokráciát,
hanem egy erőszakos egyeduralmi berendezkedésük volt, aminek alapja egy hatalmas brutálisan bántalmazott rabszolga sereg volt.
A háborút nem azért vívták, mert athén rá akarta volna kényszeríteni Spártára a demokráciát.
Nem, a konfliktus alapja az erőforrásokért és a hatalomért vívott harc volt.
Az athéniak sem voltak ártatlanok,
amit a híres Méloszi Dialógus is bizonyít.
Nézzük csak a gondolat buborékot.
Tehát az egyik legismertebb része Thuküdidész irományának a peloponnészoszi háborúról szól.
Arabic:
وعند الجمع بين ذلك الخطاب نبيل المشاعر
وبين ما لا يمكن إنكاره من تأثير وجمال
تمتع بهما الفن والفلسفة
اللذان أبدِعا في أثينا القديمة،
فليس من الصعب
أن نعتبرها أساس الحضارة الغربية.
وإذا ما اقتنع المرء بهذا المنطق فلا بد له
من أن يُسر لانتصار الإغريق في الحروب الفارسية.
بيد أننا حتى لو تجاهلنا العبودية وأشكال
الظلم الأخرى في المجتمع اليوناني القديم،
ستبقى هناك مشكلة ماثلة أمامنا.
هل علي أن أقولها؟ حقًا؟
حسن. مشكلة، هنا في "ريفر سيتي"
ومصدرها بيلوبونيز.
خطاب تأبين بريكليس ألقِي إبان حرب لاحقة،
ألا وهي الحرب البيلوبونيسية،
وهو صراع دام ثلاثين عامًا
بين الأثينيين والاسبرطيين.
لم يتبن الاسبرطيون الديمقراطية
وإنما اعتمدوا حكمًا ملكيًا
ما كانت لتقوم له قائمة لولا وجود فئة كبيرة
من العبيد الذين عوملوا معاملة وحشية.
للتوضيح، لم يكن الهدف الحرب من أن تحمل أثينا
اسبرطة على تبنّي مبادئ الإصلاح الديمقراطي،
فنادرًا ما يكون ذلك هو الهدف من الحروب.
بل كانت الموارد والسلطة هي السبب.
كما أن الأثينيين لم يكونوا ملائكة،
كما يتضح من حوار ميلوس الشهير.
دعونا ننتقل إلى فقاعة التخيل.
في إحدى أشهر فقرات كتاب
تاريخ ثيوسيديدز عن الحرب البيلوبونيسية،
أبحر الأثينيون إلى جزيرة ميلوس،
وهي مستعمرة اسبرطية،
Dutch:
Wanneer je deze retorische wijsheid combineert met de ontegenzeggelijk kracht en schoonheid van de
kunst en filosofie dat was gecreëerd in het oude Athene, is het niet moeilijk om het te zien als de fundering
van Westerse civilisatie.
En als je dit gelooft, mag je blij zijn dat de Grieken de Perzische oorlog wonnen.
Maar zelfs als je de slavernij en andere onrechten opzij schuift in de Griekse gemeenschap, zijn er nog steeds problemen
Moet ik het zeggen, ja? Oké, problemen midden in rivier stad met een hoofdletter T
dat rijmt met P en staat voor de Peloponnesos.
Pericles zijn grafrede komt van de late oorlog, de Peleponnese oorlog, een 30 jarige
conflict tussen de Atheners en de Spartanen
De Spartaten wilde geen democratie maar gebruikte daarentegen een koningschap dat functioneerde
alleen maar vanwege het grote klasse verschil en de verschrikkelijk behandelde slaven.
Maar om duidelijk te zijn, deze oorlog was niet over Athene die probeerde Sparta democratisch te krijgen
oorlogen zijn dat zelden.
Het was over goederen en macht. En de Atheners waren nauwelijks heilig in dit alles,
zoals bewezen door de bekende Melian dialoog.
Laten we naar de gedachte bubbel gaan.
Dus in een van de meest bekende passages van Thucydides,
geschiedenis van de Peleponnese oorlog, zeilde de Atheners
Vietnamese:
Khi kết hợp thuật hùng biện cao cả đó với sức mạnh và vẻ đẹp không thể phủ nhận
của nghệ thuật và triết học Athens cổ đại, không khó để nhìn nhận nó như nền móng
của nền văn minh phương Tây. Nếu hoàn toàn tin điều này, bạn phải vui mừng vì
Hi Lạp đã thắng Chiến tranh Ba Tư. Nhưng kể cả bạn bỏ qua chế độ nô lệ và những bất công khác
trong xã hội Hy Lạp, vẫn còn rắc rối.
Vấn đề ngay đây ở thành phố sông với một thủ đô T (Thebes)
vần với P và nó là viết tắt của Peloponnes
Diễn văn của Pericles đến từ một cuộc chiến sau đó, Chiến tranh Peloponnesia, một cuộc xung đột
30 năm giữa người Athens và Sparta. Người Sparta không theo dân chủ
mà thay vào là vương quyền hoạt động chỉ bởi một giai cấp đông đảo nô lệ
bị ngược đãi tàn bạo. Nói rõ hơn, cuộc chiến không do Athens cố gắng bắt Sparta cải tổ dân chủ;
chiến tranh hiếm khi vậy. Nó là vì tài nguyên và quyền lực. Và người Athenians hiếm khi tốt bụng
trong việc này, bằng chứng là
Cuộc đối thoại ở Melos nổi tiếng
Ở một trong các đoạn văn nổi tiếng nhất trong sử của Thucydides về chiến tranh Peloponnesian, người Athens
Czech:
Když zkombinujete tyto ušlechtilé
řeči s nespornou silou a krásou
umění a filosofie, která má svůj
začátek ve starověkých Athénách,
není těžké to vnímat
jako počátek západní kultury.
Pokud tomu věříte, musíte být rádi,
že Řekové vyhráli řecko-perské války.
Ale i když necháme stranou otroctví
a jiné nespravedlnosti řecké společnosti,
stále tu máme problém.
Mám to říct, vážně? Fajn.
Trable zrovna tady
v River City a to s velkým T,
což se rýmuje s P,
což znamená Peloponés.
Periklova pohřební řeč pochází
z pozdější války, peloponéské,
to byl 30letý spor
mezi Athénami a Spartou.
Sparťané neměli demokracii,
ale království, které fungovalo
pouze díky otrokům,
se kterými zacházeli extrémně krutě.
Ale aby bylo jasno,
tato válka se neodehrála,
protože Athéňané chtěli Spartu
přinutit k demokracii, o tom války nejsou.
Odehrála se kvůli zdrojům a moci.
Athéňané rozhodně nebyli nevinní,
jak je zaznamenáno v
"Dějinách peloponéské války".
Pojďme do Thought Bubble.
V jedné z nejznámějších pasáží
Thúkýdidových "Dějin peleponéské války"
Spanish:
Cuando combinas esa retórica altruista con el innegable poder y belleza del arte
y filosofía que se creó en la antigua Atenas, no es dificil verla como la fundación de la civilización occidental.
Y si le crees a esto, tienes que estar feliz que los griegos ganaran las Guerras Médicas.
Pero incluso poniendo a un lado la esclavitud y otras injusticias en la sociedad griega, aún
hay problemas.
¿Tengo que decirlo? ¿En serio? De acuerdo.
Problemas aquí en River City con P
y eso rima con P y es P de Peloponeso.
El Discurso Fúnebre de Pericles proviene de una guerra posterior, la guerra del Peloponeso, un conflicto
de 30 años entre Atenas y Esparta.
Los espartanos no adoptaron la democracia pero adoptaron en su lugar una realeza que funcionaba
solo debido a una gran casta de esclavos brutalmente maltratados.
Pero para aclarar, la guerra no era acerca de Atenas tratando que Esparta adoptara una reforma
democrática; las guerras raramente lo son.
Era sobre recursos y poder. Y los atenienses apenas fueron santos en todo esto,
como lo demuestra el famoso diálogo de los melios.
Vamos a la Burbuja de Pensamiento.
En uno de los pasajes más famosos de la Historia de la Guerra del Peloponeso de Tucídides, los atenienses
French:
Lorsqu'on combine cette rhétorique noble avec le pouvoir et la beauté indéniable de
l'art et de la philosophie créés dans l'Athènes antique, ce n'est pas difficile de voir le tout comme le fondement
de la civilisation occidentale.
Et si vous adhérez à cela, vous devez être content que les Grecs aient gagné les guerres médiques.
Mais même si on met de côté l'esclavage et les autres injustices de la société grecque, il y a tout de même des problèmes.
Est-ce que je dois le dire, sérieusement? D'accord. Problèmes ici dans River City avec un P majuscule
et ça rime avec P et ça représente Péloponnèse.
Le discours funéraire de Périclès vient d'une guerre ultérieure, la guerre du Péloponnèse, un conflit
de 30 ans entre les Athéniens et les Spartiates.
Les Spartiates n'adhéraient pas à la démocratie, mais plutôt à une royauté qui ne fonctionnait qu'en
raison d'une énorme classe d'esclaves brutallement maltraités.
Mais, soyons clairs, le but de la guerre n'était pas de faire adhérer les Spartiates à une réforme démocratique.
C'est rarement le cas.
C'était à propos des ressources et du pouvoir et les Athéniens étaient à peine des Saints dans tout ça,
tel que démontré dans le Dialogue mélien.
Allons à la bulle d'idée.
Dans l'un des passages les plus connus de l'histoire de La Guerre du Péloponnèse de Thucydide, les Athéniens
Turkish:
Bu yüksek akıla ait konuşmayı sorgusuz güç ve eski Atina'daki sanatın ve
filozofinin güzelliğiyle birleştirirseniz Batı medeniyetinin temelini görmekte zorlanmazsınız.
filozofinin güzelliğiyle birleştirirseniz Batı medeniyetinin temelini görmekte zorlanmazsınız.
Eğer buna inanıyorsanız Yunanların Pers Savaşları'nı kazanmasına sevinirsiniz.
Ama Yunan toplumdaki kölelik ve diğer eşitsizlikeri bir kenara bıraksanız bile sorunlarla karşılaşırsınız.
Ama Yunan toplumdaki kölelik ve diğer eşitsizlikeri bir kenara bıraksanız bile sorunlarla karşılaşırsınız.
Söylemeli miyim, gerçekten? Tamam. Nehir Şehri'nde sorunlarımız var. Büyük S ile.
Bu da Mora'nın M'siyle kafiyeli.
Perikles'in cenaze nutku daha Mora Savaşı'ndan gelir.
Atina ve Sparta arasında 30 yıl süren bir savaş.
Spartalılar demokrasi yerine krallığı tercih etmişti. Bunun nedeniyse
şiddet uyguladıkları büyük köle takımıydı.
Açıkçası, savaş Atinalıların Sparta'ya demokrasi getirmesi için değildi. Savaşlar nadiren böyledir.
Açıkçası, savaş Atinalıların Sparta'ya demokrasi getirmesi için değildi. Savaşlar nadiren böyledir.
Savaş kaynak ve güç içindi. Atinalar da ünlü Melian Görüşmeleri'ne göre
pek de masum değildi.
Thought Bubble'a gidelim.
Tukididis'in Peloponez Savaşı Tarhi'nin en ünlü bölümlerinden birinde
iw:
כאשר משלבים את הרטוריקה המתוחכמת הזו
עם הכוח והיופי הבלתי ניתן להכחשה
של האמנות והפילוסופיה שנוצרה באתונה העתיקה, לא קשה לנו לייחס לה את ערש התרבות המערבית.
ואם אתם קונים את זה,
אתם צריכים להיות שמחים שהיוונים ניצחו במלחמה.
אבל גם אם שמים בצד את העבדות
ועוולות אחרות בחברה היוונית.
יש עדיין כמה בעיות.
אני באמת צריך להגיד את זה, ברצינות?
בסדר, צרות כאן בריבר סיטי עם טי גדולה
שמתחרזת עם פי בשביל פֶּלוֹפּוֹנִִיסוֹס.
נאום ההספד של פריקלס מגיע
ממלחמה מאוחרת יותר, המלחמה הפלופונסית,
סכסוך בין שלושים שנה בין האתונאים
והספרטנים. הספרטנים לא אימצו את הדמוקרטיה
ובמקום אימצה מלוכה שתפקדה רק בזכות
מגזר עצום של עבדים שדוכו באכזריות ברוטלית
אבל שיהיה ברור, המלחמה לא היתה בגלל
שאתונה ניסתה לגרום לספרטה להפוך לדמוקרטית
נדיר שמלחמות הן על זה, היא הייתה בגלל משאבים וכוח.
וגם האתונאים לא היו קדושים...
כפי שמעיד דיאלוג מליאן המפורסם.
בואו נלך אל הבועה למחשבה.
אז באחד הקטעים המפורסמים ביותר של תוקידידס "ההיסטוריה של המלחמה הפלופונסית",
Thai:
หากคุณรวมวาทะอันชาญฉลาด เข้ากับพลังอำนาจที่ยิ่งใหญ่
และความงดงามของศิลปะและปรัชญาที่สร้างขึ้นในเอเธนส์ คุณก็จะเห็นว่านั่นเป็นพื้นฐานของอารยธรรมตะวันตกในยุคต่อมา
ถ้าคุณเห็นด้วยกับความคิดนี้ คุณจะต้องดีใจที่กรีกชนะในสงครามเปอร์เซีย
แต่ว่าถึงคุณจะตัดเรื่องทาส และความอยุติธรรมอื่นๆ
ในสังคมกรีกออกแล้ว
มันก็ยังมีปัญหาอยู่
ผมต้องพูดจริงหรอ? ก็ได้
ปัญหาที่ว่านี้ เกิดที่เมืองแม่น้ำ
คำมันคล้องจองดี เมืองนี้คือเพโลพอนนีส
การปราศัยในพิธีศพของเพริคลิส
มาจากสงครามเพโลพอนนีเซียน ที่เกิดขึ้นภายหลัง
เป็นสงครามระหว่างเอเธนส์กับสปาร์ต้า
พวกสปาร์ต้าไม่เชื่อในระบอบประชาธิปไตย
แต่สนับสนุนระบอบกษัตริย์ ซึ่งดำรงอยู่ได้จากการกดขี่ทาส
แต่สงครามนี้ไม่ได้เกี่ยว กับการที่เอเธนส์พยายามเปลี่ยนให้สปาร์ต้ามาใช้ระบอบประชาธิปไตย
แทบไม่มีสงครามไหนที่เกี่ยวกับเรื่องแบบนี้
แท้จริงแล้วมันเป็นเรื่องของทรัพยากร และอำนาจ
และเอเธนส์ก็ไม่ได้ใจดีในเรื่องนี้ ดังปรากฎหลักฐานในบทสนทนาโบราณ Melian Dialogue ตัดไปที่ Thought Bubble ครับ
ตอนหนึ่งในงานชิ้นเอกของ ทิวซิดิดีส เรื่อง ประวัติศาสตร์สงครามเพโลพอนนีเซียน
Romanian:
Când amestecați această retorică înaltă cu puterea și frumusețea de necontestat
a artei și filosofiei creată în Atena antică, nu e greu de văzut că reprezintă fundația
civilizației occidentale. Dacă vedeți doar asta, o să fiți bucuroși că Grecii
au câștigat războaiele persane. Dar chiar dând la o parte sclavia și alte nedreptăți
din societatea greacă, rămân încă probleme.
O să spun, serios? Bine. Sunt probleme chiar aici
și au legătură cu Peloponezul.
Discursul funerar al lui Pericle aparține unui război târziu, războiul Peloponeziac, un conflict
de 30 de ani între Atenieni și Spartani. Spartanii n-au îmbrățișat democrația
dar în locul ei au avut o monarhie care a funcționat bazată pe o numeroasă clasă de sclavi tratați
cu brutalitate. Dar ca să fie clar, războiul n-a fost pentru ca Atena să impună Spartei reforme democratice;
rareori erau războaie pentru asta. A fost pentru resurse și putere.Și atenienii erau sfinți
în toate astea așa cum arată faimosul dialog melian. Să mergem la Balonul de Gândit.
Deci într-unul dintre cele mai faimoase pasaje din Istoria războiului peloponeziac a lui Tucidide, atenienii
German:
zur Insel Milos, einer spartanischen Kolinie, und verlangten von den Bewohnern, sich dem Athenischen
Gesetz zu unterwerfen.
Diese merkten an, dass sie nie wirklich für die Spartaner gekämpft hatten, und sagten in etwa "Hört zu,
wenn es euch recht ist, würden wir hier gerne die Schweit sein", nur dass sie das
natürlich nicht wirklich so gesagt haben, da es damals noch keine Schweiz hab, woraufhin die Athener erwiderten
- und hier zitiere ich direkt - "Die Starken tun, was sie können, und die Schwachen erleiden, was sie müssen."
Unnötig zu erwähnen, dass das nicht wirklich eien demokratische oder aufgeklärte Position war. Tatsächlich wird
diese Aussage manchmal als erste Befürwortung der sogenannten
Realismus im Bereich internationale Beziehungen (politischer Realismus) angesehen.
Für Realisten geht es bei Interaktionen zwischen Nationen (oder Völkern oder Kulturen) immer darum,
wer die Macht hat. Wer immer sie hat, kann den, der sie nicht hat, zu quasi allem zwingen.
Was haben also die leistungsorientierten und demokratischen Athener getan, als die Bewohner Milos' sie freundlich gebeten haben,
nicht an diesem Krieg teilnehmen zu müssen?
Sie töteten alle Männer Milos' und versklavten alle Frauen und Kinder.
Also, ja, Sokrates hat uns seine Sokratische Methode gegeben, Sophokles hab uns Ödipis, doch
Modern Greek (1453-):
και απαίτησαν από τους Μήλιους να υποταχθούν στην Αθηναϊκή κυριαρχία.
Οι Μηλιανοί υποδήλωσαν πως δεν πολέμησαν ποτέ για τους Σπαρτιάτες και ήταν σε φάση
"Ακούστε, αν είναι το ίδιο για εσάς, θα θέλαμε να πάμε στην Ελβετία γι αυτό",
εκτός φυσικά του ότι δεν το είπαν γιατί δεν υπήρχε Ελβετία.
στους οποίους απάντησαν οι Αθηναίοι και μεταφέρω αυτολεξεί,
"Οι ισχυροί κάνουν αυτά που μπορούν και οι αδύναμοι υποφέρουν αυτά που πρέπει."
Περιττό να πω πως αυτή δεν είναι τρομερά δημοκρατική ή διαφωτιστική θέση να πάρει κανείς.
Στην πραγματικότητα, μερικές φορές θεωρείται ως η πρώτη ρητή επικύρωση της λεγόμενης
θεωρίας του ρεαλισμού στις διεθνείς σχέσεις
Για τους ρεαλιστές, οι σχέσεις ανάμεσα σε κράτη, ανθρώπους, ή πολιτισμούς έχει να κάνει
με το ποιος έχει τη δύναμη. Όποιος την έχει μπορεί να αναγκάσει αυτόν που δεν την έχει να κάνει σχεδόν οτιδήποτε
Οπότε, τι έκαναν οι αξιοκρατικοί και δημοκρατικοί Αθηναίοι
όταν οι Μήλιοι τους ζήτησαν ευγενικά να μην συμμετέχουν στη μάχη?
Σκότωσαν όλους τους άνδρες και υποδούλωσαν τα γυναικόπαιδα της Μήλου
Οπότε ναι, ο Σωκράτης μας έδωσε τη μαιευτική του μέθοδο, ο Σοφοκλής τον Οιδίποδα,
Spanish:
navegaron a la isla de Milo, una colonia espartana, y demandaron que los melios se sometieran
a la Ley Ateniense
Los melios señalaron que nunca habían luchado junto a los espartanos y decian, "Escuchen,
si para ustedes todo es igual, nos gustaría ir a Suiza en esta ocasión," excepto que
por supuesto que no dijeron eso poque no había una Suiza, a lo que los atenienses
respondieron, y estoy citando directamente, "los fuertes hacen lo que quieren mientras los débiles
sufren lo que deben".
Está de más decir que no es una posicion muy democrática o progresista la tomada. Esta declaración,
de hecho, a veces es vista como la primera aprobación explícita de la llamada teoría del realismo
en las relaciones internacionales.
Para los realistas, la interacción entre las naciones (o los pueblos o culturas) se trata sobre quien
tiene el poder. Quien lo tenga puede obligar a quien no lo tiene a hacer prácticamente todo.
Asi que, ¿qué hicieron los atenienses meritocráticos y democráticos cuando los melios pidieron amablemente
no participar en la batalla?
Asesinaron a todos los melios y esclavizaron a todas las mujeres y niños.
Así que, sí, Sócrates nos dio su método interrogativo; Sófocles nos dio Edipo; pero el
Hungarian:
Az athéniak Mélosz szigetéhez hajóztak, ami Spárta gyarmata volt, és követelték, hogy hódoljanak be Athénnak.
A mélosziak rámutatott arra,
hogy ők valójában sosem harcolt a spártaiak oldalán,
és valami olyasmit mondtak, hogy „Figyu, ha nektek úgy jó, mi most inkább Svájcot játszanánk..."
persze ezt nem mondhatták, mert Svájcnak híre-hamva sem volt akkor még.
Athéniak erre azt válaszolták, idézem:
"...a hatalmas azonban végrehajtja, amit akar,
a gyenge pedig meghajlik előtte."
Mondanom sem kell, ez nem egy túlzottan demokratikus, felvilágosult álláspont. Erre az állításra
úgy tekintenek a nemzetközi kapcsolatok tudományágában, mint a realista politika téziseinek első explicit kijelentésére.
Mert realisták szerint a nemzetek, emberek vagy kultúrák közti kapcsolatok dinamikáját
a hatalom határozza meg.
Befolyással, hatalommal rendelkezők
arra kényszerítenek másokat, amire csak akarnak.
Tehát mi volt az érdemuralmi, és demokratikus athéniak reakciója a mélosziak udvarias kérésére,
miszerint ők inkább kimaradnának a harcból?
Megölték az összes méloszi férfit,
és rabszolgává tették a nőket és gyerekeket.
Tehát igen, a Szókratésztól ered a "bábáskodó" kérdezgető módszer, Szophoklész adta Oidipuszt,
Dutch:
naar het eiland van Melos, een Spartaanse kolonie, en eiste dat de Melianen zich overgaven aan een Atheense heerschappij.
de Melianen zijden dat ze nooit me de spartanen hadden gevochten
als het allemaal goed is met jou, zouden wij graag als Zwitserland gaan bij deze," behalve dat
ze dat natuurlijk niet zeiden omdat er geen Zwitserland was, waarop de Atheners
reageerde, en hier citeer ik direct, "De sterke doen wat zij kunnen en de zwakke
lijden wat zij moeten."
Onnodig om te zeggen maar dit is niet zeer democratisch of verlichtend. Deze verklaring,
is soms gezien als de eerste expliciete goedkeuring van de zogenaamde theorie van Realisme
in internationale relaties.
Voor realisten is interactie tussen naties (of mensen of culturen) allemaal over wie
de macht heeft. Wie het heeft kan ieder die het niet heeft dwingen om zowaar alles te doen.
Dus wat deden de meritocratische en democratische Atheners wanneer de Melianen aardig vroegen
om niet mee te doen in het gevecht?
Ze vermoorde de Melianse mannen, en maakte de vrouwen en kinderen slaven.
Dus, ja, Socrates gaf ons zijn vragende methode; Sophocles gaf ons Oedipus; maar het
Romanian:
au ajuns în insula Melos, o colonie spartană și le-au cerut melienilor să se supună atenienilor.
Melienii au susținut
că ei n-au luptat niciodată cu spartanii.
La care atenienii au răspuns
și aici citez direct: Cei puternici fac ce pot
și cei slabi suferă ce trebuie.
Inutil să spunem, aceasta nu e o poziție prea democratică sau luminată. Această afirmație,
de fapt, e uneori văzută ca ca prima menționare explicită a așa-zisei teorii a realismului
în relațiile internaționale. Pentru realiști, interacțiunile între națiuni sau popoare sau culturi
sunt legate de cine deține puterea.Oricine o are constrânge pe oricine nu o are
să facă aproape orice.
Deci ce au făcut atenienii merituoși și democratici când melienii le-au cerut respectuos
să nu participe la luptă? Ei i-au omorât pe toți bărbații și au înrobit toate femeile și toți copiii.
Deci, da, Socrate ne-a lăsat metoda sa interogativă; Sofocle ni l-a dat pe Oedip; dar
Chinese:
要居民接受雅典統治。
米洛人回答說他們從未與斯巴達作戰。
那你都可以的話，我想當中立瑞士。
（當然不是用這比喻因為瑞士尚未成立）
雅典人回道（字字如實呈現）：
「強者為所欲為，弱者逆來順受。」
顯然這觀點既不民主、亦不開明。
這句話有時被視為首次肯定國際關係現實主義。
（政治並非原則，而是實力）
現實主義者視國家、人民、文化間的關係
關鍵為誰掌權。
掌權者能迫使無權者做任何事。
任人為賢又民主的雅典人
對米洛人想低調選擇不參戰又有何反應呢？
雅典處決島上所有男人，
並將婦孺押入奴役。
蘇格拉低雖研發反詰法；索福克勒斯雖著《伊底帕斯王》，
Arabic:
وطالبوا بأن يخضع الميليون إلى حكم الأثينيين.
دافع الميليون عن موقفهم بقولهم
إنهم لم يقاتلوا في صف الاسبارطيين يومًا فعليًا
وكان لسان حالهم،
"نود أن نتصرف تصرّف دول عدم الانحياز."
إلا أنهم بالطبع لم يقولوا ذلك حرفيًا
حيث أنه لم تكن هناك دول عدم انحياز آنذاك.
وكان رد الأثينيين على ذلك
في اقتباس مباشر هو الآتي:
"القوي يفعل ما بوسعه،
والضعيف يتجشم ما قُدّر له."
وغني عن القول
إن ذلك ليس موقفًا ديمقراطيًا أو مستنيرًا.
بل إن هذا البيان يُعتبر أحيانًا أول إقرار صريح
بما يسمى نظرية الواقعية في العلاقات الدولية.
بالنسبة إلى الواقعيين
فإن التفاعل بين الأمم أو الشعوب أو الثقافات
يتمحور حول من يملك القوة،
فمن يملكها يمكنه إجبار من يفتقر إليها
على فعل أي شيء تقريبًا.
إذن، ماذا فعل الأثينيون
أنصار التقدم بالاستحقاق والديمقراطية
عندما طلب الميليين
بأدب عدم المشاركة في القتال؟
قتلوا جميع الرجال الميليين
وسبوا جميع النساء والأطفال.
لذا، نعم، قدم سقراط لنا أسلوب الاستفهام
وسوفوكليس أعطانا أوديب،
iw:
האתונאים הפליגו לאי מלוס, מושבה ספרטנית,
ודרש שהמליאנים יכנעו לסמכות האתונאית
המליאנים הזכירו שהם
אף פעם לא באמת נלחמו עם ספרטה
והם היו כאילו "אם לא אכפת לכם,
אנחנו נשחק אותה שווייץ בסיפור הזה"
רק שכמובן שהם לא אמרו את זה,
כי לא היתה אז שווייץ...
והאתונאים הגיבו, וכאן אני מצטט: "החזקים עושים מה שהם יכולים,
והחלשים סובלים כמו שחייב לקרות."
מיותר לציין, שזו לא ממש עמדה נאורה או דמוקרטית לנקוט בה.
הצהרה זו, למעשה, לפעמים נחשבת כביטוי הראשון המפורש
של תאוריית הריאליזם ביחסים בינלאומיים.
עבור ריאליסטים,
אינטראקציות בין עמים, או אומות, או תרבויות
מבוססות על "החזק מנצח".
מי שיש לו את הכח. יכול לכופף את מי שאין לו
ולגרום לו לעשות כל דבר פחות או יותר.
אז מה עשו האתונאים הנאורים והדמוקרטיים כשהמליאנים ביקשו בנימוס-
לא להשתתף במאבק? הם הרגו את כל
הגברים המליאנים ושיעבדו את הנשים והילדים.
אז כן, סוקרטס נתן לנו את שיטת החשיבה הביקורתית שלו, סופוקלס נתן לנו את אדיפוס.
Czech:
se Athéňané přeplavili na ostrov
Milos, kolonii Sparty, a požadovali,
aby se jeho obyvatelé
podřídili athénské nadvládě.
Miliané poukázali na fakt, že vlastně
nikdy se Sparťany nebojovali, a řekli:
"Hele, pokud vám to nevadí,
chceme být neutrální jako Švýcarsko."
Samozřejmě to neřekli takhle,
protože Švýcarsko ještě neexistovalo,
a na to Athéňané
odpověděli, tentokrát cituji přesně:
"Silní dělají, co mohou,
slabí trpí, co musí."
Jé důležité říci, že to není příliš
demokratický či osvícený postoj.
Toto prohlášení se zdá
jako první výslovné použití
tzv. realismu
v mezinárodních vztazích.
Pro realisty, vztahy mezi národy
či lidmi nebo kulturami jsou o tom,
kdo má moc. Kdo ji má, může přinutit
toho, kdo ji nemá, k podstatě všemu.
Co meritokratické a demokratické
Athény udělaly po zdvořilé žádosti Melianů
o nezapojení v bojích?
Zabili všechny Melinské muže
a zotročili všechny ženy a děti.
Takže ano, Sokrates nám dal
tázací metodu, Sofoklés dal Oidipa,
Portuguese:
navegaram para a ilha de Melos, uma colônia espartana e exigiram que os Melianos se submetessem a Atenas.
Os Melos argumentavam que eles nunca lutaram com Espartanos e eles estavam tipo, " Olha
se ficar tudo bem pra você, nós queríamos ir para a Suíça no próximo inverno", tirando o fato
de eles nunca terem tido isso já que não existia a Suíça, mas o Atenienses
responderiam assim, e eu estou realmente citando "O forte faz o que pode e o fraco
sofre o que merece".
Desnecessário dizer, que isso não é uma terrível democrática ou negligente decisão tomada. Esse estamento
de fato, é o primeiro indício explícito de algo conhecido como teoria do Realismo
de relações internacionais.
Para os realistas, as relações entre nações ( ou pessoas ou culturas) se resume em
que tem o poder.
Então, o que a política meritocracia e democracia fez quando os Melos
pediram para não participar da batalha?
Eles mataram todos os homens de Melos e escravizaram todas as mulheres e crianças.
Então, sim Sócrates nos deu seu o métodos interrogativo, Sófocles nos deu Édipo Rei, mas o
English:
sailed to the island of Melos, a Spartan colony,
and demanded that the Melians submit to Athenian
rule. The Melians pointed out that they’d
never actually fought with the Spartans and
were like, “Listen, if it’s all the same
to you, we’d like to go Switzerland on this
one,” except of course they didn’t say
that because there was no Switzerland.
To which the Athenians responded, and here
I am quoting directly, “The strong do what
they can, and the weak suffer what they must.”
Needless to say, this is not a terribly democratic
or enlightened position to take. This statement,
in fact, is sometimes seen as the first explicit
endorsement of the so-called theory of Realism
in international relations. For realists,
interaction between nations, or peoples, or
cultures is all about who has the power. Whoever
has it can compel whoever doesn’t have it
to do pretty much anything.
So what did the meritocratic and democratic
Athenians do when the Melians politely asked
not to participate in the fight? They killed all the
Melian men and enslaved all the women and children.
So, yes, Socrates gave us his interrogative
Method; Sophocles gave us Oedipus; but the
Finnish:
purjehtivat Míloksen saarelle, spartalaiseen koloniaan, ja vaativat, että míloslaiset alistuvat Ateenan
ylivaltaan.
Míloslaiset huomauttivat, etteivät he ikinä olleet taistelleet spartalaisten kanssa ja sanoivat "Kuulkaas,
jos kaikki on teille se ja sama, haluaisimme tehdä sveitsit tässä asiassa,"
mutta tietysti he eivät sanoneet näin, koska Sveitsiä ei ollut, johon ateenalaiset
vastasivat, ja lainaan suoraan, "Voimakkaat tekevät minkä voivat ja heikot
kärsivät siitä, mistää heidän täytyy."
Tarpeetonta sanoa, tämä ei ole kovin demokraattinen tai valaistunut kannanotto. Tämä julistus
itseasiassa joskus nähdään ensimmäisenä selkeänä mainoksena realismille
kansainvälisissä suhteissa.
Realisteille kansojen (tai ihmisten tai kulttuurien) kanssakäymistä on vain
vallan vuoksi. Se, kenellä valtaa on, voi painostaa ketä tahansa, jolla sitä ei ole, tehdäkseen mitä tahansa haluaa.
Joten mitä meriokraattiset ja demokraattiset ateenalaiset tekivät, kun míloslaiset kohteliaasti kysyivät
ettei heidän tarvitsisi osallistua taisteluun?
He tappoivat kaikki míloslaiset miehet ja orjuuttivat kaikki naiset ja lapset.
Joten kyllä, Sokrates antoi meille hänen kyseenalaistavan menetelmänsä(?): Sofokles antoi Oidipuksen; mutta
French:
ont navigué jusqu'à l'île de Milos, une colonie spartiate, et ont demandé aux Miliens de se soumettre à la gouvernance athénienne.
Les Miliens ont fait remarquer qu'ils n'avaient jamais combattu aux côtés des Spartiates et
on fait "Écoutez, si c'est pareil pour vous, on aimerait être la Suisse dans tout ça"
- sauf que, bien sûr, ils n'ont pas dit ça parce que la Suisse n'existait pas -
ce à quoi les Athéniens ont répondu, et je cite directement: "Les forts font ce qu'ils peuvent
et les faibles endurent ce qu'ils doivent."
Nul besoin de mentionner que ce n'est pas une position particulièrement démocratique ou éclairée à prendre.
En fait, cette déclaration est parfois vue comme le premier endossement explicite de la soi-disant théorie
du réalisme en relations internationales.
Pour les réalistes, les interactions entre les nations, ou les peuples, ou les cultures
portent entièrement sur celui qui détient le pouvoir. Quiconque le détient peut contraindre quiconque ne l'a pas à faire n'importe quoi.
Donc, qu'est-ce qu'on fait les Athéniens méritocrates et démocrates lorsque les Miliens ont poliment demandé
à ne pas participer au combat?
Ils ont tué tous les hommes et ont asservit toutes les femmes et les enfants.
Donc, oui, Socrate nous a laissé la Maïeutique, Sophocle nous a laissé Œdipe,
Turkish:
Atinalılar, Sparta kolonisi Milos adasına giderler ve Milosluların Atina'ya katılmasını ister.
Atinalılar, Sparta kolonisi Milos adasına giderler ve Milosluların Atina'ya katılmasını ister.
Miloslular Spartalılar'ın yanında savaşmadaklırını söyler ve "Dinleyin,
sizin için sorun yoksa İsviçre'nin tarafında olmak isteriz". Tabii ki
böyle bir şey demediler çünkü İsviçre daha yoktu.
Atinalılar, doğruca aktarıyorum, "Güçlü yapabildiğini yapar, zayıf çekeceğini çeker" dedi.
Atinalılar, doğruca aktarıyorum, "Güçlü yapabildiğini yapar, zayıf çekeceğini çeker" dedi.
Haliyle bu çok demokratik ve aydınlanmış bir bakış açısı değildi. Aslında
bu açıklama bazen uluslar arası ilişkilerde gerçekçiliğin ilk açık uygulaması olarak kabul edilir.
bu açıklama bazen uluslar arası ilişkilerde gerçekçiliğin ilk açık uygulaması olarak kabul edilir.
Realistlere göre milletler arası (halklar veya kültürler) etkileşimler
kimin güçlü olduğuyla ilgilidir. Gücü olan, olmayana istediği neredeyse her şeyi yapabilir.
Peki Miloslular savaşmak istemediğini söyleyince meritokratik ve demokratik
Atinalılar ne yaptı?
Miloslu bütün erkekleri öldürdüler. Kadınları ve çocukları köleleştirdiler.
Evet, Sokrat bize sorgulayıcı metodu, Sofokles Oedipus'e verdi ama Antik
Vietnamese:
lái thuyền đến đảo Melos, một thuộc địa của Sparta, và yêu cầu người Melos phục tùng luật lệ Athens
Người Melos nói họ không bao giờ thực sự chiến đấu cùng người Sparta, kiểu như
"Nghe này, nếu các anh thấy sao cũng được, chúng tôi muốn Thụy Sĩ trong vụ này"
(Thụy Sĩ là nước chuyên đứng trung lập)
trừ việc họ không nói vậy vì chưa có Thụy Sĩ
Người Athens đáp lại “Kẻ mạnh làm những gì họ có thể,
và kẻ yếu phải chịu đựng những gì họ phải chịu“
Khỏi phải nói, đây không phải một quan điểm dân chủ hay khai sáng tệ hại để theo
Thực tế tuyên bố này đôi khi được coi như sự xác nhận rõ ràng đầu tiên về học thuyết gọi là
Chủ nghĩa Hiện thực trong quan hệ quốc tế. Với người Hiện thực, tương tác giữa các quốc gia,
dân tộc hay văn hóa đều nằm ở ai có quyền lực. Ai có nó có thể bắt ép người không có
làm gần như bất cứ điều gì
Vậy người Athens theo chế độ nhân tài và dân chủ đã làm gì khi người Melos lịch sự yêu cầu
không tham gia vào cuộc chiến? Họ giết hết đàn ông Melos và bắt phụ nữ và trẻ em làm nô lệ
Nên, đúng, Socrates cho chúng ta phương pháp truy vấn, Sophocles cho chúng ta người giải đố
Swedish:
seglade Atenarna till ön Melos, en Spartansk koloni,
och krävde att Melian accepterade Atenskt
styre. Melianerna påpekade att de skulle
aldrig kämpa mot spartanerna och
var typ , "Lyssna, om det är samma sak för dig, skulle vi vilja gå Schweiz på den här grejen"
fast naturligtvis skulle de inte säga
det eftersom det inte Schweiz fanns än.
Till vilken Atenarna svarade och här
citerar jag direkt, "De starka gör vad
de kan, och den svaga lida vad de måste. "
Självfallet är detta inte ett fruktansvärt demokratiskt
eller upplyst sätt att hantera saken. Detta påstående,
ses i själva verket ibland som det första explicita
godkännandet av den så kallade teorin om realism
i internationella relationer. För realister handlar interaktion mellan nationer, folk, eller
kulturer om vem som har makten. Den som har det kan tvinga den som inte har det
till att göra i stort sett allt.
Så vad gjorde meritokratiska och demokratiska
Atenarna när Melianerna frågade artigt
om att inte delta i kampen? De dödade alla
män och förslavade alla kvinnor och barn.
Så, ja, Socrates gav oss sin frågande
Metod; Sofokles gav oss Oidipus; men
Russian:
афиняне приплывают на остров Мелос, спартанскую колонию, и требуют, чтобы мелосцы признали власть Афин.
Мелосцы замечают, что они никогда в действительности не сражались за Спарту.
Они говорили:
"Слушайте, если вам всё равно, то в этом деле мы бы предпочли роль Швейцарии."
Хотя в действительности они сказали не так, потому что Швейцарии ещё не было.
На что Афиняне ответили, и здесь я цитирую:
"Сильный делает то, что может, а слабый терпит то, что должен»
Очевидно, что это не самая демократичная или просвещённая позиция.
Это заявление, на самом деле, часто рассматиривается как первое явное проявление так называемого политического реализма.
Для реалистов отношения между нациями, людьми и культурами сводятся к одному вопросу.
У кого есть сила.
И любой, у кого она есть, может заставить того, у кого её нет, делать практически всё, что ему угодно.
И так что же сделали меритократические и демократические афиняне в ответ на
вежливый отказ мелосцев участвовать в войне?
Они убили всех мужчин на Мелосе, а женщин и детей обратили в рабство.
Так что да, Сократ оставил нам свой метод ведения дискуссии,
Софокл оставил нам Эдипа.
Thai:
เอเธนส์ล่องเรือเข้าไปยังเกาะมีลอส ในดินแดนของสปาร์ต้า
และบังคับให้มีลอสเข้าร่วมกับเอเธนส์
ชาวมีลอสชี้แจงว่า พวกเขาไม่อยากจะสู้กับพวกสปาร์ต้า
และมีท่าทางประมาณว่า "ฟังนะ ถ้าพวกคุณเห็นด้วย พวกเราอยากจะเข้ากับสวิสเซอร์แลนด์มากกว่า"
แน่นอนว่าพวกเขาไม่ได้พูดออกมาแบบนั้น เพราะตอนนั้นยังไ่มีมีสวิสเซอร์แลนด์เลย
ซึ่งเอเธนส์ได้โต้ตอบดังนี้
"ผู้ที่เข้มแข็งย่อมกระทำในสิ่งที่เขาสามารถจะทำได้
ส่วนผู้ที่อ่อนแอก็ย่อมสูญเสียสิ่งที่พวกเขาจะต้องเสีย"
ไม่ต้องบอกก็รู้ว่า นี่ไม่ได้จะเป็นประชาธิปไตย หรือเป็นสิ่งที่ดีซักเท่าไหร่
อันที่จริง ข้อความนี้ มักถูกอ้างอิงถึงในฐานะรากฐานของทฤษฎีสัจนิยม (Realism) ในความสัมพันธ์ระหว่างประเทศ
นักสัจนิยมเชื่อว่าความสัมพันธ์ระหว่างประเทศ ผู้คน หรือวัฒนธรรม
ตั้งอยู่บนพื้นฐานของอำนาจ
ผู้ที่มีอำนาจก็สามารถบังคับให้ผู้ที่ด้อยกว่า
ให้ทำอะไรก็ได้ตามต้องการ
แล้วพวกเอเธนส์ผู้มีคุณธรรมและประชาธิปไตยทำยังไงนะหรอเมื่อชาวมีลอสวิงวอนขอไม่ต่อสู้ด้วย
พวกเขาฆ่าชายชาวมีลอสตายเรียบ
และจับผู้หญิงละเด็กเป็นทาสไงล่ะ
ดังนั้น แม้ว่าโสเครตีสจะมอบวิธีการตั้งคำถามให้เรา
โซโฟคลิสมอบอีดิปัส
Polish:
na wyspę Melos , spartiańską kolonię i zarządanie od nich poddania się Ateńskim
rządom
Melianie stwierdzili że nigdy właściwie nie byli po stronie Spartan i powiedzieli coś w stylu "Słuchajcie
jeżeli Wam to nie przeszkadza chcielibyśmy przenieść się do Szwajcarii ,
oczywiście tak nie powiedzieli , ponieważ nie było wtedy Szwajcarii , której Ateńczycy
mogliby odpowiedzieć, cytuje dosłownie "Silni robią to co mogą , a słabi
cierpią to co muszą"
Niepotrzebnie mówić, że to nie jest okropna demokracja lub oświecona pozycja do przyjęcia. To stanowisko
w zasadzie jest widziane jako pierwsze wyraźne poparcie tak zwanej teorii
Realizmu w międzynarodowych stosunkach [Realizm - pogląd mówiący iż główną zasadą na której powinna oparta być polityka jest siła a nie kwestie zasad i reguł]
Dla realistów , stosunki między narodami( albo ludźmi czy kulturami) opieraja się na tym
kto ma siłę. Ktokolwiek ją ma , może zmusić tego kto jej nie posiada do zrobienia prawie wszystkiego.
Więc co zrobili merytokratyczni i demokratyczni Ateńczycy kiedy Melianie grzecznie zapytali
czy mogą nie brać udziału w walce?
Zabili wszystkich mężczyzn a kobiety i dzieci wzięli do niewoli.
Więc tak , Sokrates dał nam jego metodę pytania , Sofokles - "Oedipusa"; ale
Turkish:
Yunan mirası çok daha karmaşık. Polopenes Savaşı'nı diktatör Spratalıların kazanmasının
bu durum üstünde büyük etkisi var. Büyük hayal kırıklığı
için teşekkürler Thought Bubble.
Şimdi ciddi bir soru: Pers Savaşları'nı doğru taraf mı kazandı?
Çoğu klasikçi ve Batı kültürü savunucusu Yunanlar kazandığı için elbette
mutlu olmamız gerektiğini söyler
Sonuçta Pers Savaşı galibiyeti sayesinde Klasik Çağ'ı
başlatan kültürel gelişmeler yaşandı. Ayrıca eğer Persler kazansaydı monarşi demokrasiyi beşiğinde
öldürebilirdi ve tek adam iktidarı olurdu.
Bu olabilirdi ama buna karşı şu üç şeyi de göz önünde bulunduralım:
Öncelikle, Pers hakimiyetinde yaşam gayet güzeldi ve
insanlığın son beş bin yılına bakarsak demokrasilerden çok, başarılı ve
dengeli imparatorluklar göreceksiniz.
İkincisi Atina egemenliğinde yaşam o kadar da güzel değildi, özellikle
kadın veya köleyseniz. Ayrıca hükümetin yolsuzlukları meşhurdu.
En önemlisi de Atina hükümeti gücünü vatandaşlarından değil emperyalist
"Güçlü Haklıdır" inancından alıyordu.
Modern Greek (1453-):
αλλά η κληρονομιά της Αρχαίας Ελλάδας είναι βαθύτατα ασαφής, πολλώ δε μάλλον επειδή νικητές
του Πελοποννησιακού πολέμου ήταν οι δικτατορικοί Σπαρτιάτες.
Ευχαριστώ για την απίστευτη αστοχία, Φούσκα της Σκέψης.
Ορίστε μια μη-ρητορική ερώτηση: Τους Περσικούς πολέμους τους κέρδισε η σωστή πλευρά?
Οι περισσότεροι κλασικιστές και υπερασπιστές της Δυτικής παράδοσης θα σας πουν πως φυσικά
θα πρέπει να είμαστε ευτυχείς που οι Έλληνες κέρδισαν.
Εν τέλει, η νίκη στον Περσικό πόλεμο ξεκίνησε την πολιτιστική ακμή που οδήγησε
στην Κλασική Εποχή. Και επίσης αν είχαν κερδίσει οι Πέρσες με τη μοναρχία τους πιθανόν να είχαν
στραγγαλίσει τη δημοκρατία στη γέννησή της και θα μας έδινε περισσότερη εξουσία από έναν άνθρωπο.
Και αυτό είναι πιθανόν, αλλά σαν αντιπαράθεση σε αυτό το επιχείρημα, ας εξετάσουμε τρία πράγματα:
Πρώτον, αξίζει να θυμηθούμε ότι η ζωή των Περσών ήταν αρκετά καλή
και αν κοιτάξουμε τα τελευταία 5000 χρόνια ανθρώπινης ιστορίας θα βρούμε
πολύ περισσότερες επιτυχημένες και σταθερές αυτοκρατορίες απ'ότι δημοκρατίες.
Δεύτερον, η ζωή των Αθηναίων δεν ήταν και τόσο φοβερή,
ειδικά αν ήσουν γυναίκα ή σκλάβος και η κυβέρνηση ήταν εμφανώς διεφθαρμένη.
Σε τελική ανάλυση η Αθηναϊκή κυβέρνηση δεν αντλούσε τη δύναμή της από τους πολίτες
αλλά από την ιμπεριαλιστική άποψη του νόμου του ισχυρού
German:
doch das Vermächtnis der alten Griechen ist sehr doppelbödig, vor allem weil der Gewinner
des Peloponnesischen Krieges die diktatorischen Spartaner waren.
Danke für diesen unglaublichen Horrortrip (?), ThoughtBubble.
Also, hier haben wir eine nicht-rhetorische Frage: Hat im Persischen Krieg die richtige Seite gewonnen?
Die meisten Kenner und Verteidiger der westlichen Tradition werden euch erzählen, dass wir natürlich froh sein sollten,
dass die Griechen gewonnen haben.
Immerhin ließ der Sieg in den Perserkriegen die Kultur aufblühen, was uns das klassische Zeitalter gab.
Außerdem wäre die Demokratie, hätten die Perser mit ihrer Monarchie gewonnen,
vielleicht im Keim erstickt worden und wir hätten stattdessen einen Alleinherscher bekommen.
Und das ist möglich, aber lasst uns drei Dinge berücksichtigen:
Erstens sollte man daran denken, dass das Leben unter den Persern ziemlich gut war, und wenn man
sich die letzten fünftausend Jahre menschlicher Geschichte anschaut, findet man wesentlich mehr erfolgreiche und
stabile Königreiche als Demokratien.
Zweitens war das Leben in Athen nicht so super, vor allem wenn man eine Frau
oder ein Sklave war, und die Regierung war korrupt.
Und außerdem rührte die Macht der athenischen Regierung nicht von ihrern Bürgern sondern von
der imperialistischen Idee des Rechts des Stärkeren her.
iw:
אבל המורשת של יוון העתיקה היא עמוקה מעורפלת ואמביוולנטית,
ויותר מכך בגלל שהמנצח הסופי
של מלחמת הפלופונס היו הספרטנים הדיקטטוריים.
תודה על הביאוס המדהים, בועת המחשבה.
אז הנה שאלה שאינה רטורית: האם
הצד הנכון ניצח במלחמות פרס-יוון?
רוב ראשי המחלקות ללימודים קלאסיים
ומגיני מסורת המערב יגידו שכמובן!
ואנחנו צריכים לשמוח שהיוונים ניצחו. אחרי הכל,
הניצחון היווני במלחמה סלל את הדרך
לתרבות שפרחה לאחר מכן ונתנה לנו את התקופה הקלאסית. ובנוסף, אם הפרסים היום מנצחים
עם שיטת המלוכה שלהם, אולי הם היו "הורגים" את הדמוקרטיה לפני שהיא התחילה והיינו נשארים עם יותר שלטון של אדם בודד...
וזה אפשרי, אבל כטיעון נגד
הבה נבחן שלושה דברים:
ראשית, כדאי לזכור שהחיים
תחת הפרסים היו טובים למדי,
ואם אתה מסתכל על חמשת אלפים השנים האחרונות
בהיסטוריה האנושית, אז טוב,
אתה תמצא הרבה יותר אימפריות מוצלחות ויציבות מאשר דמוקרטיות.
שנית, החיים תחת האתונאים לא היו
כל כך מדהימים, במיוחד אם היית אישה
או עבד, והממשל היה מוּשׁחָת לשמצה
ובסופו של דבר הממשלה האתונאית
כוחה הגיע לא מאזרחיה, אלא
מהאמונה האימפריאליסטית שכח פותר הכל
Finnish:
antiikin Kreikan perintö on syvällisen epäselvä, kaikki niin, koska lopullinen Peloponnesolaissodan
voittaja oli diktatoriset spartalaiset.
Kiitos uskomattomasta pettymyksestä Ajatuskupla.
Tässä ei-retorinen kysymys: Voittiko oikea osapuoli persialaissodat?
Suurin osa läntisen perinnön klassisteista ja puolustajista kertoo sinulle, että tietysti meidän
olisi oltava iloisia, että kreikkalaiset voittivat.
Loppujen lopuksihan persialaissodan voittaminen synnytti kulttuurin kukoistuksen, joka antoi meille
klassisen ajan. Lisäksi, jos persialaiset olisivat voittaneet monarkiallaan, se olisi voinut ahdistaa
demokratian kehdossaan ja antaa meille enemmän yksinvaltaa.
Se on mahdollista, mutta punnitaampa vastalauseeksi kolmea asiaa:
Ensimmäiseksi kannattaa muistaa, että elämä Persian alaisena oli melko hyvää ja jos
katsot viisi tuhatta vuotta taaksepäin ihmisen historiaa, löydät enemmän menestyneitä
ja vakaita imperiumeja kuin löydät demokratioita.
Toiseksi, elämä Ateenan alaisena ei ollut niin upeaa, erityisesti jos olit nainen
tai orja ja valtio oli pahamaineisen korruptoitunut.
Pohjimmiltaan Ateenan hallinto johti valtansa ei kansalaisiltaan, mutta
imperialistisesta ideasta, että valta oikeuttaa teot.
Thai:
แต่มรดกที่อาณาจักรกรีกโบราณมอบให้เรานั้นคลุมเครือมาก เพราะสุดท้ายผู้ชนะในสงครามเพโลพอนนีเซียน
กลับเป็นฝ่ายเผด็จการสปาร์ต้า
ขอบคุณมากสำหรับความผิดหวังนะ Thougth Buble
และนี่คือคำถาม "มันดีจริงๆรึเปล่าที่กรีกชนะในสงครามเปอร์เซีย?"
ผู้ที่ศึกษาวัฒนธรรมกรีกโบราณ และผู้อนุรักษ์ประเพณีตะวันตกส่วนมากมักบอกว่าเราควรดีใจที่กรีกชนะ
เพราะยังไง การที่กรีกชนะเปอร์เซีย
ทำให้ศิลปะวัฒนธรรมรุ่งเรือง
และทำให้เราเข้าสู่ยุคคลาสสิก และนอกจากนี้ ถ้าเปอร์เซียชนะ
อาจทำให้ประชาธิปไตยถูกฆ่าตัดตอน และทำให้เรามีแต่เผด็จการก็ได้
ซึ่งเป็นเรื่องที่เป็นไปได้ แต่เพื่อแย้งความคิดดังกล่าว
เรามาลองคิดถึงสามสิ่งนี้กันครับ
อย่างแรก จำได้มั้ยครับว่าชีวิตภายใต้การปกครองของเปอร์เซียนั้นดีมากทีเดียว
และถ้าคุณย้อนดูประวัติศาสตร์โลกตลอด 5000 ปีก่อน คุณจะพบว่ามีอาณาจักรที่รุ่งเรือง และมั่นคงมากมาย
ที่ไม่ได้เป็นประชาธิปไตย
สอง ชีวิตภายใต้การปกครองขอเอเธนส์ไม่ได้ดีอะไรมาก
โดยเฉพาะถ้าคุณเป็นผู้หญิง หรือทาส
และรัฐบาลก็มีชื่อเสียงในเรื่องคอรัปชั่น
และท้ายที่สุดรัฐบาลเอเธนส์ไม่ได้มาจากประชาชน แต่มาจากนักจักรวรรดินิยมที่แสวงหาอำนาจ
Romanian:
moștenirea Atenei antice e profund ambiguă cu atât mai mult pentru că învingătorul final
al Războiului Peloponeziac a fost Sparta cea tiranică.Mulțumesc pentru păcatul incredibil, Balonule de Gândit.
Avem deci o întrebare ne-retorică: A cine trebuia războaiele cu perșii?
Cei mai mulți clasici și apărători ai tradiției occidentale vă vor spune că bineînțeles
ar trebui să ne bucurăm că au învins grecii. În definitiv, victoria în războaiele cu perșii
a dus la înflorirea culturală care ne-a dat Epoca Clasică. Și în plus, dacă Perșii ar fi învins cu
monarhia lor asta putea să distrugă democrația și să ne ducă la conducerea unui singur om.
Și asta e posibil ar să susținem acest argument prin trei chestiuni:
Prima, să ne amintim că viața sub perși era destul de bună și dacă
priviți la ultimii cinci mii de ani de istorie a omenirii veți descoperi o mulțime de
imperii de succes și stabile decât democrații.
A doua, viața la Atena nu era așa de minunată mai ales dacă erai femeie
sau sclav iar corupția guvernării era notorie. Și în ultimul rând guvernarea ateniană
nu se baza pe puterea cetățenilor ci pe credința imperialistă că cei puternici fac legea.
Polish:
dziedzictwo starożytnej Grecji jest ogromnie dwuznaczne , tym bardziej dlatego że ostatecznym zwycięzcą
wojny peloponeskiej została dyktatorska Sparta.
Dzięki za niesamowitą wizualizację,
ThoughtBubble
Dlatego teraz zadaje nieretoryczne pytanie: Czy właściwa strona zwyciężyła Wojny Perskie ?
Najbardziej klasyczni obrońcy Zachodniej kultury odpowiedzą że oczywiście
powinniśmy się cieszyć że Grecy wygrali.
Koniec końców , zwycięstwo Persów mogłoby zatrzymać rozwój kultury , która dała nam okres klasyczny.
Dodatkowo , jeśli Persowie by wygrali ze swoją monarchią mogliby zdusić
demokrację i dać nam rządy jednego człowieka.
I to jest możliwe , ale jako przeciwwaga dla tych argumentów , rozważmy trzy rzeczy:
Po pierwsze , warto pamiętać że życie pod Persami było całkiem dobre
a jeśli spojrzycie na ostatnie 5 tysięcy lat ludzkiej historii , zobaczycie dużo więcej
sukcesywnych i stabilnych Imperiów niż w państwach demokratycznych.
Po drugie, życie w Atenach wcale nie było takie świetne , szczególnie jeśli było się kobietą
lub niewolnikiem a ich rząd był notorycznie skorumpowany.
W końcu , Ateński rząd czerpał siłę nie z swoich obywateli ale z
imperialistycznych wierzeń że "Siła tworzy prawo"
Spanish:
legado de la antigua Grecia es profundamente ambiguo, más así porque el ganador final de
la guerra del Peloponeso fueron los espartanos dictatoriales.
Gracias por la increíble decepción, Burbuja de Pensamiento.
Aquí hay una pregunta no retórica: ¿Las Guerras Médicas las ganó el lado correcto?
La mayoría de los clasicistas y defendientes de la tradición occidental te dirán que por supuesto que deberíamos
estar felices de que los griegos ganaran.
Después de todo, ganar las Guerras Médicas partió el florecimiento cultural que nos dio la
Edad Clásica. Y además, si los persas hubieran ganado con su monarquía, eso pudo haber estrangulado
a la democracia en su cuna y nos hubiera dado más dictaduras.
Y es posible, pero para rebatir ese argumento, consideremos tres cosas:
En primer lugar, cabe recordar que la vida bajo los persas era bastante buena y si
nos fijamos en los últimos 5 mil años de la historia de la humanidad, encontrarás muchos más Imperios
exitosos y estables que democracias.
En segundo lugar, la vida bajo los atenienses no fue tan genial, especialmente si eras una mujer
o un esclavo, y su gobierno era notoriamente corrupto.
Y al final, el gobierno ateniense deriva su poder, no de sus ciudadanos, sino de la
creencia imperialista que el poder impone el derecho.
Hungarian:
de az ókori görögök öröksége mélységesen kétértelmű, annál is inkább, mert a peloponészoszi háborúkat
a diktatórikus Spárta nyerte.
Köszi a segítséget, gondolat buborék.
Tehát itt egy nem-költői kérdés:
Vajon a "jó oldal" nyerte a perzsa háborúkat?
A klasszikus védelmezői a nyugati
hagyományoknak azt fogják mondani, hogy "Hát persze!
Hiszen a görögök győzelmének köszönhető a klasszikus kor kulturális virágzása.
Valamint, ha a perzsák nyertek volna, a monarchia megfojthatta volna a demokráciát,
aminek még több egyeduralmi berendezkedésű társadalom lehetett volna az eredménye.
Ez persze lehetséges, ellenérvként vessünk egy pillantást erre a három dologra:
Először is, érdemes megjegyezni, hogy az élet a perzsák uralma alatt elég jónak volt mondható,
és ha az utóbbi ötezer évre tekintünk, több sikeres és stabil egyeduralmi rendszert látunk,
mint amennyi sikeres és stabil demokráciát.
Másodszor, az élet Athénban nem volt olyan szuper, különösen nőként vagy szolgaként.
A kormányzat pedig hírhedten korrupt volt.
És az athéni kormány az erejét
nem polgáraiból merítette, hanem az imperialista meggyőződésből, hogy mindig az erősnek van igaza.
Chinese:
古希臘的影響盡其量可稱參差。
尤其因為伯羅奔尼撒戰爭最終得勝者是獨裁的斯巴達。
又是個悲哀的結尾。
我想你思考以下問題：希波戰爭希臘勝出是好事嗎。
古典學者和西方傳統擁護者會說當然要為希臘勝戰感幸。
打贏波斯才刺激希臘展開古典時期。
再說，波斯君王制勝利可能令民主胎死腹中，
其後只有更多一人專制。
反論點我想要提出以下三點：
一）波斯統治其實相對不差。
而近五千年來歷史上政局昌隆、平穩
帝國比民主來得多很多。
二）雅典人統治下生活並不那麼美好。
（尤其是女人和奴隸）
雅典政府更是出了名地腐敗。
雅典政治權力終極來源更不是人民，
而是強權即公理的帝國主義哲學。
Czech:
ale odkaz Řecka je poměrně nejasný,
nejen protože koneční vítězové
peloponéských válek
byli diktátorští Sparťané.
Děkujeme za hroznou smůlu,
Thought Bubble.
Položme si tuto otázku: Vyhrála
řecko-perské války ta správná strana?
Většina stoupenců
a obhájců západní kultury vám řekne,
že bychom samozřejmě měli
být rádi, že Řekové zvítězili.
Nakonec jejich vítězství
odstartovalo kulturní rozkět,
ze kterého vzešel klasický věk.
A navíc, kdyby vyhráli
Peršané se svou monarchií,
mohli zadusit demokracii v jejím
počátku a dát nám víc diktátorství.
To všechno je možné, ale můžeme
tomu odporovat; zvažme tyto tři věci:
Zaprvé, stojí za to nezapomenout,
že žít pod Peršany bylo docela fajn,
a když se podíváte na posledních
pět tisíc let lidské historie,
objevíte mnohem více úspěšných
a stabilních říší než demokracií.
Zadruhé, život
pod nadvládou Athén nebyl tak úžasný,
zvlášť jako žena nebo otrok,
a jejich vláda byla zkorumpovaná.
Athénská vláda
nezískává sílu z občanů,
ale z imperalistického přesvědčení,
že síla určuje, co je správné.
Je pravda, že nám Athény daly Sokrata,
Vietnamese:
nhưng di sản của Hy Lạp cổ đại rất mơ hồ, lí do lớn hơn là kẻ chiến thắng cuối cùng
trong Chiến tranh Peloponnesian là người Sparta độc tài
Đây là một câu hỏi không tu từ: Có phải bên đúng đã thắng cuộc chiến tranh Ba Tư?
Hầu hết nhà cổ điển và người bảo vệ truyền thống phương Tây sẽ nói
tất nhiên ta nên vui vì Hy Lạp thắng. Sau tất cả, thắng lợi trong chiến tranh Ba Tư đã khiến văn hóa nở rộ
cho chúng ta Thời kì Cổ điển. Hơn nữa, nếu Ba Tư thắng với nền quân chủ
có thể bóp nghẹt dân chủ từ trong trứng và cho chúng ta một sự thống trị nữa
Có thể, nhưng phản đối lại lý lẽ đó, hãy xem xét 3 điều:
Thứ nhất, nên nhớ rằng cuộc sống dưới người Ba Tư rất tốt, và nếu nhìn vào 5000 năm gần nhất
của lịch sử nhân loại, bạn sẽ thấy nhiều đế quốc thành công và ổn định
hơn các quốc gia dân chủ
Thứ hai, cuộc sống dưới người Athens không tuyệt cho lắm, đặc biệt nếu bạn là phụ nữ hoặc nô lệ,
chính quyền nổi tiếng tham nhũng. Và cuối cùng, chính quyền Athens
giành quyền lực không từ dân chúng, mà từ niềm tin đế quốc rằng Sức mạnh tạo ra quyền lực
French:
mais l'héritage de la Grèce antique est profondément ambiguë, d'autant plus parce que les grands vainqueurs
de la guerre du Péloponnèse étaient les Spartiates dictatoriaux.
Merci pour ce constat déprimant, Bulle d'idée.
Donc voici une question non rhétorique: Est-ce que le bon clan a gagné les guerres médiques?
La plupart des classicistes et défenseurs des traditions occidentales vont vous dire que bien sûr,
nous devrions être content que les Grecs aient gagné.
Après tout, la victoire des guerres médiques a lancé la prospérité culturelle qui nous a donné l'ère classique.
De plus, si les Perses avait gagné, avec leur monarchie, ils auraient pu étouffer la démocratie dans son berceau
et nous refiler plus de règnes à un seul dirigeant.
Et c'est possible, mais comme contre argument, considérons trois choses:
Premièrement, il faut se souvenir que la vie chez les Perses était plutôt bien et si
on regarde les 5 000 dernières années de l'histoire de l'humanité, on va trouver beaucoup plus
d'empires que de démocraties qui étaient prospères et stables.
Deuxièmement, la vie chez les Athéniens n'était pas si géniale, particulièrement si vous étiez une femme
ou un esclave et leur gouvernement était notoirement corrompu.
Ultimement, le gouvernement athénien puisait son pouvoir, non pas des citoyens,
mais de la croyance impérialiste de la loi du plus fort.
Portuguese:
legado da Grécia Antiga é profundamente ambíguo, ainda mais porque o vencedor
da guerra do Peloponeso foi a Esparta ditatorial.
Obrigada pela incrível animação Thought Bubble.
Então, aqui vai a pergunta não teórica: Será que o lado certo ganhou a guerra Persa?
A maioria dos classicistas e defensores da cultura ocidental dirão que nós devamos ficar
felizes pela vitória Grega.
Apesar de tudo, a vitória na Guerra Persa fez aflorar a cultura que deu origem
a era clássica. E mais, se os Persas tivessem ganho a guerra, sua monarquia provavelmente deve
ter atrasado a democracia e nos dado mas poder para Um.
Isso é provável, ms como contra argumento, vamos considerar três coisas:
Primeiro, vale lembrar que a vida no Império Persa era muito boa
e se você olhar para os últimos cinco mil anos da história da humanidade, mais impérios estáveis
estáveis e bem sucedido do que democracias.
Segundo, a vida em Atenha não era tão boa, principalmente se você for uma mulher
ou um escravo, e o governo era visivelmente corrupto.
E por ultimo, o governo Ateniense usou seu poder sob as cidades gregas
com a mentalidade imperialista que a ocasião faz o ladrão.
Arabic:
لكن إرث اليونان القديمة مبهم إلى حد كبير،
ويزيده إبهامًا أن الفائز النهائي في الحرب
البيلوبونيسية كان الاسبارطيين الديكتاتوريين.
شكرًا على هذه المعلومة المحبطة
يا فقاعة التخيل.
إليكم سؤال غير بلاغي:
هل كسب الجانب الصحيح الحروب الفارسية؟
معظم طلاب الدراسات القديمة
والمدافعين عن التراث الغربي
سيقولون لكم إنه بالطبع ينبغي لنا
أن نكون سعداء لفوز الإغريق،
ففوزهم في الحرب الفارسية
استهل ازدهارًا ثقافيًا منحنا العصر الكلاسيكي.
وبالإضافة إلى ذلك،
لو أن الفرس فازوا بنظامهم الملكيّ
لقتل ذلك الديمقراطية في مهدها
وأعطانا المزيد من حكم الرجل الواحد.
وهذا ممكن، ولكن كحجة مضادة لهذا الرأي،
دعونا نأخذ ثلاثة أمور بعين الاعتبار:
أولًا، من الجدير بالتذكر أن الحياة
في ظل حكم الفرس كانت جيدة جداً،
وإذا ما نظرتم الى الخمسة آلاف
سنة الأخيرة في تاريخ البشرية،
فستجدون عدد الإمبراطوريات الناجحة والمستقرة
أكبر بكثير من الديموقراطيات.
ثانيًا، لم تكن الحياة
في ظل حكم الأثينيين رائعة،
خاصة إذا كنت امرأة أو عبدًا،
كما كانت حكومتهم معروفة بفسادها.
وفي نهاية المطاف لم تكن الحكومة الأثينية
تستمد قوتها من مواطنيها،
وإنما من الاعتقاد الإمبريالي
بأن القوة هي الحق.
Dutch:
nalatenschap van de Griekse oudheid is een beetje dubbelzinnig, zelfs meer omdat de winnaar van
de Peleponnese oorlog de dictatorische Spartanen waren.
Dankje voor de ongelooflijke klaploper, gedachten bubbel.
Dus hier is een niet retorische vraag: Heeft de goede zijde de Perzische oorlog gewonnen?
Meeste classicisten en verdedigers van de Westerse traditie zullen je vertellen dat we natuurlijk
blij moeten zijn met dat de Grieken wonnen.
Per slot, het winnen van de Perzische oorlog begon een bloei van cultuur dat on de
klassieke eeuw gaf. En plus, als de Perzen hadden gewonnen met hun monarchie dat misschien democratie
had omgelegd in haar wieg en ons meer 1 mans heerschappij
En dat is mogelijk. maar als een counter tegen dat argument, laten we 3 dingen overwegen.
Ten eerste, het is goed om te herinneren dat leven onder de Perzen best wel goed was en als
je kijkt naar de laatste 5 duizend jaar van geschiedenis, zal je vinden dat er veel meer succesvolle
en stabiele rijken zijn dan democratieën.
Ten tweede, leven onder de Atheners was niet zo geweldig, specifiek als je een vrouw was
of een slaaf en hun regering was berucht corrupt.
en uiteindelijk haalde de Atheense regering niet zijn macht van het volk maar van de
imperialistische geloof dat macht, recht geeft
Swedish:
arvet från antikens Grekland är djupt tvetydig,
all mer så eftersom den slutliga vinnaren av det
peloponnesiska kriget var de diktatoriska Spartanerna.
Tack för den otroliga besvikelsen, tankebubblan.
Så här är en icke-retorisk fråga: Vann rätt sida de persiska krigen?
De flesta klassikerna och försvarare av den västerländska
traditionen kommer att säga att vi naturligtvis
borde vara glada att grekerna vann. Trots allt,
vinsten i de persiska krigeen skapade den kulturella
blomstring som gav oss den klassiska åldern.
Och plus, om Perserna hade vunnit med sin
monarki hade de kanske strypt demokratin
i krubban och gett oss mer enmans styre.
Och det är möjligt, men som ett motargument, låt oss betänka tre saker:
För det första är det värt att komma ihåg att livet
under perserna var ganska bra, och om
man tittar på de senaste fem tusen år av
mänsklighetens historia, hittar du långt fler framgångsrika
och stabila imperier än du kommer demokratier.
För det andra, livet under Atenarna var inte
så underbart, särskilt om du var kvinna
eller slav, och deras regering var ökänt
korrupt. Slutligen kom makten hos Atenska regeringen
inte från sina medborgare utan
från den imperialistiska tron att den starke har rätt.
English:
legacy of Ancient Greece is profoundly ambiguous,
all the moreso because the final winner of
the Peloponnesian War were the dictatorial Spartans.
Thanks for the incredible bummer, Thought Bubble.
So here’s a non-rhetorical question: Did
the right side win the Persian wars?
Most classicists and defenders of the Western
Tradition will tell you that of course we
should be glad the Greeks won. After all,
winning the Persian war set off the cultural
flourishing that gave us the Classical Age.
And plus, if the Persians had won with their
monarchy that might have strangled democracy
in its crib and given us more one-man rule.
And that’s possible, but as a counter that
argument, let’s consider three things:
First, it’s worth remembering that life
under the Persians was pretty good, and if
you look at the last five thousand years of
human history, you’ll find a lot more successful
and stable empires than you will democracies.
Second, life under the Athenians wasn’t
so awesome, particularly if you were a woman
or a slave, and their government was notoriously
corrupt. And ultimately the Athenian government
derived its power not from its citizens, but
from the imperialist belief that Might Makes
Russian:
Но наследие Древней Греции весьма противоречиво.
Это ещё более так из-за того, что в итоге победителями оказались властные спартанцы.
Вот это был облом, Thought Bubble.
Вот вам не риторический вопрос. Правильная ли сторона победила в Греко-Персидских войнах?
Большинство классиков и защитников западной традиции скажет, что мы
конечно же должны быть рады, что греки выиграли.
В конце концов победа в войне дала начало культурному процветанию и, собственно, периоду Античности.
И к тому же, если бы победили персы с их монархией, то они бы наверняка
задушили демократию в зародыше, что породило бы больше единоличных правлений.
Это было возможным, но в качестве контрагргумента давайте рассмотрим три пункта.
Во-первых, стоит помнить, что жизнь под персами была весьма неплохой.
И если вы посмотрите на последние 5000 истории человечества, то увидите, что
успешных и стабильных империй было гораздо больше, чем демократических государств.
Во-вторых, жизнь в Афинах не была такой уж классной, особенно если вы были
женщиной или рабом. А их правительство было известно своей коррумпированностью.
И по сути правительство Афин опиралось не на своих граждан,
а на империалистический принцип, что сильный всегда прав.
Да, это правда что Афины дали нам Сократа.
iw:
זה נכון שאתונה נתנה לנו סוקרטס,
אבל תנו לי להזכיר לכם שהם גם הרגו אותו.
***ובכן, אני מתכוון שהם אילצו אותו להתאבד.
לא משנה מה, הרודוטוס,
אתה לא היחיד כאן שיכול לעסוק ב"הטיה הסטורית".
ולבסוף, תחת שלטון פרסי היוונים
אולי היו נמנעים מהמלחמה הפלופונסית,
אשר בסופו של דבר החלישה את ערי המדינה היווניות
כל כך שאביו של "אלכסנדר (מגיע בקרוב) הגדול"
הצליח לכבוש את כולם, ולאחר מכן היו חבורה של מלחמות עקובות מדם
עם הפרסים וכל מיני
דברים נוראיים, ויוון לא הייתה מביאה דמוקרטיה שוב
במשך אלפיים שנה. כל זה היה יכול
להימנע אם הם רק היו מרשים לעצמם
לחטוף מכות על ידי הפרסים.
כל זה מאלץ אותנו לחזור אל שאלת השאלות
של ההיסטוריה האנושית:
"מה הטעם של להיות בחיים?"
יש לי חדשות טובות בשבילך בָּחוּר
אתה רק הולך לדאוג על זה במשך שמונה שניות נוספות.
אם זה להבטיח את החיים הכי ארוכים, בריאים ו-
פוריים עבור בני האדם? כי אם כן,
קל לטעון כי יוון הייתה צריכה להפסיד
במלחמה מול פרס. אבל אולי החיים הם
חיפוש אחר איזה אידיאל גדול
ששווה להקריב עבורו ללא הרף . ואם כך,
אולי תפארתה של אתונה עדיין זורחת, גם אם במעומעם.
Romanian:
E adevărat că Atena ni l-a dat pe Socrate dar lăsați-mă să vă reamintesc, tot ea l-a ucis.
Bine, vreau să spun că l-au forțat să se sinucidă.Oricum, Herodot, nu ești singurul
aici care ești înrolat într-o istorie părtinitoare.
Și în ultimul rând, sub dominație persană grecii ar fi putut evita Războiul peloponeziac,
care a slăbit orașele grecești atât de mult încât tatăl lui Alexandru Cel Venit Curând cel Mare
a fost capabil să-i cucerească pe toți, și atunci au existat o mulțime de războaie
sângeroase cu perșii și toate felurile de lucruri oribile și grecii nu vor mai vedea democrația din nou
timp de două milenii. Toate ar fi putut fi evitate dacă se lăsau
bătuți de perși.
Toate astea ne forțează să ne întoarcem la întrebarea fundamentală a istoriei omenirii: Care este scopul pentru care trăim?
Am vești bune pentru voi, băieți.N-o să vă îngrijorați
pentru asta mai mult de 8 secunde.Ar trebui să asigurăm cea mai lungă, cea mai sănătoasă și
cele mai bune vieți pentru oameni? Dacă da, e ușor să argumentăm că grecii ar fi trebuit
să piardă războaiele ci perșii.Dar poate viețile trebuie trăite urmând un mare ideal
care cere sacrificii nesfârșite. Și dacă e așa, poate gloria Atenei încă strălucește, cu toate că slab.
Spanish:
Es cierto que Atenas nos dieron a Sócrates, pero dejenme recordarles, también lo mataron.
Bueno, digo, lo obligaron a suicidarse.
Lo que sea, Heródoto. No eres el único
aquí que puede participar en el sesgo histórico.
Y por último, bajo el dominio persa los griegos podrían haber evitado la guerras médicas,
que acabó debilitando las ciudades-estado griegas tanto que el padre de Alejandro "Próximamente"
el Grande fue capaz de conquistarlas a todas y luego
hubo un montón de guerras
sangrientas con los persas y toda clase de cosas horribles y Grecia ni siquiera vería la democracia
de nuevo por dos milenios. Todo lo cual pudo haber sido evitado si se
hubieran dejado vencer por los persas.
Lo cual nos fuerza a regresas a nuestra pregunta núcleo de la historia humana: ¿Cuál es el punto
de estar vivo?
Tengo buenas noticias para ti, hombre. Solo tendrás que preocuparte por eso por unos
8 segundos más.
¿Deberíamos tratar de asegurar las vidas más largas, saludables y productivas para los humanos? Si es así,
es fácil decir que Grecia debió haber perdido las guerras médicas.
Pero quizás las vidas son para ser vividas en búsqueda de un gran ideal por el cual vale la pena
sacrificarse. Y si es así, tal vez la gloria de Atenas
aún brilla, aunque débilmente.
Hungarian:
Igaz, hogy Athén adta nekünk Szókratészt, de hadd emlékeztesselek, hogy ők is ölték meg.
Vagyis egészen pontosan: arra kényszerítették, hogy öngyilkosságot kövessen el.
Bárhogy is, Hérodotosz, nem te vagy az egyetlen,
akinek az előítéletei torzítják a történelmet.
És végül, perzsa uralom alatt a görögök elkerülhették volna a peloponnészoszi háborút,
ami miatt a városállamok úgy meggyengültek, hogy Nagy "Hamarosan Következik" Sándor
apja az összeset meg tudta hódítani, csomó véres harc
és egyéb válogatott szörnyűségek árán.
Görögország hírét se hallotta a demokráciának
a következő két évezreden keresztül.
Ez talán mind elkerülhető lett volna,
ha vereséget szenvednek a perzsáktól.
Mindez arra kényszerít bennünket, hogy visszatérjünk a történelem legnagyobb kérdéséhez:
Mi az élet értelme? A jó hírem számodra, hogy már csak 8 másodpercig
kell emiatt eggódnod. Érdekünk, hogy igyekezzünk biztosítani mindenki számára a hosszú, egészséges,
és produktív életet? Ha igen, akkor könnyűszerrel állíthatjuk, hogy a görögöknek veszíteniük kellett volna
a görög-perzsa háborúkban.
Bár talán élet értelme inkább a folyamatos törekvés,
és feláldozni mindent a végtelenségig
valami nemesb cél érdekében.
Ha így van, talán Athén dicsősége máig is ragyog... homályosan.
French:
Certes, il est vrai qu'Athènes nous a laissé Socrate, mais laissez moi vous rappeler qu'ils l'ont également tué.
Bon, je veux dire qu'ils l'ont forcé à se suicider. Peu imorte, Hérodote, tu n'es pas le seul
à se livrer aux biais historiques.
Et finalement, sous le règne perse, les Grecs auraient pu éviter la guerre du Péloponnèse,
qui, au final, a affaibli les cités-États grecques au point où le père d'Alexandre "À Venir Bientôt" le Grand
a pu toutes les conquérir, suivi d'un paquet de guerres sanglantes avec les Perses,
et toutes sortes de choses horribles, et que la Grèce n'aient pu voir l'ombre de la démocratie
pour deux millénaires. Tout ça aurait pu être évité s'ils s'étaient seulement laissé battre par les Perses!
Tout ça nous ramène à la question centrale de l'histoire de l'humanité:
Quel est le but d'être en vie?
J'ai de bonnes nouvelles pour toi mec. Tu vas devoir t'en soucier que pour 8 secondes de plus.
Devrions-nous tenter d'assurer une vie plus longue et en santé et productive pour les humains?
Si oui, c'est facile de faire valoir que la Grèce aurait dû perdre les guerres médiques.
Mais peut-être que la vie doit être vécue comme la poursuite d'un grand idéal qui vaut la peine de se sacrifier sans cesse.
Et si c'est le cas, peut-être que la gloire d'Athènes brille toujours, bien que faiblement.
Vietnamese:
Đúng là Athens cho chúng ta Socrate, nhưng họ cũng giết ông ta
Ý tôi là bắt ông tự tử.
Dù sao, Herodotus, ông không phải
người duy nhất ở đây bẻ cong lịch sử
Sau cùng, dưới sự cai trị của Ba Tư, người Hy Lạp có thể đã tránh được chiến tranh Peloponnesian,
mà kết cục làm suy yếu các thành bang Hy Lạp
đến nỗi cha của
Alexander "sắp đến" Đại đế có thể chinh phục tất cả, rồi hàng loạt
cuộc chiến đẫm máu với người Ba Tư và đủ thứ kinh khủng, và Hi Lạp không thoáng thấy lại
nền dân chủ trong 2 thiên niên kỉ. Tất cả có thể tránh khỏi nếu họ
để mình bị người Ba Tư đánh bại
Tất cả buộc chúng ta quay lại câu hỏi cốt lõi của của lịch sử loài người:
Sống để làm gì? Tôi có tin tốt cho các bạn. Bạn sẽ chỉ phải lo về nó
trong vòng 8 giây nữa. Chúng ta có nên cố đảm bảo cuộc sống lâu dài, khỏe mạnh,
sinh sôi nhất cho con người? Nếu vậy, dễ kết luận Hi Lạp nên thua Chiến tranh Ba Tư
Nhưng có lẽ đời là sống để theo đuổi vài lý tưởng vĩ đại
đáng để không ngừng hi sinh. Và nếu thế, có lẽ hào quang của Athens vãn tỏa sáng, nhưng mập mờ
Arabic:
صحيح أن أثينا منحتنا سقراط،
ولكن اسمحوا لي أن أذكركم بأنها قتلته أيضًا.
أو بالأحرى أجبروه على الانتحار.
مت بغيظك يا هيرودوت، لست الوحيد
الذي يستطيع ممارسة التحيز التاريخي.
وأخيرًا، في ظل الحكم الفارسي لربما كان الإغريق
سيتجنبون الحرب البيلوبونيسية،
والتي انتهى بها المطاف
إلى إضعاف دول المدن اليونانية بشدة،
درجة أن والد إسكندر الأكبر
"الذي سنناقشه قريبًا" استطاع غزوها جميعًا،
ثم وقعت عدة حروب دامية مع الفرس
وشتى الأحداث المرعبة
التي لم يشم الإغريق بعدها رائحة
الديموقراطية مجددًا لمدة ألفي السنين.
وهذا كله كان بالإمكان تفاديه لو أنهم
سمحوا لأنفسهم بالتعرض للهزيمة على يد الفرس.
وهذا كله يجبرنا على العودة
إلى السؤال الأساسي في التاريخ البشري:
ما مغزى الحياة؟
لدي نبأ سار لك يا صديقي.
بعد 8 ثوان لن تعود بحاجة
إلى القلق بشأن ذلك السؤال.
هل ينبغي لنا أن نحاول السعي لتحقيق
أطول وأصحّ حياة وأكثرها إنتاجية للبشر؟
إذا صحّ ذلك، فمن السهل إقامة الحجة بأن الإغريق
كان ينبغي أن يخسروا الحروب الفارسية.
فربما يُفترض عيش الحياة في نصرة مُثل عظيمة
تستحق أن نضحي من أجلها بكل ما نملك.
وإذا صحّ ذلك فلربما ما يزال
نور مجد أثينا مُشعًا، وإن كان خافتًا.
تلك هي الأسئلة الحقيقية التي علينا أن نستخلص
الإجابة عنها من التاريخ: ما مغزى الحياة؟
Finnish:
On totta, että Ateena antoi meille Sokrateen, mutta muistetaan, että he myös tappoivat hänet.
Tarkoitan siis, että he pakottivat hänet tekemään itsemurhan. Oli miten oli Herodotos,
et ole ainoa jolla on historiallinen asenteellisuus.
Ja viimeiseksi, persialaisten alaisena kreikkalaiset olisivat voineet välttää peloponnesolaissodan,
joka heikensi Kreikan kaupunkivaltioita niin, että (pian tulevan) Aleksander
Suuren isän oli mahdollista valloittaa ne kaikki ja sitten oli monta veristä
sotaa persialaisten kanssa ja kaikenlaisia kaameita asioita ja Kreikka ei näkisi demokratiaa
enää kahteen tuhanteen vuoteen. Kaikki olisi voitu välttää, jos he vain
olisivat antaneet persialaisten voittaa heidät.
Kaikki tämä pakottaa meitä palaamaan historian ydinkysymykseen: Mitä järkeä
on elossa olemisessa?
Minulla on hyviä uutisia sinulle, ukko. Sinun on mietittävä tätä vain seuraavat
8 sekuntia.
Pitäisikö meidän varmistaa pisin, terveellisin ja tuottavin elämä ihmisille? Jos niin,
on helppoa väitellä, että Kreikan olisi pitänyt hävitä persialaissodat.
Mutta ehkäpä elämä kuuluu elää jonkin suuren idean tavoittelussa, jolle voi uhrautua
ikuisesti. Jos niin on, Ateenan loisto kiiltää
yhä, tosin himmeästi.
Portuguese:
Verdade que Atena nos presenteou com Socrates, mas deixe-me lembrá-lo, eles também o mataram.
Bem, na verdade eles o forçaram a cometer suicídio. Tanto faz, Heródoto,
você não é o único aqui que conhece a História.
E por último, sob as regras Espartanas, os gregos poderiam ter evitado a guerra do Peloponeso.
A guerra que enfraqueceu a Gregas, deixando-as vuneráveis para que o pai de Alexandre "próximo vídeo"
o Grande conseguir conquistar toda a região, depois de um banho de sangue
nas guerras contra Persas e todas as coisas horríveis e a democracia grega não teria desaparecido
por dois milênios. E tudo isso poderia ser evitado se
eles deixassem os Persas ganharem.
E tudo isso nos força a retornar para a questão humana de sempre: Qual a razão
de estarmos vivos?
Eu tenho boas notícias para você. Só precisará se preocupar com isso pelos próximos
8 segundos.
Deveremos tentar garantir uma vida mais longa, saudável e produtiva para todos os humanos. Se for
é fácil argumentar que os Gregos deveriam ter perdido a guerra Persa.
Mas se as vida deve ser vivida para perseguir um ideal de sacrifício
então a glória de Atenas continua a
brilhar, vagamente.
Chinese:
雅典出了蘇格拉底沒錯，但要記得雅典也將他處決。
嚴格說是逼迫他服毒自殺，這沒差啦。
希羅多德你看，歷史偏差我也可以。
三）波斯統治下可避免伯羅奔尼撒戰爭。
諸城邦飽受戰爭摧殘、耗弱，
亞歷山大（即將登場）的父親甚至得以一統希臘。
之後還與波斯爆發一系列血腥戰爭等壞事，
希臘甚至兩千年間將不再見民主蹤影，
他們倘若戰敗這一切就不必發生。
這逼使我們回到研究歷史的核心問題：
活著是為了什麼？
黑板上的仁兄，好消息是你只須為此題煩惱約八秒。
意義是為人類爭取長壽、健康、有為的生活嗎？
是如此那希臘就應該要敗仗才對。
但也有可能活著是為了可無限付出的理想。
是如此那雅典可能依然發射光芒（雖然黯淡）
Thai:
จริงอยู่ที่เอเธนส์มอบโสเครตีสให้เรา แต่อย่าลืมว่า พวกเขาก็เป็นคนฆ่าโสเครตีสด้วย
คือ ผมหมายถึงพวกเขาบังคับให้โสเครตีสฆ่าตัวตาย
ช่างเถอะ เฮอรอโดทัส คุณไม่ใช่คนเดียวที่มีอคติทางประวัติศาสตร์นะครับ
และสุดท้าย ภายใต้การปกครองของเปอร์เซีย สงครามเพโลพอนนีเซียนอาจจะไม่เกิดขึ้นก็ได้
สงครามนี้ได้ทำให้กรีกอ่อนแอลงมากซะจน พระบิดาของอเล็กซานเดอร์มหาราช
สามารถยึดครองกรีกได้เกือบทั้งหมด และตามมาด้วยสงครามกับเปอร์เซียอีกหลายครั้ง
และกรีกก็ไม่ได้พบเจอกับประชาธิปไตยไปอีก 2000 ปี
ทั้งหมดนี้อาจไม่เกิดขึ้น
ถ้าพวกเขาแพ้เปอร์เซีย
ทั้งหมดนี้ทำให้เรากลับมาตั้งคำถามสำคัญเกี่ยวกับประวัติศาสตร์ของมวลมนุษยชาติ
ทำไมเราถึงมีชีวิตอยู่? ผมมีข่าวดีมาบอกครับ
เราจะกังวลกับเรื่องนี้อีกแค่ 8 วินาทีเท่านั้น
เราควรพยายามให้มนุษย์มีชีวิตที่ยืนยาว แข็งแรง และมีคุณภาพหรือไม่?
ถ้าใช่ เราก็อาจบอกได้ว่าเปอร์เซียควรจะชนะกรีกในสงครามเปอร์เซีย
แต่หากชีวิตคือการไล่ตามความเชื่อบางอย่าง และยอมสละทุกอย่างเพื่อให้ได้มันมา
ถ้าเป็นอย่างนั้น ความยิ่งใหญ่ของเอเธนส์ยังคงส่องแสง แม้จะริบหรี่ก็ตาม
Turkish:
Atina'nın bize Sokratı verdiği doğru ama hatırlayın, onu öldürdü de.
Yani, onu intihara zorladı. Her neyse, Herodot, burada tarihi ön yargısı olan tek
kişi sen değilsin.
Son olarak, Pers egemenliğinde Pelopones Savaşı engellenebilirdi.
Bu savaş şehir-devletleri o kadar yıprattı ki Büyük" Birazdan Geliyor" İskender'in
babası hepsini fethedebildi. Sonrasında Persler ile kanlı
savaşlar ve o kadar kötü şeyler yaşandı ki Yunanistan iki binyıl
boyunca demokrasiye geçmedi. Bunların hepsi Persler'e
yenilselerdi önlenebilirdi.
Bütün bular bizi tekrar insanlığın en önemli sorusuna götürüyor: Yaşamanın anlamı ne?
Bütün bular bizi tekrar insanlığın en önemli sorusuna götürüyor: Yaşamanın anlamı ne?
Senin için iyi bir haberim var. Sadece 8 saniye daha endişelenmen
gerekiyor.
İnsanlar için en uzun, en sağlıklı ve en üretken yaşamları mı sağlamalıyız?
Eğer öyleyse Yunanistan Pers Savaşları'nı kaybetti.
Belkide hayatımız hiç bitmeyecek bir ideale ulaşma yolunda feda etmeliyiz.
Eğer böyleyse Atinalıların zaferi hala parlıyor,
daha az, ama parlıyor.
Swedish:
Det är sant att Aten gav oss Sokrates,
men låt mig påminna er, de dödade honom också.
Tja, de tvingade honom att begå självmord.
Oavsett, Herodotos, du är inte den enda
här som kan engagera sig i historisk partiskhet.
Och slutligen, under persiskt styre kunde grekerna
ha undvikit det peloponnesiska kriget,
som försvagade de grekiska stadsstaterna
så mycket att Alexander "Snart här" den
Stores far kunde erövra
dem alla, och sedan fanns det en massa blodiga
krig med perserna och alla typer av fruktansvärda
saker, och Grekland skulle inte skymta demokrati
igen för två årtusenden. Allt detta kanske kunde
ha undvikits om de skulle bara låtit sig
slås av perserna.
Detta tvingar oss att återvända till kärnan när det gäller mänsklighetens historia: Vad är poängen
med att vara vid liv? Jag har goda nyheter för dig,
grabben. Du kommer bara att behöva oroa
dig i ca åtta sekunder till. Skall
vi försöka att säkerställa längsta, mest hälsosamma,
och mest produktiva liv för människor? Om så är fallet,
är det lätt att hävda att Grekland ska ha
förlorat persiska krigen. Men liv kanske är
att leva i jakten på några stora ideal
värt att offra för i oändlighet. Om så är fallet,
kanske Atens ära fortfarande lyser, om än, svagt.
Dutch:
Het is waar dat Athene ons Socrates gaf, maar laat me je herinneren, zij vermoorde hem ook.
Nou ja, ik bedoel ze forceerde hem om zelfmoord te plegen. Hoe dan ook, Herodotus, je bent niet de enige
hier die kan meedoen in historische voorinneming.
En ten laatste, onder Perzische heerschappij hadden de Grieken misschien de Peloponnesian oorlog ontweken,
die eindigde met een verzwakking van de Griekse staatsteden zo ver dat Alexander "Coming Soon" de
grote's vader mogelijk was om ze allemaal te veroveren en toen was er een bloedige hoop van
oorlogen met de Perzen en allerlei soorten van verschrikkelijke dingen en Griekenland zou democratie niet meer zien
voor 2 millennia.
Wat allemaal voorkomen had kunnen zijn als zij zich
gewoon hadden laten verslaan door de Perzen.
Wat ons allemaal weer terug drijft naar de basis vraag van de menselijke geschiedenis: Wat is het nut
van levend zijn?
Ik heb goed nieuws voor je, jongen. Je hoeft je er alleen maar zorgen over te maken voor
8 meer seconden
Zullen we proberen te zorgen voor de langste, gezondste en meest productieve levens voor mensen? Zo ja,
is het makkelijk om te beargumenteren dat Griekenland de Perzische oorlog zou moeten verliezen.
Maar misschien zijn levens ervoor om te leven in achtervolging van een groter ideaal, wat het waard is om je voor op te offeren.
En als het zo is, schijnt er misschien nog steeds iets van de glorie van Athene
, hoe dim dan ook.
Czech:
ale dovolte mi vám
připomenout, že ho také zabily.
Chtěl jsem říct,
že ho donutily spáchat sebevraždu.
Co už, Hérodote, nejsi jediný,
kdo byl historicky předpojatý.
Konečně pod Peršany se Řekové
mohli vyhnout peloponéské válce,
která jen zeslabila řecké státy
natolik, že táta Alexadera Velikého,
o něm již brzy, je mohl všechny
dobýt a pak nastal čas krvavých
válek s Peršany a dalších
hrůz a Řecko nevidělo demokracii
další dvě tisíciletí.
Toho všeho se mohli vyvarovat,
kdyby se jen nechali porazit Peršany.
Tohle všechno nás nutí se vrátit
k nejpodstatnější otázce historie:
Proč žijeme?
Mám pro tebe dobrou zprávu, kámo.
Budeš si s tím muset lámat hlavu
už jen asi 8 vteřin.
Měli bychom zajistit lidem co nejdelší,
nejzdravější a nejproduktivnější životy?
Pokud ano je snadné obhájit,
že Řecko mělo prohrát řecko-perské války.
Ale možná se mají životy žít
v honbě za ideálem, za který stojí
se obětovat. A pokud ano,
možná sláva Athén stále září,
i když jen mdle.
Toto jsou skutečné otázky historie:
Modern Greek (1453-):
Είναι αλήθεια ότι η Αθήνα μας έδωσε τον Σωκράτη, αλλά να σας θυμίσω ότι τον σκότωσε κιόλας.
Τον εξανάγκασαν σε αυτοκτονία δηλαδή.
Τέλος πάντων Ηρόδοτε, δεν υποπίπτεις μόνο εσύ σε ιστορική μεροληψία.
Και τελικά υπό Περσική κυριαρχία οι Έλληνες μπορεί να είχαν αποφύγει τον Πελοποννησιακό πόλεμο,
ο οποίος έληξε αποδυναμώνοντας τις πόλεις-κράτη τόσο πολύ
που ο πατέρας του Μέγα -έρχεται σύντομα- Αλέξανδρου κατάφερε να τις κατακτήσει όλες
και μετά ακολούθησαν πόλεμοι με τους Πέρσες και όλων των ειδών φρικτά πράγματα,
και η Ελλάδα δεν θα έβλεπε ξανά τη δημοκρατία για δύο χιλιετίες.
Όλα αυτά πιθανόν να είχαν αποφευχθεί εάν επέτρεπαν στους εαυτούς τους να τις φάνε από τους Πέρσες
Όλα αυτά μας αναγκάζουν να επιστρέψουμε στο κεντρικό ερώτημα της ανθρώπινης ιστορίας:
Ποιο είναι το νόημα του να είσαι ζωντανός?
Σου έχω καλά νέα φίλε, Θα πρέπει να σε απασχολήσει μόνο για 8 δευτερόλεπτα ακόμα.
Πρέπει να προσπαθούμε να εξασφαλίσουμε μακροζωία, ευεξία και παραγωγική ζωή για τους ανθρώπους?
Αν είναι έτσι, είναι εύκολο να ισχυριστούμε ότι η Ελλάδα θα έπρεπε να χάσει τους Περσικούς πολέμους
Αλλά ίσως θα πρέπει να ζούμε επιδιώκοντας κάποια ιδανικά για τα οποία αξίζει κανείς να πεθαίνει επ'αόριστον
Και αν είναι έτσι, τότε η Αθηναϊκή δόξα ίσως λάμπει ακόμα
ωστόσο αμυδρά
Αυτές είναι οι πραγματικές ερωτήσεις της ιστορίας:
Ποιο είναι το νόημα του να είσαι ζωντανός?
Russian:
Но позвольте напомнить, что они же и убили его.
Ну, всмысле что они заставили его совершить самоубийство.
Так или иначе, Геродот, ты не единственный, кто подвержен исторической предвзятости.
И последнее. Под персами греки вполне могли бы избежать Пелопонесской войны,
которая настолько ослабила греческие города, что отец Александра "скоро Великого"
смог завоевать их все.
А потом ещё была куча кровопролитных войн с персами и много других ужасных вещей.
Демократия в Греции потухнет на 2000 лет.
И всего этого можно было избежать, если бы греки лишь позволили персам побить себя.
Это заставляет нас снова вернуться к ключевому вопросу истории человечества.
В чём смысл быть живым?
У меня для тебя хорошие новости, приятель.
Тебе осталось задаваться этим вопросом не более 6 секунд.
Должны ли мы стараться сделать жизнь людей длиннее, здоровее и полноценнее?
Если да, то легко согласиться, что Греции было бы лучше проиграть войну с Персией.
Но возможно мы должны жить ради некоего великого идеала, который стоит всех этих бесконечных жертв.
И если так, то может быть слава Афин
всё ещё сияет в веках.
Пусть и тускло.
German:
Es stimmt, dass die Athener uns Sokrates gegeben haben, aber bedenkt, dass sie ihn auch getötet haben.
Nun ja, das heißt, sie haben ihn gezwungen Selbstmord zu begehen. Wie auch immer, Herodot, du bist nicht der einzige hier,
der voreingenommen sein kann.
Und schließlich hätten die Griechen unter persischer Führung den Peloponnesischen Krieg vermeiden können,
der die griechischen Stadtstaaten so schwächte, dass der Vater von Alexander "Coming Soon" dem Großen
in der Lage war, sie alle einzunehmen, und dann gab es eine Menge blutiger
Kriege mit den Persern und lauter furchtbare Dinge und die Griechen hatten für zwei Jahrtausende
keine Demkoratie mehr. Das alles hätte vermieden werden können, wenn sie sich
einfach nur von den Persern hätten besiegen lassen.
Das alles zwingt uns dazu, zur Kernfrage der menschlichen Geschichte zurückzukehren: Was ist der Sinn
des Lebens?
Ich habe gute Nachrichten für dich, Kumpel. Du musst dich nur noch
acht weitere Sekunden gedulden.
Sollten wir Menschen die längsten, gesündesten und produktivsten Leben gewährleisten? Wenn ja,
ist es einfach zu argumentieren, dass die Griechen die Perserkriege hätten verlieren sollen.
Doch vielleicht sollten Leben gelebt werden, indem man ein großartiges Ideal verfolgt, und sind es wert, dafür geopfert zu werden.
Und wenn das so ist, scheint der Ruhm Athens vielleicht nich immer,
wenn auch gedimmt.
English:
Right. It’s true that Athens gave us Socrates,
but let me remind you, they also killed him.
Well, I mean they forced him to commit suicide.
Whatever, Herodotus, you’re not the only
one here who can engage in historical bias.
And lastly, under Persian rule the Greeks
might have avoided the Peloponnesian War,
which ended up weakening the Greek city-states
so much that Alexander “Coming Soon” the
Great’s father was able to conquer all of
them, and then there were a bunch of bloody
wars with the Persians and all kinds of horrible
things, and Greece wouldn’t glimpse democracy
again for two millennia. All of which might
have been avoided if they’d just let themselves
get beaten by the Persians.
All of which forces us to return to the core
question of human history: What’s the point
of being alive? I’ve got good news for you,
guy. You’re only going to have to worry
about it for about 8 more seconds. Should
we try to ensure the longest, healthiest,
and most productive lives for humans? If so,
it’s easy to argue that Greece should have
lost the Persian Wars. But perhaps lives are
to be lived in pursuit of some great ideal
worth sacrificing endlessly for. And if so,
maybe the glory of Athens still shines, however dimly.
Polish:
To prawda że Ateńczycy dali nam Sokratesa , ale pozwólcie mi przypomnieć, że oni też go zabili.
To znaczy , miałem na myśli że zmusili go do popełnienia samobójstwa. W każdym razie , Herodotusie, nie jesteś jedynym
który potrafi manipulować faktami historycznymi.
I na koniec, pod Perskimi rządami Grecy być może uniknęliby Wojny Peloponeskiej
która osłabiła greckie miasta-państwa tak bardzo że ojciec Aleksandra "Wkrótce nadchodzę" Wielkiego
był w stanie podbić je wszystkie a potem było pełno krwawych wojen
z Persami i pełno strasznych rzeczy a Grecja nie odzyskała demokracji
przez kolejne dwa tysiąclecia. Wszystkiego tego można było uniknąć
jeśli pozwoliliby się pokonać Persom.
Wszystko to zmusza nas do powrotu do odwiecznego pytania w historii ludzkości: Jaki jest
sens życia ?
Mam dla Ciebie dobre wieści. Będziesz musiał sie nad tym zastanawiać tylko przez
następne 8 sekund.
Czy powinniśmy zapewniać najdłuższe, najzdrowsze i najbardziej produktywne życie dla ludzi? Jeśli tak,
to łatwo dowieść , że Grecy powinni przegrać Wojny Perskie.
Ale być może życie jest pogonią za jakąś wielką ideą wartą poświęcenia.
A jeśli tak , to może chwała Aten wciąż
lśni , aczkolwiek niewyraźnie.
Arabic:
وكيف ينبغي لنا أن ننظم أنفسنا
وماذا ينبغي أن نبتغي من هذه الحياة؟
هذه ليست أسئلة هيّنة، ولكننا سنحاول
الإجابة عنها مجددًا في الأسبوع المقبل
عندما نتحدث عن بوذا. أراكم آنذاك.
Crash Course من إنتاج وإخراج ستان مولر
والمشرفة على النص هي دانيكا جونسون
وفريق الرسومات هو Thought Bubble
والبرنامج من كتابة مدرّسي لمادة التاريخ
في الثانوية، راؤول ماير، بمساعدة مني.
عبارة الأسبوع في الأسبوع الماضي
كانت "Un mot de français".
إذا وددتم تخمين عبارة هذا الأسبوع
يمكنكم القيام بذلك في قسم التعليقات،
كما يمكنكم طرح الأسئلة
حول فيديو اليوم في قسم التعليقات
حيث سيحاول فريقنا من المؤرخين الإجابة عنها.
شكرًا على المشاهدة،
ولا تنسوا أن تكونوا رائعين.
Polish:
To jest prawdziwe pytanie historii:
Jaki jest sens życia ? Jak powinniśmy organizować
samych siebie , czego powinniśmy szukać w tym życiu ? To nie są łatwe pytania, ale
będziemy szukać na nie odpowiedzi w kolejnym tygodniu kiedy porozmawiamy o Buddzie.
Do zobaczenia.
Crash Course jest kręcony i reżyseroway przez Stana Mullera. Nadzorcą scenariusza jest Danica Johnson.
Zespołem graficznym jest ThoughtBubble a odcinek napisany jest przez mojego licealnego nauczyciela historii
Raoula Meyera i mnie.
Nasze zdanie na zeszły tydzień było "Un mot de Francais" Jeśli chcesz zgadnąć
zdanie na ten tydzień , możesz to zrobić w komentarzach. Możesz także zadawać pytania
na temat dzisiejszego odcinka na które nasz zespół historyków postara się odpowiedzieć.
Dzięki za oglądanie i nie zapomnijcie żeby być super.
Thai:
คำถามเหล่านี้คือคำถามสำคัญในการศึกษาประวัติศาสตร์
ทำไมเราถึงมีชีวิตอยู่? เราควรทำตัวยังไง?
เราควรค้นหาอะไรจากการมีชีวิต? คำถามเหล่านี้ไม่ใช่คำถามง่ายๆ
แต่เราจะค่อยๆหาคำตอบกันต่อในสัปดาห์หน้า
เมื่อเราพูดถึงพระพุทธเจ้า แล้วพบกันครับ
แครชคอร์ส อำนวยการผลิตและกำกับโดย สแตน มุลเลอร์
ผู้ตรวจบทได้แก่ เดนิกา จอห์นสัน
ทีมกราฟฟิกได้แก่ Thought Bubble และรายการนี้เขียนบทโดยอาจารย์วิชาประวัติศาสตร์สมัยม.ปลายของผม
ราอูล มาเยอร์ และผมเอง
วลีประจำสัปดาห์ของสัปดาห์ที่แล้วคือ "Un mot de français"
คุณสามารถทายวลีประจำสัปดาห์นี้ได้ที่คอมเม้นท์ใต้วิดิโอ
คุณสามารถถามคำถามเกี่ยวกับวิดีโอวันนี้ได้ที่คอมเม้นท์
ทีมงานนักประวัติศาสตร์ของเราจะพยายามหาคำตอบให้คุณ
ขอบคุณสำหรับการรับชม และอย่าลืมทำตัวให้เจ๋งนะครับ
Hungarian:
Ezek a történelem valódi kérdései: Mi az életünk értelme? Hogyan kéne szerveznünk a mindennapjainkat?
Mit várunk el létünk eredményétől?
Ezek nem könnyű kérdések, de talán
közelebb kerülünk a válaszhoz jövő héten is, amikor Buddháról fogunk beszélni. Akkor majd találkozunk.
Crach Course producere és rendezője Stan Muller, a script szupervízor Danica Johnson,
A grafikáért a gondolat buborék felel, és a show
a gimnáziumi történelem tanárom , Raoul Meyerrel írtam.
A hét mondása „Un mot de français”. Ha szeretnék kitalálni, mi a következő hét mondása,
várom a tippedet kommentben, bármilyen felmerülő kérdéssel egyetemben.
A történészekből álló csapatunk megkísérel válaszolni rájuk.
Köszönjük a figyelmet, és maradjatok ilyen szuperek.
Vietnamese:
Đó là những câu hỏi thực sự của lịch sử: Mục đích tồn tại là gì? Chúng ta nên tổ chức ra sao,
nên tìm kiếm điều gì trong kiếp này? Không phải các câu hỏi dễ, nhưng chúng ta
sẽ tiếp tục cố gắng vào tuần sau khi nói về Đức Phât. Hẹn gặp lại các bạn
Crash Course được sản xuất và đạo diễn bởi Stan
Muller, giám sát kịch bản của chúng tôi là Danica Johnson,
nhóm nghiên cứu đồ họa được tưởng Bubble, và
chương trình được viết bởi lịch sử trung học của tôi
giáo viên Raoul Meyer và tôi.
cụm từ của chúng tôi trong tuần tuần trước là "Un mot
de français". Nếu bạn muốn đoán đây
cụm từ tuần của tuần, bạn có thể làm như vậy
trong ý kiến. Bạn cũng có thể đặt câu hỏi về
video hiện nay trong ý kiến nơi nhóm chúng tôi
của các nhà sử học sẽ cố gắng trả lời chúng.
Cảm ơn bạn đã xem và Do not Forget To Be
Tuyệt vời.
Modern Greek (1453-):
Πως θα πρέπει να οργανώσουμε τους εαυτούς μας?
Τι πρέπει να ζητήσουμε από αυτή τη ζωή;
Αυτές δεν είναι εύκολες ερωτήσεις, αλλά θα τις προσπαθήσουμε την επόμενη εβδομάδα όπου θα μιλήσουμε για τον Βούδα.
Θα τα πούμε τότε!
Παραγωγή και σκηνοθεσία του Crash Course από τον Stan Muller, επόπτης σεναρίου είναι η Danica Johnson
ομάδα γραφικών είναι η ThoughtBubble
και η παράσταση είναι γραμμένη από τον καθηγητή ιστορίας στο γυμνάσιο μου Raoul Meyer και εμένα.
Φράση της προηγούμενης εβδομάδας ήταν η "Un mot de français ".
Αν θέλετε να μαντέψετε τη φράση αυτής της εβδομάδας μπορείτε να το κάνετε στα σχόλια.
Μπορείτε επίσης να κάνετε ερωτήσεις σχετικά με το σημερινό βίντεο στα σχόλια όπου η ομάδα των ιστορικών μας θα προσπαθήσει να απαντήσει.
Ευχαριστώ για την προβολή, και μην ξεχνάτε να είστε φοβεροί!
Dutch:
Dat zijn de echte vragen van geschiedenis: Wat is het doel van levend zijn? Hoe zouden we ons moeten organiseren,
wat zouden we moeten zoeken in dit leven? Dat zijn geen gemakkelijke vragen, maar we
zullen nog een poging tot ze wagen volgende week wanneer we praten over de Boeddha.
Ik zie je dan weer.
Crash Course is geproduceerd en geregisseerd door Stan Muller. Onze script opzichter is Danica Johnson.
Het grafische team is ThoughtBubble en de show is geschreven door mijn Middelbare school geschiedenis
docent Raoul Meyer en mij.
Onze uitdrukking van de week was vorige week "Un Mot De Francais". Als je wilt gokken wat deze
week's uitdrukking is kan je dat doen in de comments. Je kan ook vragen stellen over
vandaag's video in de comments waar ons team van historici zal proberen ze te beantwoorden.
English:
Those are the real questions of history: What’s
the point of being alive? How should we organize
ourselves, what should we seek from this life?
Those aren’t easy questions, but we’ll
take another crack at them next week when
we talk about the Buddha. I’ll see you then.
Crash Course is produced and directed by Stan
Muller, our script supervisor is Danica Johnson,
the graphics team is Thought Bubble, and the
show is written by my high school history
teacher Raoul Meyer and me.
Our phrase of the week last week was "Un mot
de français". If you’d like to guess this
week’s phrase of the week you can do so
in comments. You can also ask questions about
today’s video in comments where our team
of historians will attempt to answer them.
Thanks for watching, and Don't Forget To Be
Awesome.
Portuguese:
Essas perguntas são realmente relacionadas a história: Porque estamos vivos? Como nós
deviríamos nos organizaram, o que deveríamos tirar da vida? Essas questões não são fáceis, mas nós
teremos mais na próxima semana, na qual falaremos sobre Buddha.
Vejo você lá
Crash Course é produzido e dirigido por Stan Muller.
Nosso supervisor de roteiro é Danica Johnshon
O time gráfico é a ThoughtBubble e o show é escrito por meu professor do ensino médio
Raoul Meyer e eu.
Nossa frase da semana passado por 'Un Mot De Fracais". Se você quer adivinhar
a frase da próxima semana, escreva nos comentários. Você também pode fazer perguntas
sobre o vídeio de hoje nos cometários no qual nosso time de historiados tentaram responder.
Obrigado por assistir e não se esqueça de ser incrível.
Chinese:
這些問題是歷史學精隨、意義：
活著為何？要如何組織？
一生中該盼望那些事？
沒一題容易解答，下週討論菩薩時再試解答。
下週再見。
本節目導演兼製作人是Stan Muller。
劇本總監是Danica Johnson。
動畫由Thought Bubble提供。
劇本由我高中老師Raoul Meyer以及我本人所寫。
上週金句是：「崩揪。法文字。」
要猜本週名言或問有關本集的問題請在以下留言，
我們歷史學家團隊會盡量回答。
謝謝收看，別忘記你很棒。
Turkish:
Bunlar tarihin gerçek soruları: Niye yaşıyoruz? Nasıl yaşamalıyız,
neyin peşinde olmalıyız? Bunlar kolay sorular değil ama önümüzdeki hafta Buda
hakkında konuşurken daha da ilerleyeceğiz.
Görüşmek üzere.
Crash Course Stan Muller tarafında yaratıldı ve yönetildi. Editörümüz Danica Johnson.
Grafik takımımız Thought Bubble. Senaryoyu lise tarih öğretmenim Raoul
Meyer ve ben yazdık
Geçen haftanın sözü "Un Mot De Français"di. Bu haftanınkini
tahmin etmek için yorum bırakın. Ayrıca soru da sorabilirsiniz.
Tarihçi ekibimiz soruları yanıtlamaya çalışacaktır.
İzlediğiniz için teşekkürler. Harika kalmayı unutmayın.
German:
Das sind sie wahren Fragen der Geschicht: Was ist der Sinn des Lebens? Wie sollten wir uns organisieren,
was sollten wir von diesem Leben erwarten? Das sind keine leichten Fragen, aber wir werden uns ihnen nächste Woche
weiter widmen, wenn wir über Buddha reden.
Wir sehen uns dann.
Für die Produktion und Regie von Crash Course ist Stann Muller verantwortlich. Unser Script Supervisor ist Danica Johnson.
Das Grafikteam ist ThoughtBubble und die Show wird geschrieben von meinem Highschool-Lehrer
Raoul Meyer und mir.
Unsere Redwendung der letzten Woche war "Un Mot De Francais". Wenn ihr die Redwendung dieser Woche
erraten wollt, könnt ihr das in den Kommentaren tun. Ihr könnt uns auch Fragen über das heutige
Video in den Kommentaren stellen, wo unser Team aus Historikern sein bestes tun wird, sie zu beantworten.
Danke fürs Zuschauen, und don't forget to be awesome.
Czech:
Proč jsme naživu?
Jak bychom se měli zařídit,
co očekáváme od tohoto života?
Nejsou to lehké otázky, ale my se na ně
znovu podíváme příští týden,
až budeme mluvit o Buddhovi.
Uvidíme se příště.
"Crash Course" je produkován
a režírován Stanem Mullerem.
Dozor nad scénářem
provádí Danica Johnson.
Náš grafický tým je Thought Bubble
a pořad je napsán mým učitelem dějepisu
ze střední Raoulem Meyerem a mnou.
Hláška minulého týdne
byla "un mot de français".
Pokud chcete zkusit
uhodnout hlášku tentokrát,
můžete v komentářích.
Také se v komentařích můžete
ptát na otázky ohledně dnešního videa,
kde se na ně náš tým
historiků pokusí odpovědět.
Díky za pozornost
a nezapomeňte být úžasní.
Překlad: 0Martina0, marek
Korekce: PanDan
Časování: miki
http://substube.mikicz.net/
French:
Ce sont là les vraies questions de l'histoire: Quel est le but d'être en vie? Comment devrions-nous nous
organiser? Que devrions nous chercher dans cette vie? Ce ne sont pas des questions faciles, mais
on va y revenir la semaine prochaine lorsqu'on va parler de Bouddha
À plus.
Crash Course est produit et réalisé par Stan Muller, notre scripte est Danica Johnson,
l'équipe de graphisme est Thought Bubble, et l'émission est écrite par mon professeur d'histoire du lycée,
Raoul Meyer et moi.
Notre phrase de la semaine la semaine dernière était "Un mot de français". Si vous voulez deviner
la phrase de cette semaine, vous pouvez le faire dans les commentaires. Vous pouvez aussi poser des
questions sur la vidéo d'aujourd'hui dans les comentaires où notre équipe d'historiens vont tenter d'y répondre.
Merci d'avoir été là, et n'oubliez pas d'être génial.
Swedish:
De är de verkliga frågorna i historien: Vad är
meningen med att vara vid liv? Hur ska vi organisera
oss, vad ska vi söka från detta liv?
Det är inga lätta frågor, men vi ska
ta en till titt på dem nästa vecka när
vi talar om Buddha. Vi ses då.
Crash Course produceras och regisseras av Stan
Muller, vår manusansvarige är Danica Johnson,
grafik ansvariga är thought Bubble och
showen är skriven av min high school lärare inom historia
Raoul Meyer och mig själv.
Vår meningen i veckan förra veckan var "un mot
de français ". Om du vill att gissa denna
veckas "veckans fras" kan du göra det
i kommentarsfältet. Du kan också ställa frågor om
dagens video i kommentarerna där vårt team
av historiker kommer att försöka besvara dem.
Tack för att du tittade och glöm inte att vara
grymt bra.
Spanish:
Esas son las preguntas reales de la historia: ¿Cuál es el punto de estar vivo? ¿Cómo deberiamos organizarnos
nosotros mismos? ¿Qué deberíamos buscar en esta vida?
Esas no son preguntas fáciles, pero vamos a
ver esas preguntasla próxima semana cuando hablemos del Buda.
Hasta entonces.
Curso Intensivo es producido y dirigido por Stan Muller. Nuestra supervisora de guión es Danica Johnson.
El equipo de gráficos es ThoughtBubble (Burbuja de Pensamiento) y el show es escrito por mi profesor de
historia de secundaria, Raoul Meyer y yo.
Nuestra frase de la semana pasada fue "Un Mot De Francais". Si quieres adivinar la frase
de la semana de esta semana, puedes hacerlo en los comentarios. También puede preguntar sobre
el video de hoy en los comentarios y nuestro equipo de historiadores intentará contestarlas.
Gracias por ver, y no olvides ser genial.
Finnish:
Nämä ovat historian oikeita kysymyksiä: Mitä järkeä on elossa olemisessa? Miten meidän tulisi järjestää
itsemme, mihin meidän tulisi pyrkiä tässä elämässä? Kysymykset eivät ole helppoja, mutta me
valoitamme niitä myös ensi viikolla, kun puhumme Buddhasta.
Nähdään silloin siis.
Crash Coursen on tuottanut ja ohjannut Stan Muller. Käsikirjoituksen tarkastaja on Danica Johnson.
Grafiikkaryhmä on ThoughtBubble ja videon on kirjoittanut lukion historian
opettajani Raoul Meyer ja minä.
Viime viikon lauseemme oli "Un Mot De Francais". Jos haluat arvata tämän
viikon lauseen, voit tehdä niin Kommenteissa. Voit myös kysyä kysymyksiä
tämänpäiväisestä videosta Kommenteissa ja historoitsijatiimimme yrittää vastata niihin.
Kiitos kun katsoit ja älä unohda olla mahtava.
Romanian:
Acestea sunt întrebările reale ale istoriei: Care e scopul pentru care trăim? Cum ar trebui să ne organizăm
noi înșine, ce ar trebui să căutăm în viață? Acestea nu sunt întrebări ușoare, dar o să
mai vorbim despre ele săptămâna viitoare când vom vorbi despre Buddha.Ne vedem atunci.
Crash Course e produs și condus de Stan Muller, supervizorul nostru e Danica Johnson,
echipa de grafică e Balonul de Gândit și programul e scris de profesorul meu de istorie din liceu
Raoul Meyer și de mine însumi.
Fraza săptămânii trecute a fost Un mot de francais. Dacă v-ar plăcea să ghiciți
fraza acestei săptămâni o puteți face în comentarii.Puteți de asemenea pune întrebări despre
videoul de astăzi în comentarii la care echipa noastră de istorici va încerca să răspundă
Mulțumesc pentru atenție și nu uitați să fiți grozavi.
Russian:
Это и есть настоящие вопросы истории. В чём смысл быть живым? Как нам самоорганизовываться?
Что мы должны искать в этой жизни?
Это всё нелегкие вопросы.
Но мы ещё раз попробуем их раскусить на следующей неделе, когда будем говорить о Будде.
Скоро увидимся.
Режиссёр и продюсер Crash Course - Стэн Мюллер.
Редактор сценария - Даника Джонсон.
Анимацию делал Thought Bubble.
Сценарий написан моим школьным учителем Раулем Майером и мной.
Фраза прошлой недели была "Un mot de français".
Если вы хотите попробовать угадать фразу этой недели, то можете сделать это в комментариях.
Там же вы можете задать вопросы по сегодняшнему видео, а наша команда историков попытается ответить.
Спасибо за просмотр,
и не забывайте быть классными.
iw:
אלה השאלות האמיתיות של ההיסטוריה: מה
הנקודה של להיות בחיים? כיצד עלינו לארגן את עצמנו?
מה עלינו לחפש בחיים האלה?
אלה אינן שאלות קלות, אבל
אנחנו נתבונן בהם שוב בשבוע הבא כאשר
אנחנו נדבר על בודהה, נתראה אז.
קראש קורס הופק ובוים ע"י סטן מילר ודסיה ג'ונסון אחראית על התסריט,
צוות הגרפיקה הוא "Thought Bubble", והתוכנית נכתבה ע"י המורה שלי להיסטוריה בתיכון:
ראול מאייר ואני...
ביטוי השבוע שלנו בשבוע שעבר היה "Un mot de français". אם תרצה לנחש את ביטוי השבוע
תוכל לעשות זאת
בהערות. אתה גם יכול לשאול שאלות על
הסרטון של היום בהערות שבו הצוות שלנו
והיסטוריונים ינסה לענות עליהן.
תודה על הצפייה, ואל תשכחו להיות
מדהימים.
Dutch:
Bedankt voor kijken, en vergeet niet om awesome te blijven.
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- Hello everyone and welcome
to Skincare with Hyram.
If you don't know who
I am, my name is Hyram,
I'm passionate about teaching you
how to perfect your skincare routine.
So make sure you subscribe to my channel
and hit the notification bell,
so that you can see my
videos every single week.
I know you guys are watching thinking
he's not wearing a colored
shirt what's going on.
If you're wondering why
I seem extra energized
it's because I am.
Bitch, I have news! calm
my nerves, calm my nerves.
I have an announcement,
something that I have been
working on for a few months,
and I am so excited to
reveal to you guys. Finally,
I have come out with Merch. Yes.
Skincare by hyram merch
You guys have been asking for
months and months and months,
and we're finally here,
but this merch is not like
your typical merch and
I'm really excited about it
because this is honestly a way
in which I'm so excited to make
a positive difference in the
world. As I get into this
video, I want to say the,
all the merch is available
right now at fan joy,
there's shirts, there's
hoodies, there's phone cases.
So many different styles
that each make a positive
difference in the world.
So if you are interested
in getting any of them,
they are available right now,
shop to your heart's content.
Just go to the link
below or fanjoy.co/hiram.
And don't forget to talk to me
so I can see your orders and
reshare them. Okay.
Where do I even begin?
- Let's start the very beginning.
- So you guys have been
requesting merge in my comment,
sections nonstop forever. And honestly,
I would always laugh when
I see those comments.
I didn't feel like there was
anything particularly unique
that I could offer through
merch, but, you know,
I kept reading you guys'
comments and the gears started
turning in my head.
And as I thought about
this particular idea, more,
the more and more I
got excited about this,
and this has been in the
works for a good four to five
months. And it's just so cool.
I'm so excited. It's just
get to the point higher.
As I started thinking more
about creating Merck, I thought,
why not make this as an
opportunity to make a positive
difference in the world?
I'm always looking for ways
in which I can help empower
people around the world,
help the environment,
work with others to
create positive change.
And as my platform grows,
I feel more and more of a
responsibility and a duty,
to be honest, to use my resources,
to make the biggest impact possible,
which is why I'm so excited
to announce this collection
merch with a purpose. So
what is merch with a purpose?
Every one of the pieces in my
merge collection has a direct
social impact. What does
this mean for every shirt,
hoodie or phone case you buy
a measurable impact will be
created in the world that either
helps the environment helps
empower people who are in
need and helps with local and
global COVID relief.
Now we all want to do good in the world,
but sometimes it's really
difficult to feel motivated,
to donate to a nonprofit,
to volunteer our time.
And sometimes, you know,
it doesn't feel necessarily
gratifying to send our money off
somewhere and not know what
impact it makes and hope that
it's doing good without ever
knowing each of these pieces
makes a direct impact in the world.
I wanted to permanently
integrate social good into this
collection and I'll explain
the exact impact each of these
designs have, as I show you
each piece in the collection,
let's go.
The first design is one that
I created myself and the most
requested one on my channel.
Where's the moisturizer.
You guys would not shut up
about asking for this merch,
I love you for it.
And I knew I had to
incorporate it in my Merch.
Somehow this design comes in
this vibrant ocean blue T and
in a darker blue hoodie
representing of course me always
wearing blue in my videos,
so also to signify the
meaning of the colors.
Ocean blues have always
been my favorite color ever.
And as you'll notice the text where's,
the moisturizer is on a surfboard. Now,
the reason this design is focused
on the ocean is because of
the social impact that it
has for every where's the
moisturizer T or hoodie sold
three pounds of trash will be
removed from the ocean.
Isn't that so cool.
Like how cool is that knowing
that you'll have that direct
impact,
you can have one of these shirts
and know exactly the impact
you're making and how
it's helping the earth.
Ocean blue project is a nonprofit
organization that focuses
on using their efforts to
collect as much trash as possible
from the ocean.
Their goal is to restore these
ecosystems and honestly means
so much to me because you
guys know how passionate I am
about protecting the ocean.
I always talk about plastic waste,
specific ingredients that
could be harmful to ocean and
Marine wildlife.
And it's so cool to know
that for every one of these
designs,
three pounds of trash will
be picked up from the ocean.
And that's really the focus
of this entire merch line.
I wanted to democratize social
good as much as possible to
give you guys the knowledge
of the direct impact you're
making by buying each of these pieces.
I love both of these cause
obviously they're blue and the
hoodie is super cute too. Also,
the other person you see in
these pictures is my merchandise
manager at Jazlyn.
She has helped so much in
making this project possible and
I'm so grateful to her.
And she was the first person
I thought of to model these
coasts alongside me because
I am not a model and she's
gorgeous. And if you're interested
in shopping this design,
the link is down below.
The next design is the second
most requested phrase on my
channel ingredients don't
lie a bitch, you know,
knowing you felt it don't lie.
I love repeating that phrase because,
cause I feel like it just
sums up my entire channel.
This design was created by a
local artist here in Hawaii.
The amazing Jack soar and
his work is incredible.
He was so awesome to work with.
Then one thing that was really
important to me with this
collection was working with
a local designer to help
contribute to the local
economy here in Hawaii.
And this design is super fun
as I wanted it to be emerged
between Hawaii tropical and
a vintage 1960s neon sign.
I love this design because it's
super cute and it's easy to
wear anywhere without people
noticing right away that you
have bits written on your shirt.
That was very important to me.
I wanted this designed to be
wearable and that's consistent
with all my other designs as well.
I wanted the designs
to be smaller and cute,
but not necessarily
noticeable from a mile away.
My goal is to create Mercer
that can be worn by anyone at
any time with Q elements that
don't necessarily scream that
this is merged. You feel me?
Yeah, you got it.
Now the social impact for
this design is super cool for
every ingredients don't lie
bitch piece that is sold 300
meals worth of seeds will be
provided to farmers around the
world in need. Now globally,
the small scale farming industry
is one that has been very
impacted, not only by COVID,
but also by global warming,
due to extreme temperatures and disasters.
And now limited buying because
of the pandemic farmers are
struggling around the world
to feed their families,
feed their communities
and sell their stock.
I personally have a soft
spot in my heart for farmers
because they truly understand
conventional hard labor,
but are some of the most
critical and necessary people to
communities. And for small farmers,
there are a lot of times the
reason that ecosystems are
thriving as they want to operate
as sustainably as possible
in order to make sure that
their same plots of lands can be
used for the rest of their life.
You sure sold we'll be providing
300 meals worth of seeds
through seed programs international,
which is a nonprofit organization
that works with local
community members around the
world to identify their target
needs the most sustainable
way to provide solutions and
cultivating a positive and
longterm relationship with their
farmers.
They provide seeds to these
farmers to grow and cultivates,
which will inevitably become
a business for these farmers.
And the amount of seeds that
we'll be providing through this
merger is enough to create 300
vegetable meal servings worth
of food,
as well as potentially opening
up business opportunities for
these farmers.
I really love this social
impact because not only is it
empowering people,
it's also helping the earth and
helping communities as well.
So if you want to purchase
any of the ingredients,
don't lie,
bitch designs go to the link
in my description box below.
And the next design is the
classic skincare junkie design.
The first one I ever
thought of for this line,
I've always referred to myself.
It was a skincare junkie
and that's what I've always
referred to you guys,
as I've made an entire community
called skincare junkie,
this design was also created
by Jack Soren and is so cute
because it draws from so many
elements of Hawaii that I
love. Hawaii has become
a place of refuge for me.
And honestly it means
so much in so many ways.
And I wanted to incorporate
elements of the place I love
into the designs, which has
seen in all of the designs,
but particularly this one,
this one comes in both light
blue and pink signifying the
light blue ocean colors and
the beautiful pink sunsets.
And I love the flora
and fauna illustrator.
That's here in Hawaii and I
really wanted this design to
kind of make you guys feel
a little bit like you're in
Hawaii when you were now,
the social impact for this
design is more specific to what's
currently going on in the world right now,
obviously covert has impacted
so many different people,
but even more so than some
of the struggles that we're
facing here in the USA globally,
it has had a disastrous impact
on so many small communities.
And I personally have seen
stories of people starving to
death,
family separated and not able
to get medical attention.
Entire communities cut off
from food and water supplies
because of quarantine and
so many horrific things.
And rather than a measurable
impact for this one,
what percentage of the sales
will be split between two
organizations? First kiva.org,
which is one of my favorite,
if not my favorite nonprofit
organization out there,
they operate on a micro loan basis.
They provide small ethical
loans to people who are in need
and the people over the
course of a few years solely
payback,
those amounts and the reason
it's such an incredible system.
It encourages self dependence. Yeah,
not a sense of reliance that
is really toxic to so many
global communities. If you
want to learn more about that,
go watch my, I was a humanitarian
and I regret it video.
I talk way more about how
nonprofits just endlessly giving
creates a cycle of dependence
and toxicity within small
communities. But when
they pay the funds back,
we're able to reinvest
them into more projects.
So whatever amounts that we're
raising from this specific
design,
we will be able to reinvest
into more projects for years and
years and years down the line,
creating an infinitely massive
impact on so many communities
and projects,
but we'll also be splitting
donations to the Hawaii farm
Bureau,
which is specifically focused
on helping local farmers,
cool families here in Hawaii
that are struggling because of
the pandemic.
As one thing that was really
important with at least one of
these designs was to help
contribute financially to the
place that I now call my home.
Hawaii has given me so much.
It's only right that I give back.
So if you're interested in
shopping the skincare junkie
design,
go to link in my description
box and we come to the last
designs, phone cases.
Woo. I mean,
you guys have sneak peek these
in some of my other videos
and they are so adorable.
Each of these designs
incorporate elements from these
skincare junkie design, the
flora and fauna here in Hawaii.
And I love the birds of paradise ones.
I just think they're so cute.
And these phone cases are
really good quality like this.
It's going to last a long time.
It has a rubber lining
on the inside. Anyway,
not every phone case created equally,
but this one's a really good one.
Every phone case sold
we'll plant three trees in
deforestation zones around the world.
I love trees so much and given
everything that's happening
with global warming and the
earth based off of my research,
the general consensus among
professionals is just that trees
in deforestation zones is the
best instant solution that we
can give. Additionally,
I also want it to offset,
to and compensate any of the
emissions created from my
merchant,
shipping out to people to
overflow the environmental costs
that my merchant line is creating.
And that's something that
was really important to me.
We will be donating to one
tree planted one of my favorite
organizations because
they work specifically in
deforestation zones and worked
with locals to assess the
needs of those areas.
Make sure they're planting the
right species and make sure
they're planting the right amount.
And I'm so excited to see
how many we get to plant.
If you are interested in
purchasing any of the phone cases,
go to link in my description
box. And finally,
the last thing I want to share
with you guys, obviously,
each of these impacts
are incredible. I am so,
so excited to see how large of
an impact we're able to make
through all of these March sales.
But I also want you guys to
see the exact impact that's
being made. So if you go to
March with a purpose.com,
you'll be able to see exactly
how many pounds of trash was
collected from the ocean. Exactly
how many trees we planted.
Exactly how many meals we
provided and we will be updating
this as frequently as possible
so that you guys can know
exactly how big of an impact
you're making in the world.
And truthfully in regards
to this March, yes,
the designs are cute. Yes.
I love how they look,
but the thing I am so excited
for is to see how big of a
change we collectively can
make in the world. Like,
can you imagine if we were
able to plant like 500 trees or
like 500 pounds of trash from the ocean?
Like how cool would that
be? It's just so awesome.
As you can tell,
I'm really excited about the
social media packed aspect.
And of course I'm passionate
about getting you guys really
cute wearable and fun signs
that kind of connect us both.
And I'm very,
I'm very nervous to see if
you guys are gonna like this.
If you guys are even
going to think it's cool,
passionate about the social
causes. I don't know, but yeah,
I hope you are.
And I hope that in some way
we can make a positive impact
because that's really, that's
what I truly care about.
Like I said before,
you can shop all of the designs right now,
fan story.co/hiram.
Thank you so much Jazlyn and
Fanjoy for working with me on
this. I couldn't have
done it without you guys.
And of course, to everyone who
is watching, please, please,
please tag me in your
orders, wearing your merch.
I want to see your beautiful
faces so badly. And yeah,
I think that's it guys.
And if you haven't already
be sure to subscribe to my
channel and hit the notification
belts that you can see my
videos every single week.
And I'll see you guys in the next one.
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It’s well known that gravity pulls two objects
together with a force proportional to the
mass of one, times the mass of the other,
divided by the square of the distance between
them.
. Anyway, this equation is called Newton’s
law of universal gravitation, it’s taught
to school children the world over, and it
predicts the motions of the planets and moons
and asteroids in our solar system with incredible
precision.
However, Newton’s law of universal gravitation
isn’t actually a universal law: first, we
know that when the gravitational force in
question is really strong, Newton’s law
is just wrong . And second, we know that when
the gravitational force in question is really
weak , we don’t know whether it’s right
or wrong because gravity gets too weak to
measure.
Only in between (like, on the scale of the
solar system), do we know that the “law”
of gravitation reasonably applies .
Ok, but if Newton’s Law of gravitation has
been confirmed so accurately by the motions
of planets and moons, how could it be wrong
at a different scale?
Well, the earth looks flat when you’re relatively
close to the ground, but zoom out and it looks
round, or zoom in and it looks bumpy; the
“law” describing the shape of the earth
is different at different scales.
Similarly, when the force of gravity is really
strong (like near a black hole), gravity is
better described by the mathematics of general
relativity, and only when the forces in question
get a bit weaker (for things farther apart
or with less mass) does gravity start to match
up with Newton’s law of gravitation.
But when you go even weaker (with objects
even farther away or even less massive ), we
get to a point where we don’t know whether
Newton’s law of gravitation applies any
more.
And yet, even many physicists appear to be
ignorant about our ignorance about how gravity
works when it’s weak - or at least, they
ignore our ignorance.
It’s common to blindly apply -G m M/r^2
to decidedly non-astronomical objects, for
which we haven’t tested gravitational attraction
very well at all: if you have two pieces of
tape, you can calculate the gravitational
force that they in principle exert on each
other according to the law of universal gravitation
- but it’s far too ridiculously ridiculously
small for you to ever have the remotest chance
of noticing any effect whatsoever, let alone
actually checking that the attraction between
them follows the law of universal gravitation
as you move the bits of tape farther apart.
In contrast, if you stick the two pieces of
tape together and then pull them apart, they’ll
exchange some electric charge and then measurably
attract each other; an electrical attraction
which is a million billion times stronger
than the predicted gravitational attraction
, and whose strength has allowed us to confirm
Coulomb’s law of electrical attraction to
a very very very high degree of accuracy .
So it makes sense to apply Coulomb’s law
of electrical attraction to objects at normal
human scales.
But testing Newton’s law of gravitation
at these scales requires very delicate experiments,
like very very sensitive oscillating pendulums
that oscillate slightly differently if there’s
a heavy mass nearby (and can thus measure
the gravitational force with great precision),
or incredibly finely-controlled lasers that
simultaneously levitate and measure the positions
and forces on tiny little beads of glass - these
can measure ridiculously faint forces, like
zeptonewtons.
And so far, for objects a meter apart, we’ve
only confirmed that the gravitational attraction
between them follows the law of universal
gravitation to within around one one hundredth
of a percent . Which is a trillion times less
precise than our knowledge of the equivalent
law for electricity.
And our grasp on gravity gets worse the smaller
you go - Here’s a plot showing how our uncertainty
about Newton’s gravitational law varies
across a whole range of distances - small
distances on the left, big distances on the
right; and the higher the line the higher
the uncertainty.
Which, you will notice, is very high on the
left.
Our existing experimental understanding of
short-distance gravity is so bad that gravity
at the scale of the atomic nucleus could actually
be as much as a quadrillion quadrillion times
stronger than Newton’s law of gravitation
predicts!
That’s a HUGE range; it would be like not
knowing whether the moon pulls on us with
the force of a hundred billion billion tons
of rock , or the force of a fruit fly . Or,
put another way, at the scale of an atomic
nucleus, the law of gravitation could depend
instead on the square of one or both masses,
or the square root, or the inverse cube of
the distance, or G could be a million billion
times bigger, or a bunch of other possibilities,
and we wouldn’t even know it.
.
The fact that there’s so much uncertainty
about gravity at short distances means that
a lot of interesting truths about our universe
could be hiding under our very noses!
One possibility, for example, is that there
are not just 3 dimensions of space, but an
extra one that only the gravitational force
can travel through, which loops back on itself
at the scale of micrometers or smaller . Just
like how the surface of a hair is technically
2-dimensional but hairs look one dimensional
from afar, this would mean that at distances
much much longer than a micrometer, gravity
would act as if space had 3 dimensions and
follow a roughly inverse square law (which
is what Newton’s law of gravitation is),
while at distances much shorter, it would
behave as if space had 4 dimensions and follow
more of an inverse cube law (which we haven’t
ruled out at particularly small scales) .
However, as we’ve made increasingly precise
measurements of the gravitational attraction
between small things, we haven’t yet discovered
any gravitational forces inconsistent with
Newton’s law of gravitation . so it may
be that -G m M over r squared does describe
the strength of gravity for very very short
distances; but our uncertainty is still very
big, and it remains pretty crazy to blindly
apply Newton’s law of gravitation to things
like an electron and proton in a hydrogen
atom.
This video was made with the support of the
Heising-Simons Foundation, which also supports
research in precision measurement of the strength
of gravity at short distances.
These experiments are super cool, because
they’re small, simple, clever, and are testing
our fundamental understanding of physics without
the need for giant multi-billion-dollar particle
accelerators.
Thanks again to the Heising-Simons Foundation
for supporting MinutePhysics, and for supporting
fundamental physics research.
| {
"pile_set_name": "YoutubeSubtitles"
} |
[MUSIC PLAYING]
VINCE LARA: Hi, and
welcome to another edition
of A Few Minutes
With, the podcast
that showcases Illinois College
of Applied Health Sciences.
I'm Vince Lara, and
today I'll speak
to Dr. David Strauser
of our Kinesiology
and Community Health
Department about his research
on work personality
and vocational
behavior with a focus on
people with chronic health
conditions and disability.
All right.
Speaking with Dr.
David Strauser.
Dr. Strauser, I appreciate
you taking the time
to come on with our podcast.
The first question I ask
when I meet with faculty
is I'm interested--
I do my prep as any
journalist would,
and I try to find
out-- hmm, I wonder
what led this person to
our fine institution?
Your background is at the
University of Wisconsin-Madison
is where you got your degrees.
So I wonder what
led you to Illinois.
DAVID STRAUSER: That's
a good question.
There's probably a variety
of things that led me
to the University of Illinois.
I came to the
University of Illinois
from the University of Memphis
where I spent 10 years.
And that was the
first job that I
got after completing my
PhD at the University
Wisconsin-Madison.
Down there, I started
a research center, had
about 30 people working for me.
We were doing a lot of
work across the state
of Tennessee in the southeast.
And then this opportunity
came available
at the University of Illinois.
And I think for a combination
of probably family reasons,
being a native Midwesterner,
and also an opportunity
to be at a school
like Illinois, it just
seemed like a nice
opportune time
to make that switch from
the University of Memphis
to the University of Illinois.
And a chance to be
in a Big Ten school,
at a big research school just
seemed like a hard opportunity
to turn down.
Also, I think Illinois is a
little bit unusual compared
to other programs in the Big
Ten that have my area of study
that it focused
a little bit more
on health and health behavior.
And so that was something
that maybe initially
didn't come into
the mix but became
a point of what I
really appreciated
over the course of my time here.
VINCE LARA: Are you from
the Midwest originally?
DAVID STRAUSER: I'm from
Madison, Wisconsin originally.
VINCE LARA: That makes sense.
I know research is a big
part of this job, obviously.
But did you always
want to teach?
Was that something
that was top of mind,
or was it the research
first for you?
DAVID STRAUSER: That's
a really good question.
And I would say it's probably
teaching first, research
second.
I started out as an
undergraduate thinking
that I would go on and
do-- as an athlete,
I was going to go on and
do coaching of some kind.
So I think that was
always kind of my focus
as an undergraduate.
And I had some very
influential faculty people
who pulled me aside and
said, hey, what about me
be doing this?
What about looking
at this opportunity?
And that started to peak my
interest enough to go look
into it a little bit deeper.
After completing
my undergraduate,
I was out in the private
sector for about a year or so
and decided, you
know, this is good,
but really being affiliated
with the university
and pursuing that academic
work would really be something
that I'd want to do as a career.
With that then became the
teaching, and then the research
developed through my work
as a doctoral student
to really look at
their research.
But I was very much
trained from faculty
at UW Madison who trained
me as a professor.
So when we talk about a
professor, in my opinion,
it's the research, teaching,
and service together.
It's not just one aspect of it.
So that relates to
your first question
about being in Illinois.
I think Illinois gives me an
opportunity to do all three
of those core components
of being a professor,
and that's teaching,
research, and service.
VINCE LARA: Focusing
on that research part,
now, your research,
to an extent,
focuses on work,
health, and well-being.
And I'm wondering,
commonly with researchers,
there's something that
inspired them to look at that.
And I was wondering
if there's anything
that inspired you to look
at those research lines.
DAVID STRAUSER: Yeah, that's
an interesting story probably
as a reflecting back on it.
Again, as I was an
athlete in college
and struggled with
injuries in college,
it became losing the
opportunity to compete
in college because of injuries.
I guess that was
happening at the same time
that I had some of these
influential faculty
in my year talking
about, hey, what
about pursuing rehabilitation
psychology as a career?
What about some of those things?
So I guess serendipity of
those things coming together.
That extended then to probably
my first job, as I mentioned,
before I went back
to graduate school,
and that was working with
injured workers in Southern
California.
And through that and
my own experience
of injury and then working
with industrial injured workers
solidified my interest
into working with people
with disabilities as a whole
and working with people who
are having problems working--
pursuing their careers because
they have an injury or illness.
VINCE LARA: Yeah.
You get some of your research
was in marginalized workers.
Could you talk a bit about that?
DAVID STRAUSER: Yeah, I think
that's a pretty big term,
marginalized workers, in
that it's a good word.
It's an encompassing word.
I look at--
especially right now,
for probably about
the last 15 years,
I've really looked at young
adults who are having a hard
time entering the labor
market for some reason related
to a chronic health condition,
whether that's cancer--
I do a large group of that.
Could be some mental
health issues, autism.
So they've been marginalized
because they have
a chronic health condition.
We have a project
right now where we're
looking at foster care
youth, formerly incarcerated
or justice involved youth.
So you're correct to
save my work has always
looked at people who've
been marginalized from entry
or participation in
the labor market,
usually because of some chronic
health condition or combination
thereof.
So my research has focused
a lot on undergraduate--
or I mean younger adults
in terms of their entrance
in the labor market.
Probably an advocacy
side of me has
continued to deal with
industrial injured workers--
I'll use that term-- people
who've been injured on the job
and advocating for their overall
well-being and helping them
manage and deal with their loss.
So that's probably more of
an outreach service component
of it than it is
a research part,
where my research is primarily
focusing on these young adults'
entrance into the labor market.
VINCE LARA: So what
particularly do you deal with?
Is it trying to overcome
the stigma of what
these workers have dealt with?
DAVID STRAUSER: Most people who
have chronic health conditions
are likely to
experience difficulty
in meeting the demands of
working how it's typically
performed.
So they're having some
issue with meeting the job
requirements or figuring out
how they identify with the labor
market.
They may-- for example, somebody
might have an interest in doing
something as a career,
but because they
have a limitation or a
functional impairment,
can't pursue that, so that
causes a lot of stress.
So I deal with that.
There also is just a lot of
people right now and a lot
that we more to learn
about mental health
that they're having a lot
of mental health issues
that are impacting their
ability to function on the job
and meet the demands on the job.
So they might get a job
but they can't keep a job.
And so after a
period of time, they
start to develop that resume
that looks very scattered,
very thin in terms of
duration on the job.
And that becomes then
stigmatizing and marginalized.
So stigma is an
issue, obviously,
that everybody deals with with
chronic health conditions.
That is something I deal
with, but I'm more interested
in how they fit to
the environment,
how do they see themselves
fitting as a worker,
and how did they develop
their identity as a worker.
VINCE LARA: Has your
research ever led
to you being a consultant for
either a company or perhaps
an industry looking to help
these marginalized workers get
back in?
DAVID STRAUSER: I do a
lot of work with a group
called Children's Brain
Tumor Foundation, where
I work a lot with them to help
young adult cancer survivors
and businesses help
understand issues
related to cancer survivors,
try to help that fit.
So yes, I've worked
with some non-profits
and some NGOs to work
with them to understand,
develop plans, develop
programs to help
them address these issues.
VINCE LARA: You developed
what's called the Illinois Work
and Well-being Model.
I'm interested about that.
Tell me a little
bit what that is.
DAVID STRAUSER: Yeah, the
Illinois Work and Well-Being
Model is kind of a
byproduct of my 30
years of in this field of how I
was thinking about career stuff
and finally came together for me
as a model, where in our field,
in the health field, we use
a lot of the International
Classification of
Functioning or the ICF.
So I use components
of the ICF and then
Common Career Development
domains and mesh those two
together.
And the model really
tries to explain
about how people's
functioning and how
their personal
environmental factors impact
how they function and how their
functioning impacts the career
domains of how people become
aware of what they are in terms
of what they want to do,
their vocational identity,
how they go about
acquiring jobs,
and how they go about
maintaining jobs.
And so that model helps provide
a framework for research,
and it's guided a lot of my
research over my whole career.
Probably the last
four or five years
it's been formalized
as a model that we're
using to guide our
research, to help us
identify factors and variables.
But also, we've been using it
quite a bit with practitioners
to help them guide their
services to identify where
interventions might
need to be placed,
where are points
of intervention.
So as an example,
if we're having
a person, a young adult cancer
survivor who has a brain tumor,
they're trying to
figure out, where
do I fit into the world of work?
What am I going to do?
How am I going to do it?
We might want to look
at their functioning.
What are the residual
factors of their brain tumor?
How do they function
in terms of physically,
cognitively, emotionally?
And how do they communicate?
And look at that.
However, even though as
we look at those factors
or those components,
we also understand
that personal factors,
psychological factors
such as resilience,
hope, self-efficacy,
impact how they perceive
their functioning.
In addition,
environmental factors--
ethnicity, social class.
I say ethnicity.
Ethnicity is a personal factor,
but their cultural background.
Their social factors, their
schooling, their family
also impact how they
perceive their functioning.
So we want to make
sure that we're
looking at all those
factors and then
how do they relate over to the
career domain and those three
factors I talked about
in terms of awareness.
We call it awareness.
Basically, vocational identity.
Acquisition and maintenance.
VINCE LARA: You always
have research going on,
several projects
in the pipeline.
That's one of the
things you have to do.
DAVID STRAUSER: Right.
VINCE LARA: What are some
of the ones that you have
that you're excited about,
that can talk about, say?
DAVID STRAUSER: Yeah.
We actually have a lot of
good stuff going on right now,
and I'm very excited about it.
We're at a good time.
We're having a lot of data
and a lot of projects.
So we are right now--
a couple things.
In terms of the cancer
group, we have several data
sets right now, one with Dana
Farber, one with Children's
Brain Tumor
Foundation, where we're
looking at these psychological
career factors that
impact employment and employment
outcomes with a group of brain
tumor survivors.
What's really exciting
about that, and this might--
compared to people in other
areas like epidemiology or even
breast cancer, our data
set combined right now
is we have about 300
brain tumor survivors.
That's quite a good number
for brain tumor survivors.
So it's a hard group to get.
So we have some data
there that we're
starting to analyze and look
at working with these Dana
Farber and Children's
Brain Tumor Foundation that
look at what are these
factors that impact employment
outcomes.
And we're very
excited about that.
We have several papers
submitted right now.
They're under review.
A couple of papers that
have been accepted that
are looking at using
the Illinois Model,
as we talked about,
looking at how
functioning and
perception of functioning
impacts the different
domains of career.
Highlight to that
would be we're starting
to get good evidence
to suggest that how
people's emotional
function, the perceptions
of their emotional
functioning, really
impact a lot of their
identity development,
contributes some to
the acquisition phase.
Conversely, we know
that people now
who start to-- how they perceive
themselves physically really
has a lot to do with how
they perceive their ability
to maintain a job.
So what we can start to do
there is start to parse out of,
where people are in
their career development,
what our interventions
need to target
and what areas of
functioning do we
need to maybe support or
address to maximize outcomes?
So that's very
exciting with that.
Another population that
we're starting to look at
or another group that
we're working with
is, as I mentioned,
a broader group
of people with
disabilities looking
at developing some instruments
related to the Illinois Work
and Well-Being Model.
We have a couple of instruments
being developed right now
to measure some of those
constructs within the model,
so we're very
excited about that.
That's not as maybe
exciting, but for us,
that's a very practical piece.
Another area that
we're really starting
to get into because
we have seen it
quite a bit with the young
adults in foster care
and the formerly
incarcerated young adults is
the issue of trauma and how
trauma is impacting them,
but how trauma is
impacting their perceptions
of their career development
and their career development
opportunities.
And not surprisingly,
we're finding again
there's quite a bit
of an impact there
in terms of how much trauma,
how they're experiencing
that trauma, how they feel
about that trauma, how
close to the surface, so
to speak, that trauma is
is going to be impacting a
lot of how they see themselves
as a worker, their identity,
and their motivation
to pursue those things.
[MUSIC PLAYING]
VINCE LARA: My thanks
to David Strauser.
For more podcasts on Illinois
College of Applied Health
Sciences, search A Few Minutes
With on iTunes, Spotify,
iHeart Radio, Stitcher,
and other places
you get your podcasts fix.
Thanks for listening,
and see you next time.
| {
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Indonesian:
Oke video ini ada di interpretasinya
fisika kuantum, yang ... saya sudah turun
sedikit lubang kelinci di atas yang terakhir
beberapa bulan jika saya jujur, karena
interpretasi fisika kuantum tidak
mudah dimengerti. Dan saya berpikir, hei saya akan
lakukan video pada mereka yang akan menyenangkan! Dan
kemudian saya melakukan penelitian dan melihat ke dalamnya,
dan jenis, dengan otak meleleh. Pokoknya ini
adalah upaya terbaik saya di interpretasi
Fisika kuantum Saya harap Anda menikmati. Terus
Apakah mereka? Yah pertama-tama ada lubang
di bagian bawah fisika ketika Anda turun
pada tingkat atom atau partikel subatomik,
Anda berada di ranah fisika kuantum dan
ada beberapa hal dalam fisika kuantum itu
sama sekali tidak masuk akal. Fisikawan tidak
suka hal-hal yang tidak masuk akal dan interpretasi
English:
Okay this video is on the interpretations
of quantum physics, which… I’ve been down
a little bit of a rabbit hole over the last
couple of months if I’m honest, because
the interpretations of quantum physics aren’t
easy to understand. And I thought, hey I’ll
do a video on those that’ll be fun! And
then I did my research and looked into it,
and kind of, by brain melted. Anyway this
is my best effort at the interpretations of
quantum physics I hope you enjoy. So what
are they? Well first of all there is a hole
in the bottom of physics when you are down
at the level of atoms or subatomic particles,
you are in the realm of quantum physics and
there are some things in quantum physics that
simply don’t make sense. Physicists don’t
like things not making sense and so the interpretations
Indonesian:
fisika kuantum adalah upaya banyak orang
fisikawan berbeda datang dengan cara
membuat fisika kuantum masuk akal. Sekarang
jika Anda tidak terbiasa dengan terminologi
fisika kuantum saya sarankan Anda menonton saya
video terakhir karena ini semacam pengantar
untuk fisika kuantum dan video ini semacam
dari bagian dua itu. Jadi nomor interpretasi
satu adalah interpretasi Kopenhagen dan itu
semacam cara standar kita diajarkan kuantum
fisika ketika kita mempelajarinya di Universitas dan
itu juga semacam tempat di mana saya bisa menggambarkan
di mana beberapa masalah mulai terjadi.
Jadi interpretasi Kopenhagen, standar
deskripsi adalah bahwa partikel subatomik, suka
dan elektron, dijelaskan oleh fungsi gelombang
dan fungsi gelombang ini mematuhi Schrödinger
persamaan, yang memberi tahu kita bagaimana gelombang itu menyortir
dari lancar berkembang dari waktu ke waktu. Dan fitur
dari gelombang ini memberi kita semua properti
dari fisika kuantum yang orang bicarakan
seperti superposisi, belitan, quantisation energi,
English:
of quantum physics are an attempt of many
different physicists to come up with ways
of making quantum physics make sense. Now
if you are not familiar with the terminology
of quantum physics I recommend you watch my
last video because it is kind of an introduction
to quantum physics and this video is a sort
of part two to that. So interpretation number
one is the Copenhagen interpretation and that’s
kind of the standard way we are taught quantum
physics when we learn it in University and
it is also kind of the place where I can illustrate
where some of the problems start happening.
So the Copenhagen interpretation, the standard
description is that subatomic particles, like
and electron, is described by a wave function
and this wave function obeys the Schrödinger
equation, which tells us how that wave sort
of smoothly evolves over time. And features
of this wave gives us all of the properties
of of quantum physics that people talk about
like superposition, entanglement, energy quantisation,
Indonesian:
decoherence dan tunneling kuantum, semuanya
semua itu adalah fenomena yang muncul karena
dari sifat seperti gelombang partikel subatom.
Jadi masalah konseptual dimulai ketika kita melakukannya
pengukuran pada gelombang ini. Jadi Kopenhagen
gambar fisika kuantum adalah yang Anda miliki
fungsi gelombang bergerak dengan lancar sesuai
ke persamaan Schrödinger sampai hits
benda seperti detektor. Lalu apa yang kita
lihat, apa yang kita ukur sebagai manusia, adalah tunggal
partikel dalam posisi tertentu, yang artinya
bahwa fungsi gelombang yang seperti menyebar
keluar dari luar angkasa, ketika itu mengenai detektor,
tiba-tiba runtuh, itu disebut lokalisasi.
Jadi gelombang melokalisasi, dari gelombang yang menyebar,
untuk gelombang yang sangat tajam di mana kita melihat
partikel. Masalahnya, apakah ada
tidak ada fisika aktual dalam mekanika kuantum itu
English:
decoherence and quantum tunnelling, all of
those things are phenomena that appear because
of the wave-like nature of subatomic particles.
So the conceptual problems begin when we do
a measurement on these waves. So the Copenhagen
picture of quantum physics is that you have
a wave function moving along smoothly according
to the Schrödinger equation until it hits
an object like a detector. And then what we
see, what we measure as a human, is a single
particle in a specific position, which means
that the wave function which is like spread
out over space, when it hits the detector,
it suddenly collapses, it is called localisation.
So the wave localises, from a spread out wave,
to a very sharply defined wave where we see
the particle. The trouble is, is there’s
no actual physics in quantum mechanics that
English:
describes how that collapse happens, and this
is known as the measurement problem. So this
measurement is sort of a barrier, which shields
the quantum realm. We can never see those
wave functions, all we can ever see are particles.
And in the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum
physics what they say is like, us humans,
we’ll never see those waves, there’s nothing
we can do to access that realm, so don’t
worry wondering whether they are real or not
real, the important thing are the measurements.
Reality is in the observations. Which is why
it has been termed the shut up and calculate
interpretation of quantum physics. But people
have not stopped there they don’t like this
discontinuous collapse of the wave function,
so they’ve come up with other ways of trying
to interpret what is going on. And this brings
us to the second interpretation that I’m
going to cover which is the many worlds interpretation
of quantum physics. So the many worlds interpretation
of quantum physics takes the wave function
Indonesian:
menggambarkan bagaimana keruntuhan itu terjadi, dan ini
dikenal sebagai masalah pengukuran. Jadi ini
pengukuran adalah semacam penghalang, yang melindungi
ranah kuantum. Kita tidak akan pernah bisa melihatnya
fungsi gelombang, yang bisa kita lihat hanyalah partikel.
Dan dalam interpretasi kuantum Kopenhagen
fisika seperti apa yang mereka katakan, kita manusia,
kita tidak akan pernah melihat gelombang itu, tidak ada apa-apa
bisa kita lakukan untuk mengakses ranah itu, jadi jangan
khawatir bertanya-tanya apakah mereka nyata atau tidak
sebenarnya, yang penting adalah pengukuran.
Realitas ada dalam pengamatan. Itulah sebabnya
telah disebut diam dan menghitung
interpretasi fisika kuantum. Tetapi orang-orang
belum berhenti di situ mereka tidak suka ini
runtuhnya fungsi gelombang yang terputus-putus,
jadi mereka telah menemukan cara lain untuk mencoba
untuk menafsirkan apa yang sedang terjadi. Dan ini membawa
kita ke interpretasi kedua bahwa aku
akan mencakup yang merupakan interpretasi banyak dunia
fisika kuantum. Begitu banyak interpretasi dunia
fisika kuantum mengambil fungsi gelombang
Indonesian:
menjadi nyata secara fisik dan mengatakan jika Schrödinger
Persamaan hanyalah deskripsi dari realitas,
seperti apa realitas itu? Jadi apa katanya
adalah saat Anda melakukan pengukuran pada partikel
yang ada di superposisi banyak berbeda
tempat sekaligus, sebenarnya partikel itu berbalik
di semua tempat yang berbeda, hanya di
versi realitas yang berbeda. Cara lain
untuk dipikirkan adalah jika sebuah partikel berada di superposisi
dua tempat sekaligus, dan itu hits detektor,
sekarang menempatkan detektor itu di superposisi
mengukur partikel di satu tempat atau yang lain,
dan jika Anda melihat hasil dari detektor itu
maka itu menempatkan Anda dalam superposisi melihat
partikel di satu tempat, atau melihat partikel
di tempat lain, tetapi karena hasilnya
dari satu tempat atau yang lain saling eksklusif
itu berarti bahwa sekarang semesta Anda berada di antara
dua milikmu telah saling decohered
dan sekarang dibagi menjadi cabang-cabang yang berbeda.
English:
to be physically real and says if the Schrödinger
equation is just a description of reality,
what does reality look like? So what it says
is that when you do a measurement on particle
that is in a superposition of many different
places at once, actually that particle turn
up at all those different places, just in
different versions of reality. Another way
to think of it is if a particle is in a superposition
of two places at once, and it hits a detector,
it now puts that detector in a superposition
of measuring a particle in once place or another,
and if you look at the results from that detector
then it puts you in a superposition of seeing
the particle in one place, or seeing the particle
in another place, but because the results
of one place or another are mutually exclusive
it means that now your universe between the
two you’s has decohered from each other
and are now split into different branches.
Indonesian:
Jadi superposisi digambarkan oleh gelombang
berfungsi, jadi benar-benar hanya ada satu raksasa
fungsi gelombang mega yang menjelaskan semua
kemungkinan yang bisa terjadi
dalam seluruh sejarah Semesta. Jadi kalau ada
adalah interpretasi fisika kuantum itu
Anda telah mendengar tentang ini akan menjadi yang ini,
banyak interpretasi dunia karena itu
tampaknya menangkap kesadaran publik, dan
Saya pikir itu karena orang menyukai ide itu
bahwa jika Anda telah membuat keputusan yang sangat buruk
bahwa Anda menyesal di masa lalu, Anda bisa baik
dari merasa nyaman dengan keyakinan bahwa ada
alam semesta lain di luar sana tempat Anda membuat
keputusan yang lebih baik dan ada versi
Anda yang bahagia sekarang. Sepertinya juga
menjadi teknik mendongeng yang sangat berguna
dalam film yang ingin memiliki jenis yang berbeda
realitas, seperti itu hanya di Spider-Man
menjadi ayat laba-laba untuk berbagai jenis
dari, yah aku seharusnya tidak merusak plotnya
itu film yang bagus. Tampaknya juga cantik
English:
So a superposition is described by a wave
function, so really there’s just one giant
mega wave function that describes all of the
possibilities that could ever have happened
in the entire history of Universe. So if there
is an interpretation of quantum physics that
you have heard about it’ll be this one,
the many worlds interpretation because it
seems to capture public consciousness, and
I think it is because people like the idea
that if you’ve made like a really bad decision
that you regret in the past, you can kind
of take comfort in the belief that there is
another universe out there where you made
a better decision and so there is a version
of you who’s happy right now. It also seems
to be a really useful storytelling technique
in films that want to have different sort
of realities, like it was just in the Spider-Man
into the spider verse for the different kinds
of, well I shouldn’t ruin the plot, anyway
it was a good film. It also seems to be pretty
Indonesian:
populer di kalangan fisikawan, meskipun saya
bukan penggemar berat itu karena salah satu
Masalahnya itu rusak probabilitas. Jadi bayangkan
jika Anda memiliki partikel yang dalam tiga puluh
kemungkinan persen berada di sini, dan tujuh puluh
kemungkinan persen berada di sini, ketika itu
hits detektor itu terbagi menjadi dua alam semesta
di mana itu pasti, dengan seratus persen
kemungkinan itu ada di satu tempat seratus
probabilitas persen di tempat lain
jadi jika semuanya terjadi apa yang mereka lakukan
probabilitas asli sebenarnya berarti? Ini
Masalahnya adalah alamat dalam interpretasi
disebut interpretasi kosmologis yang
mengatakan bahwa banyak teori dunia itu sepele
benar jika Semesta sangat besar, karena
ada jumlah tak terbatas yang Anda lakukan
percobaan itu, dan angka tak terbatas itu
hanya dibagi secara proporsional, jadi tiga puluh persen
dari mereka yang tak terbatas Anda akan melihat satu hal
English:
popular amongst physicists, although I’m
not such a huge fan of it because one of the
problems is it breaks probability. So imagine
if you’ve got a particle that’s in a thirty
percent probability of being here, and a seventy
percent probability of being here, when it
hits the detector it splits into two universes
where it definitely is, with a hundred percent
probability it is in one place and a hundred
percent probability it’s in the other place
so if everything all happens what do those
original probabilities actually mean? This
problem is addresses in an interpretation
called the cosmological interpretation which
says that the many worlds theory is trivially
true if the Universe is infinitely big, because
there is an infinite number of you’s doing
that experiment, and that infinite number
just splits in proportion, so thirty percent
of those infinite you’s will see one thing
English:
and seventy percent of those infinite you’s
will see the other thing. Unfortunately there’s
no experiments that we can run to see if this
interpretation is more valid than the Copenhagen
interpretation, and that’s actually a general
feature of all of these interpretations is
that we can’t pick them apart with any experiments
and so until we have experiments it’s all
kind of like physics-y story telling. Lets
now look at another aspect of quantum physics
that doesn’t quite make sense to us which
is called non-locality, otherwise known as
spooky action at a distance. And this can
be summarised by the EPR experiment which
is where you take two particles, say electrons,
and you entangle them together to have equal
and opposite spins say, and then you separate
them by a very very large distance because
they are now inextricably linked the wave
function that describes them has to describe
both particles and what this means in reality
is when you do a measurement on one of these
Indonesian:
dan tujuh puluh persen dari Anda yang tak terbatas itu
akan melihat hal lainnya. Sayangnya ada
tidak ada eksperimen yang bisa kita jalankan untuk melihat apakah ini
interpretasi lebih valid daripada Kopenhagen
interpretasi, dan itu sebenarnya seorang jenderal
Fitur dari semua interpretasi ini adalah
bahwa kita tidak dapat memisahkannya dengan eksperimen apa pun
dan sampai kita memiliki eksperimen, itu saja
semacam suka bercerita fisika-y. Mari
sekarang lihat aspek lain dari fisika kuantum
itu tidak masuk akal bagi kita yang mana
disebut non-lokalitas, atau dikenal sebagai
aksi seram di kejauhan. Dan ini bisa
dirangkum oleh percobaan EPR yang
adalah tempat Anda mengambil dua partikel, katakanlah elektron,
dan Anda melibatkan mereka untuk memiliki yang sama
dan berputar berlawanan berkata, dan kemudian Anda berpisah
mereka dengan jarak yang sangat sangat besar karena
mereka sekarang terkait dengan gelombang
fungsi yang menggambarkannya harus dijelaskan
baik partikel dan apa artinya ini dalam kenyataan
adalah ketika Anda melakukan pengukuran pada salah satunya
English:
particles it instantaneously influences the
other one, which can be you know billions
of miles away, and it does that instantaneously.
So it sort of feels like faster than light
action. That’s the action at a distance
which Einstein was really creeped out by.
So non-locality mean that one electron, its
properties are not local to its physical place.
Its properties are dependent on something
very very far away and this is an alien concept
in physics because if I throw a ball the balls
position or velocity or colour or anything
physical to do with that ball they’re all
localised to where that ball physically is,
whereas in quantum physics you can have things
that are non-local. And that seems weird to
a physicist, because you are like ‘all physics
is like this, except for this one bit here
in quantum physics’. So this has spawned
other interpretations of quantum physics that
Indonesian:
partikel itu secara instan mempengaruhi
yang lain, yang bisa Anda ketahui miliaran
mil jauhnya, dan itu melakukannya secara instan.
Jadi rasanya lebih cepat dari cahaya
tindakan. Itu aksinya di kejauhan
dimana Einstein benar-benar ketakutan.
Jadi non-lokalitas berarti satu elektron, itu
properti tidak lokal ke tempat fisiknya.
Sifat-sifatnya tergantung pada sesuatu
sangat jauh sekali dan ini adalah konsep alien
dalam fisika karena jika saya melempar bola bola
posisi atau kecepatan atau warna atau apa pun
fisik dengan bola itu, mereka semua
dilokalisasi ke tempat bola itu secara fisik,
sedangkan dalam fisika kuantum Anda dapat memiliki banyak hal
itu bukan lokal. Dan itu tampak aneh
seorang ahli fisika, karena Anda seperti 'semua fisika
seperti ini, kecuali yang ini sedikit di sini
dalam fisika kuantum '. Jadi ini telah melahirkan
interpretasi lain dari fisika kuantum itu
Indonesian:
coba jelaskan yang ini, dan yang salah
ini disebut teori variabel tersembunyi.
Jadi ide dalam teori variabel tersembunyi adalah
bahwa ketika Anda melakukan keterikatan ini ada
beberapa label rahasia yang menangkap yang sebenarnya
keadaan dua partikel ini jadi seperti
jika saya melempar koin dan memegangnya di tangan,
meskipun saya tidak tahu apakah itu
kepala atau ekor, koin itu sebenarnya adalah kepala
atau ekor ketika itu di tangan saya, dan saya hanya mengungkapkan
ketika saya membuka tangan. Jadi itu baik
dari apa teori-teori variabel tersembunyi ini
seperti, partikel berada pada posisi yang pasti
kita tidak tahu apa itu sampai kita mengukur
Itu. Sekarang interpretasi ini benar-benar terbunuh
oleh percobaan yang disebut teorema Bell.
Saya tidak akan masuk ke rincian
ini karena saya tidak punya waktu. Tapi pada dasarnya
teori variabel tersembunyi dan fisika kuantum
memprediksi berbagai probabilitas yang Anda amati
English:
try and explain away this one, and one of
these is called hidden variable theories.
So the idea in a hidden variable theory is
that when you do this entanglement there’s
some secret label which captures the actual
state of these two particles so it’s like
if I flip a coin and I hold it in my hands,
even though I don’t know whether it’s
heads or tails, the coin actually is heads
or tails when its in my hand, and I just reveal
it when I open up my hands. So that’s kind
of what these hidden variable theories are
like, the particles are in a definite position
we just don’t know what it is until we measure
it. Now this interpretation was actually killed
by an experiment called Bell’s theorem.
I’m not going to go into the details of
this because I don’t have time. But basically
the hidden variable theory and quantum physics
predict different probabilities of you observing
English:
certain things under Bell’s experiment.
And when they did the experiment, they actually
found the results matched quantum physics
and not hidden variable theories, so hidden
variables are out. Now it is not completely
game over for the hidden variable theories
because Bell’s theorem is built on some
axioms, some things that you assume to to
be true, and one of these is locality. And
so you can have a successful non-local hidden
variable theory, also known as Bohmian mechanics
also known as pilot wave theory. Now the idea
in this interpretation is that the particles
are always real, but they are kind of surfing
about on an underlying wave, and so when you
see the probability of particles appearing
in different places it’s because they have
been nudged in different directions by this
underlying wave. But still we can’t see
those waves. And the advantage of this is
Indonesian:
hal-hal tertentu di bawah eksperimen Bell.
Dan ketika mereka melakukan percobaan, mereka sebenarnya
menemukan hasil yang cocok dengan fisika kuantum
dan tidak variabel tersembunyi teori, sangat tersembunyi
variabel keluar. Sekarang tidak sepenuhnya
permainan berakhir untuk teori variabel tersembunyi
karena teorema Bell dibangun di atas beberapa
aksioma, beberapa hal yang Anda anggap
benar, dan salah satunya adalah lokalitas. Dan
sehingga Anda dapat memiliki tersembunyi non-lokal yang sukses
teori variabel, juga dikenal sebagai mekanika Bohmian
juga dikenal sebagai teori gelombang percontohan. Sekarang idenya
dalam interpretasi ini adalah partikel
selalu nyata, tetapi mereka jenis berselancar
tentang pada gelombang yang mendasarinya, dan begitu ketika Anda
lihat probabilitas partikel yang muncul
di tempat yang berbeda itu karena mereka punya
didorong ke arah yang berbeda dengan ini
gelombang yang mendasarinya. Tapi tetap saja kita tidak bisa melihat
gelombang itu. Dan keuntungannya adalah
English:
that it kind of returns quantum physics to
a sort of determinism, which none of the interpretations
of quantum physics do. But the trouble again
is there’s no testable hypotheses so there
is no way of us doing an experiment to see
if it is true. So another thread in the interpretations
of quantum physics is to instead focus on
the collapse of the wave function, and try
and make that bit make sense. So there are
interpretations called alternative collapse
theories that try and add some extra physics
in to that collapse that either explain why
it happens or add some, describe the dynamics
of how exactly the wave function localises.
One idea called spontaneous collapse theory
is that the wave function has got a probability
of collapsing at any time a bit like radioactive
decay. So for a small particle there is a
very low probability that its wave function
collapses, maybe like once in a hundred million
Indonesian:
bahwa itu semacam mengembalikan fisika kuantum ke
semacam determinisme, yang tidak satupun interpretasinya
fisika kuantum lakukan. Tapi masalahnya lagi
apakah tidak ada hipotesis yang dapat diuji sehingga tidak ada
tidak mungkin kita melakukan percobaan untuk melihat
jika itu benar. Demikian utas lain dalam penafsiran
fisika kuantum adalah untuk fokus
runtuhnya fungsi gelombang, dan coba
dan membuatnya sedikit masuk akal. Jadi ada
interpretasi yang disebut keruntuhan alternatif
Teori yang mencoba dan menambahkan beberapa fisika tambahan
ke keruntuhan yang menjelaskan mengapa
itu terjadi atau menambahkan beberapa, menggambarkan dinamika
tentang bagaimana tepatnya fungsi gelombang melokalisasi.
Satu ide yang disebut teori keruntuhan spontan
adalah bahwa fungsi gelombang telah mendapat probabilitas
runtuh setiap saat sedikit seperti radioaktif
kerusakan. Jadi untuk partikel kecil ada a
probabilitas sangat rendah bahwa fungsi gelombangnya
runtuh, mungkin seperti sekali dalam seratus juta
English:
years. Whereas for big groups of particles
together in something like a football there
would be way more collapses because if any
one those collapses, it has a knock on effect
to collapse the wave functions of all the
others. And so there would be maybe a hundred
million collapses per second which kind of
goes some way to describe why the world we
experience is all kind of solid and deterministic,
and the quantum realm isn’t, so it describes
kind of the boundary between those two things.
And the advantage of this interpretation is
it’s actually making a testable prediction.
And so at some stage in the future we could
design an experiment that could maybe see
if it is true or not. So, you know, it doesn’t
say that it is any more likely to be true
than any of the others but at least it has
got a testable prediction which, as an experimental
physicist, I like! So those are the main interpretations
of quantum physics but there’s many many
more, I’m just going to cover a few more
here. But this isn’t an exhaustive list.
Also, word of warning, this is where I started
Indonesian:
tahun. Sedangkan untuk kelompok partikel besar
bersama dalam sesuatu seperti sepak bola di sana
akan jauh lebih runtuh karena jika ada
satu yang runtuh, itu memiliki ketukan
untuk menutup fungsi gelombang semua
lainnya. Dan mungkin akan ada seratus
juta runtuh per detik jenis apa
pergi beberapa cara untuk menggambarkan mengapa dunia kita
pengalaman adalah semua jenis yang solid dan deterministik,
dan ranah kuantum tidak, jadi itu menjelaskan
semacam batas antara kedua hal itu.
Dan keuntungan dari interpretasi ini adalah
sebenarnya membuat prediksi yang dapat diuji.
Dan pada tahap tertentu di masa depan kita bisa
mendesain percobaan yang mungkin bisa dilihat
apakah itu benar atau tidak. Jadi, Anda tahu, tidak
katakan bahwa itu lebih mungkin benar
daripada yang lain tetapi setidaknya itu ada
mendapat prediksi yang dapat diuji yang, sebagai percobaan
fisikawan, saya suka! Jadi itu adalah interpretasi utama
fisika kuantum tetapi ada banyak
lebih, saya hanya akan membahas beberapa lagi
sini. Tapi ini bukan daftar lengkap.
Juga, kata peringatan, ini adalah tempat saya mulai
Indonesian:
untuk menjadi benar-benar agak bingung, jadi mari kita lanjutkan
dengan sejumlah hati-hati. Pertama adalah kuantum
Bayesianisme juga dikenal sebagai Qbism, yang mengambil
ide-ide probabilitas Bayesian dan berlaku
itu ke fisika kuantum jadi itu seperti
teori informasi fisika kuantum.
Dan ide yang saya mengerti adalah kapan
Anda mendapatkan informasi baru tentang keadaan pembaruan itu
kemungkinan hal-hal yang Anda inginkan
mengukur. Penafsiran sejarah yang konsisten
fisika kuantum rupanya matematika
agak dari hibrida antara variabel tersembunyi
teori dan teori keruntuhan spontan.
Ini termasuk runtuhnya gelombang secara spontan
fungsi, tetapi aspek yang berbeda, bukan hanya
posisi saja bisa runtuh. Itu juga mengatakan itu
keruntuhan itu bukan peristiwa fisik tetapi
hanya cara Anda memilih sejarah
English:
to get really rather confused, so lets proceed
with some amount of caution. First up is quantum
Bayesianism also known as Qbism, which takes
the ideas of Bayesian probability and applies
it to quantum physics so it’s sort of like
an informational theory of quantum physics.
And the idea as I understand it is that when
you get new information about a state it updates
the probabilities of the things that you will
measure. The consistent histories interpretation
of quantum physics apparently the mathematics
is somewhat of a hybrid between hidden variable
theories and spontaneous collapse theories.
It includes spontaneous collapses of the wave
function, but different aspects, not just
just position can collapse. It also says that
those collapses are not physical events but
just a way of you picking through a history
Indonesian:
dari objek kuantum yang masuk akal, itu
konsisten. Yang berikutnya adalah kuantum Darwinisme,
yang mana, ketika sistem kuantum berinteraksi
dengan lingkungan hal-hal tertentu terbunuh
mati. Jadi interaksi antara partikel dan
lingkungan seperti seleksi alam
untuk sifat-sifat objek kuantum itu.
Interpretasi lain disebut transaksional
interpretasi yang, dalam matematika aktual
fisika kuantum memungkinkan solusi itu
melakukan perjalanan mundur dalam waktu dan juga ke depan
dalam waktu, tetapi kami biasanya hanya membuang
mundur dalam waktu, karena Anda tahu Anda
tidak akan melakukan perjalanan mundur dalam waktu. Tapi
seperti, saya tidak tahu, mungkin Anda bisa. Jadi begitu
apa interpretasi transaksional, itu
membuat mereka dan mengatakan bahwa properti itu
Anda mungkin tergantung pada hal-hal itu
terjadi padamu di masa depan. Dan ini menarik
karena itu sebenarnya bisa menyiasati Bell's
dalil. Satu lagi disebut relasional
interpretasi yang tidak fokus pada
English:
of that quantum object that makes sense, that’s
consistent. The next one is quantum Darwinism,
which is where, when the quantum system interacts
with the environment certain things are killed
off. So interactions between particles and
the environment are kind of like natural selection
for the properties of that quantum object.
Another interpretation is called the transactional
interpretation which, in the actual mathematics
of quantum physics it allows solutions that
travel backwards in time as well as forwards
in time, but we normally just throw away the
backwards in time ones, because you know you’re
not going to travel backwards in time. But
like, I don’t know, maybe you can. So that’s
what the transactional interpretation, it
keeps those and says that the properties that
you have maybe are dependent on things that
happen to you in the future. And this is attractive
because it can actually get around Bell’s
theorem. Another one is called the relational
interpretation which doesn’t focus on the
Indonesian:
sifat benda kuantum kecuali segalanya
didefinisikan oleh hubungan di antara mereka.
Jadi itu adalah interpretasi utama kuantum
Fisika ada beberapa yang lain tetapi itu
yang utama. Saya terkadang ditanya apa
adalah interpretasi favorit saya dan saya tidak
benar-benar memilikinya. Pikiran saya tentang ini adalah:
karena ada begitu banyak interpretasi yang berbeda
fisika kuantum itu semacam tanda itu
kita mungkin kehilangan sesuatu yang mendasar,
jadi mungkin salah satu cara untuk menyerang masalah ini adalah
untuk benar - benar kembali ke prinsip pertama dan
kembali ke asumsi fundamental kuantum
fisika karena ada beberapa yang menarik
asumsi yang dibuat seperti saat Anda miliki
fungsi gelombang yang memprediksi probabilitas
hal-hal yang terjadi itu hanya dugaan,
dan itu bekerja dengan sangat baik, tetapi di sana
tidak ada alasan nyata untuk itu selain baik
tebakan. Jadi, ya fisika kuantum sedang berjalan
English:
properties of quantum objects but everything
is defined by the relationships between them.
So those are the main interpretations of quantum
physics there’s a few others but those are
the main ones. I sometimes get asked what
is my favourite interpretation and I don’t
really have one. My thoughts about this are:
because there’s so many different interpretations
of quantum physics it’s kind of a sign that
we might be missing something kind of fundamental,
so maybe one way to attack this problem is
to really go back to first principles and
back to the fundamental assumptions of quantum
physics because there’s some interesting
assumptions that were made like when you have
a wave function which predicts probabilities
of things happening that was just a guess,
and it works really really well, but there
was no real reason for that other than nice
guess work. So, yeah quantum physics is going
Indonesian:
untuk ... Nah itu akhirnya. Terima kasih telah menempel
melalui semua itu. Saya harap itu menarik.
Saya pikir Anda mendapatkan posisi duduk yang baik
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English:
to… Well that’s the end. Thanks for sticking
through all of that. I hope it was of interest.
I think you’ve earned yourself a nice sit
down and maybe even a biscuit, so thanks for
watching and thanks also to the sponsor of
this video: Skillshare. I always get loads
of comments asking me how I produce my videos,
and what software I use and the truth is,
it’s a combination of all the Adobe software:
Illustrator, Photoshop, After Effects and
Premiere. And Skillshare is a fantastic website
if you want to learn any of these programs
for your own creative projects. As well as
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the first five hundred people to click on
English:
this link. The link is also in the description
below. Well that’s it from me, thanks for
watching and I’ll see you next time.
Indonesian:
Link ini. Tautan ini juga ada dalam deskripsi
di bawah. Baik itu dari saya, terima kasih
menonton dan aku akan menemuimu lain kali.
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Modern Greek (1453-):
To Crash Course Φιλοσοφίας προσφέρεται από το Squarespace.
Squarespace: Μοιράσου το πάθος σου με τον κόσμο.
Πιθανώς πιστεύεις ότι ξέρεις πολλά πράγματα.
Αλλά ξέρεις τι σημαίνει να ξέρεις κάτι;
Περάσαμε αρκετό καιρό συζητώντας πιστεύω και γνώσεις, αλλά δεν έχουμε στην πραγματικότητα
γίνει συγκεκριμένοι για το τι εννοούμε όταν μιλάμε για αυτά τα πράγματα.
Ευτυχώς, οι φιλόσοφοι αγαπάνε τους καλούς ορισμούς. Έχουν πολύ συγκεκριμένες και σαφείς ιδέες
στο νου τους όταν χρησιμοποιούν όρους όπως γνωρίζω ή πιστεύω ή η πρόταση ή η αιτιολόγηση.
Και, σε δέκα περίπου λεπτά από τώρα, και εσύ θα ξέρεις τι λέμε πραγματικά όταν χρησιμοποιούμε αυτές τις λέξεις.
Αλλά, απλά επειδή αυτοί οι όροι έχουν προσδιορισθεί, δεν σημαίνει ότι οι φιλόσοφοι δεν διαφωνούν ακόμα για αυτούς.
Γιατί ξέρεις, αυτό κάνουν οι φιλόσοφοι.
Οι ορισμοί τους μπορεί να φαίνονται κάπως προφανείς στην αρχή, αλλά όσο περισσότερο τους σκέφτεσαι,
τόσο εμφανίζονται να έχουν διάφορες αποχρώσεις.
Όπως, είναι το να ξέρεις κάτι το ίδιο με το να έχεις δίκιο;
Ή, αν πιστεύεις ότι κάτι είναι αληθές, και είναι όντως, έχει σημασία αν η πίστη σου σε αυτό είναι αιτιολογημένη;
Και μπορείς να έχεις δίκιο για κάτι χωρίς πραγματικά να προσπαθείς;
Italian:
Crash Course Philosophy è offerto da Squarespace.
Squarespace: Condividi la tua passione con il mondo.
Probabilmente pensi di sapere un sacco di cose.
Ma sai cosa vuol dire sapere una cosa?
Abbiamo speso un bel po' di tempo discutendo credenze e conoscenze, ma non siamo davvero
stati specifici su ciò che intendiamo quando parliamo di queste cose.
Per fortuna, i filosofi amano una buona definizione.
Hanno idee molto specifiche e chiare in
mente quando usano termini come sapere o credere o proposizione o giustificazione.
E, tra circa dieci minuti, anche tu saprai cosa stai realmente dicendo quando usi quelle parole.
Ma, solo perché questi termini sono stati definiti, non significa che i filosofi non stiano ancora discutendo su di loro.
Perché si sa, è così che fanno i filosofi.
Le loro definizioni potrebbero sembrare abbastanza ovvie in un primo momento, ma più pensi a loro,
più risultano avere sfumature.
Tipo, avere conoscenza di qualcosa è la stessa cosa di essere corretti?
Oppure, se credi che qualcosa sia vero, ed è vero, importa se la tua convinzione in esso è giustificata?
E puoi avere ragione su qualcosa senza veramente provarci?
Dutch:
Crash Course Filosofie wordt u aangeboden door Squarespace.
Squarespace: Deel je passie met de wereld.
Je denkt waarschijnlijk dat je veel weet.
Maar weet je wat het betekent om iets te weten?
We hebben nogal wat tijd doorgebracht met overtuigingen en kennis te bespreken, maar we zijn niet echt
specifiek geweest over wat we bedoelen wanneer we het daarover hebben.
Gelukkig houden filosofen van een goede definitie. Ze hebben heel specifieke en lucide ideeën in
gedachten wanneer ze termen als weten of geloven of propositie of verantwoording gebruiken.
En, binnen een minuut of tien, zal ook jij weten wat je echt aan het zeggen bent wanneer je die woorden gebruikt.
Maar, gewoon omdat deze termen gedefinieerd zijn, betekent niet dat filosofen ze niet nog steeds betwisten.
Want dat is nu eenmaal wat filosofen doen.
Hun definities lijken misschien wel vanzelfsprekend op het eerste gezicht, maar hoe langer je erover nadenkt,
hoe genuanceerder ze blijken te zijn.
Bijvoorbeeld, is kennis hebben van iets hetzelfde als correct zijn?
Of, als je gelooft dat iets waar is, en het is ook waar, maakt het dan iets uit of je geloof erin gerechtvaardigd is?
En kan je correct zijn over iets zonder echt te proberen?
Romanian:
Crash Course Philosophy îți este oferit de Squarespace.
Squarespace: Împărtășește-ți pasiunea cu lumea.
Probabil crezi că știi multe lucruri.
Dar știi ce înseamnă să știi ceva?
Am petrecut destul de mult timp discutând despre convingeri și cunoaștere, dar nu am spus concret
la ce ne referim când vorbim despre acele lucruri.
Din fericire, filosofilor le plac definițiile concrete. Ei se referă la idei precise și raționale
atunci când folosesc termeni precum ,,a ști" și ,,a crede", sau ,,propoziție" și ,,justificare"
Și, în vreo 10 minute, și tu vei ști exact ceea ce spui mai exact atunci când folosești acele cuvinte.
Dar, doar pentru că acești termeni au fost deja definiți, nu înseamnă că filosofii nu au încă discuții asupra lor.
Pentru că, știi, asta fac filosofii.
Definițiile lor pot părea evidente la început, dar cu cât te gândești mai mult la ele,
cu atât devin mai nuanțate.
Cum ar fi, a avea cunoștințe despre ceva e același lucru cu a avea dreptate?
Sau, dacă ai impresia că ceva este adevărat, și este adevărat, mai contează dacă părerea ta este justificată?
Și poți să ai dreptate în legătură cu ceva fără a încerca măcar?
Russian:
Краткий Курс Философии создан при поддержке Squarespace.
Squarespace: поделитесь вашим увлечением с миром.
Вы наверняка думаете, что многое знаете.
Но знаете ли вы, что значит знать что-то?
Мы потратили много время на обсуждение убеждений и знания, но мы не
уточняли, что имеем в виду под этими словами.
К счастью, философы обожают хорошие определения. Они имеют в виду очень определенные и ясные вещи,
пользуясь терминами знать, верить, предположение или обоснование.
И через 10 минут вы тоже будете знать, что вы на самом деле говорите, используя эти слова.
Но только то, что эти термины уже определены, не значит, что философы больше о них не спорят.
Потому что, вы знаете, философы это любят.
Их определения сперва могут показаться очевидными, но чем больше вы о них думаете,
тем больше нюансов замечаете.
Например, знать что-то и быть правым - это одно и то же?
Или, если вы верите во что-то, и оно является правдой, означает ли это, что ваша вера обоснована?
Можете ли вы быть правы, не стараясь?
iw:
קורס מזורז זה בפילוסופיה הובא לך
על ידי Squarespace.
Squarespace: שתף את התשוקה שלך עם העולם.
אתה כנראה חושב שאתה יודע הרבה דברים.
אבל האם אתה יודע מה זה אומר לדעת משהו?
בילינו לא מעט זמן בדיון
על אמונות וידע, אבל לא באמת
היינו ספציפיים לגבי מה שאנחנו מתכוונים אליו, כשאנחנו מדברים על הדברים האלו
למרבה המזל, פילוסופים אוהבים הגדרה טובה.
הם מתכוונים לרעיונות ספציפיים וצלולים מאוד
כשהם משתמשים במונחים כמו לדעת או להאמין
או הצעה או הצדקה
וגם, בעוד כעשר דקות מעכשיו, גם אתם תדעו מה אתם בעצם אומרים כאשר אתם משתמשים במילים האלו.
אבל, רק בגלל שמונחים אלו הוגדרו, אין זה אומר שפילוסופים אינם ממשיכים להתווכח עליהם.
מכיוון שכפי שאתם יודעים, ככה נוהגים פילוסופים
ההגדרות שלהם אולי נראות די ברורות
בהתחלה, אבל ככל שאתה חושב עליהן,
הן נעשות יותר ויותר מסובכות.
כאילו, הידיעה של משהו זה אותו דבר כמו משהו נכון?
לחלופין, אם אתה מאמין במשהו שאמור להיות נכון,
וזה נכון, האם זה משנה אם האמונה שלך היא מוצדקת?
והאם אתם יכולים להיות צודקים לגבי משהו בלי
באמת לנסות?
Portuguese:
Crash Course Philosophy é oferecido por Squarespace.
Squarespace: Compartilhe sua paixão com o mundo.
Você provavelmente acha que sabe muita coisa.
Mas você sabe o que significa "saber alguma coisa"?
Nós gastamos um bom tempo discutindo crenças e conhecimento, mas na verdade ainda
não discutimos o que queremos dizer quando falamos sobre essas coisas.
Ainda bem que filósofos adoram uma boa definição. Eles são bastante específicos e elucidam as ideias
quando usam os termos como "saber", "crença", "proposição" ou "justificativa".
E, daqui dez minutos, você também vai saber o que realmente está dizendo quando usa essas palavras.
Mas, só porque esse termos foram definidos não quer dizer que os filósofos pararam de discutí-los.
Porque, você sabe, esse é o jeito dos filósofos.
Suas definições podem parecer um pouco óbvias no começo, mas quanto mais você pensa nelas
mais nuances você enxergará.
Por exemplo, ter o conhecimento de algo é a mesma coisa de estar certo?
Ou, se você acredita que algo é verdade, e ela acaba sendo, importa se suas crenças nela são justificadas?
E você pode estar certo sobre algo sem nem mesmo tentar?
Turkish:
Crash Course Felsefe size Squarespace tarafından sağlanmıştır.
Squarespace: Tutkunuzu dünya ile paylaşın.
Muhtemelen birçok şeyi bildiğinizi düşünüyorsunuzdur.
Ancak bir şeyi bilmenin ne anlama geldiğini biliyor musunuz?
İnançları ve bilgiyi tartışarak yeterince zaman geçirdik, ancak bu şeyler
hakkında konuşurken neyi kast ettiğimiz konusunda derine girmedik.
Neyse ki, filozoflar iyi bir tanımı çok severler. Bilmek, inanmak veya önerme veya gerekçe gibi
kavramları kullanırken zihinlerinde oldukça özel ve berrak fikirleri vardır.
Ve, şu on dakikadan itibaren, sen de bu kelimeleri kullandığında esasen ne dediğini bileceksin.
Fakat, sırf bu kavramların tanımlanmış olması, filozofların hala onlar üzerinden tartışmadığı anlamına gelmez.
Çünkü bilirsiniz işte, filozoflar böyle yapar.
Başlangıçta tanımları bir nevi belirgin gözükebilir, ancak üzerinde düşündükçe,
daha çok ayrıntılı olmaya başlarlar.
Örneğin, bir şeyin bilgisine sahip olmak doğru olmakla aynı şey midir?
Veya, bir şeyin doğru olduğuna inanırsanız, ve doğruysa, inancınızın gerekçelendirilmiş olması fark eder mi?
Ve herhangi bir şey hakkında gerçekten denemeden doğru olabilir misiniz?
French:
Crash Course Philosophy vous est présenté par Squarespace.
Squarespace : partagez votre passion avec le monde.
Vous pensez probablement que vous savez un tas de choses.
Mais savez-vous ce que ça signifie de savoir quelque chose ?
On a passé un petit moment à discuter des croyances et de la connaissance, mais on n’a pas vraiment
parlé en détails de ce qu’on veut dire quand on parle de ces choses.
Heureusement, les philosophes adorent les belles définitions. Ils ont des idées très précises et lucides
à l’esprit quand ils utilisent des termes comme « savoir » ou « croire » ou « proposition » ou « justification ».
Et, dans environ dix minutes, vous aussi saurez ce que vous dites vraiment quand vous utilisez ces mots.
Mais, c’est pas parce que ces termes ont été définis que ça veut dire que les philosophes ne se disputent plus à propos de leurs sens.
Parce que, vous savez, c’est ce que les philosophes font.
Il se pourrait que leurs définitions semblent évidentes au début, mais plus on y réfléchit,
plus elles se révèlent nuancées.
Genre, est-ce qu’avoir connaissance de quelque chose est la même chose qu’avoir raison ?
Ou, si on croit que quelque chose est vrai, et que c’est vrai, est-ce que ça importe si votre croyance est justifiée ?
Et peut-on avoir raison à propos de quelque chose sans vraiment essayer ?
Vietnamese:
Crash Course Philosophy được tài trợ bởi Squarespace.
Squarespace: chia sẻ đam mê của bạn với thế giới.
Bạn có lẽ nghĩ rằng bạn biết nhiều về mọi thứ.
Nhưng bạn không biết biết một thứ có nghĩa là gì?
Chúng ta dành một chút thời gian thảo luận về niềm tin và tri thức, nhưng chúng ta không thực sự
rõ ràng về ý nghĩa của chúng là gì khi chúng ta nói về những điều này.
May mắn thay, những nhà triết gia thích định nghĩa rõ ràng. Họ có những định nghĩa rõ ràng và dễ hiểu trong
tâm trí khi họ sử dụng những cụm từ như biết hay tin hay tuyên bố hay biện hộ.
Và khoảng mười phút sau, bạn cũng sẽ biết bạn thật sự đang nói gì khi bạn sử dụng những từ đó.
Nhưng, chỉ bởi vì những từ này đã được định nghĩa, không có nghĩa là các nhà triết gia không còn tranh luận về chúng.
Bởi vì bạn biết đấy, đó là cách các nhà triết gia thường làm.
Những định nghĩa có thể có vẻ rõ ràng lúc đầu, nhưng bạn càng nghĩ về chúng,
bạn càng thấy chúng có nhiều sắc thái.
Giống như, việc có tri thức về một thứ gì đó có đồng nghĩa với việc đúng về thứ đó?
Hay, nếu bạn tin một điều gì đó là đúng, và nó là đúng, nó có vấn đề gì không nếu bạn tin điều đó đã được chứng minh?
Và bạn có thể đúng về thứ gì đó mà không thực sự cố gắng?
Arabic:
كراش كورس، الفلسفة تقدم لك عن طريق سكوير سبيس.
سكوير سبيس: شارك شغفك مع العالم.
قد تظن أنك تعلم الكثير من الأشياء.
لكن هل تعرف معنى أن تعلم شيئا؟
نحن نقضي الكثيرمن الوقت نتناقش في الإعتقادات والمعرفة
لكن لم نكن أبدا دقيقين فيما نعنيه عندما نتحدث عن تلك الأشياء.
لحسن الحظ الفلاسفة يحبون التعريفات الجيدة. لديهم أفكار دقيقة وواضحة في عقولهم
عندما يستخدمون مصطلحات مثل معرفة أو اعتقاد أو افتراض أو تفسير.
وخلال 10 دقائق من الآن، أنت أيضا ستعرف فعلا ما تتحدث عنه عندما تستخدم هذه الكلمات.
لكن، لا يعني كون هذه المصطلحات معرَّفة أن الفلاسفة لا يتجادلون حولها
لأنه كما تعلم، هذا هو ما يفعله الفلاسفة .
قد يكون تعريفهم للحظة الأولى واضحًا لك، لكن كلما فكرت فيهم
كلما ظهر تباينهم أكثر.
مثلاً، هل معرفتك بشيء ما هو نفسه أن تكون محقاً بشأنه؟
أو إذا كنت تعتقد أن شيئا ما صحيحاً، وكان فعلا صحيحا، هل يهم ما إذا كان إعتقادك به مبررا؟
و هل يمكن أن تكون محقا بشأن شيء دون محاولة تبريره؟
Spanish:
Crash Course Filosofía es traído a ti por Squarespace.
Squarespace: Comparte tu pasión con el mundo.
Tu probablemente pienses que sabes muchas cosas.
¿Pero sabes lo que significa saber algo?
Estuvimos dedicando bastante tiempo a la discusión sobre creencias y conocimiento, pero en verdad
no hemos sido específicos sobre a que nos referimos cuando hablamos de esas cosas.
Por suerte, a los filósofos les encanta una buena definición. Tienen ideas específicas y lúcidas en
sus mentes cuando usan términos como conocer o creer o proposiciones o justificaciones.
Y dentro de diez minutos tu también sabrás lo que en realidad dices cuando usas esas palabras.
Pero solo porque estos términos hayan sido definidos, no significa que los filósofos no sigan discutiendo sobre ellos.
Porque ya sabes,es así como lo hacen los filósofos.
Sus definiciones pueden parecerte un poco obvias pero mientras más piensas en ellas,
más matices les vas a ver.
Como ¿tener conocimiento de algo es lo mismo que estar en lo correcto?
O si crees que algo es verdadero, y lo es, ¿importa si tu creencia en ello está justificada?
Y ¿puedes estar en lo cierto sobre algo sin siquiera tratar?
Estonian:
Crash Course Filosoofia toob sinuni Squarespace.
Squarespace: jaga maailmaga oma kirge.
Arvatavasti sa arvad, et sa tead palju asju.
Aga kas sa tead, mida tähendab midagi teada?
Me oleme veetnud üsna palju aega arutades uskumusi ja teadmist, aga me ei ole tegelikult
täpsustanud, millest me räägime, kui me räägime neist asjadest.
Õnneks aga filosoofidele meeldivad head definitsioonid. Neil on mõttes väga täpne ja selge
ettekujutus kui nad kasutavad termineid nagu "teadma" või "uskuma" või "propositsioon" või "põhjendus".
Ja umbes kümne minuti pärast tead ka sina mida sa tegelikult ütled, kui sa neid sõnu kasutad.
Aga see, et need mõisted on defineeritud ei tähenda veel, et filosoofid nende üle ei vaidleks.
Sest just seda filosoofid teevad.
Nende definitsioonid võivad esmalt näida ilmsed, aga mida rohkem sa nendele mõtled,
seda nüanssi rikkamaks need muutuvad.
Nagu, kas millegi kohta teadmise omamine on sama mis tõe omamine?
Või kui sa usud, et miski on tõene ja see osutub tõeseks, siis kas on oluline, et sinu usk pole põhjendatud.
Ja kas sul võib olla õigus, ilma seda proovimata?
English:
Crash Course Philosophy is brought to you
by Squarespace.
Squarespace: Share your passion with the world.
You probably think you know a lot of things.
But do you know what it means to know something?
We’ve spent quite a bit of time discussing
beliefs and knowledge, but we haven’t really
been specific about what we mean when we talk
about those things.
Thankfully, philosophers love a good definition.
They have very specific and lucid ideas in
mind when they use terms like know or believe
or proposition or justification.
And, about ten minutes from now, you too will know what you’re really saying when you use those words.
But, just because these terms have been defined, doesn’t mean that philosophers aren’t still arguing over them.
Because you know, that’s how philosophers
do.
Their definitions might seem kind of obvious
at first, but the more you think about them,
the more nuanced they turn out to be.
Like, is having knowledge of something the
same thing as being correct?
Or, if you believe something to be true, and
it is true, does it matter if your belief in it is justified?
And can you be right about something without
really trying?
Italian:
Le risposte a queste domande e altro ancora ti attendono, così come
dei gatti!
[Tema musicale]
L'hai già sentito: i filosofi amano una buona argomentazione.
Ma ormai avrai capito che i filosofi discutono in un modo diverso da quello, tipo, dei bambini
dell'asilo, o dei troll, o di altre persone che confondono «discutere» con battibeccare
o semplicemente inventarsi battute argute.
No. I filosofi hanno tutti quanti i tipi di stratagemmi retorici a loro disposizione che possono usare
per promuovere un'idea, o mettere in dubbio le idee dei loro interlocutori.
Quindi, al fine di cavarsela in un dibattito filosofico, dovrai conoscere la differenza
tra due cose che sembrano esattamente la stessa cosa: un'affermazione, ed una proposizione.
E dovrai essere in grado di saper distinguere se qualcuno sa per davvero di cosa sta parlando,
o se semplicemente credono che ciò che stanno dicendo potrebbe essere vero.
Per esempio: la frase che sto dicendo proprio ora è un'affermazione. Un'asserzione è un atto
linguistico - sia parlato o scritto - avente un valore di verità. E nonostante quello che potrebbe
Estonian:
Vastused neile ja veel mõnele imelikule küsimusele ootavad sind, nagu ka
kassid!
[Tunnusmuusika]
Seda oled sa juba kuulnud, et filosoofidele meeldivad head argumendid.
Aga sa tead ka seda, et filosoofid arutlevad natuke teisiti kui näiteks lasteaia lapsed
või interneti trollid, või need inimesed, kes ajavad segamine argumenteerimise ja edasi-tagasi
vaimukate lausete loopimise.
Ei, Filosoofidel on kasutada erinevaid retoorilisi vahendeid, mille abil nad saavad
oma vestluskaaslase mõtteid arendada või küsimuse ala seada.
Seega, et ise pidada filosoofilist debatti, pead sa teadma mis on erinevat
nende kahe sarnaselt kõlava mõiste vahel milleks on "väide" ja "propositsioon".
Ja sa pead olema võimeline aru saama, kas keegi teab, millest ta räägib,
või nad lihtsalt usuvad, et see, millest nad räägivad, on tõene.
Näiteks, lause, mida ma praegu lausun on väide. Väide on keeleline tegevus
-- kas suuline või kirjalik -- millel on tõeväärtus. Ja hoolimata sellest, kuidas see
Romanian:
Imediat urmează răspunsuri la aceste întrebări și multe altele, dar și
pisici!
Deci, ai auzit asta deja: filosofilor chiar le plac dezbaterile.
Dar ți-ai dat seama deja că filosofii dezbat altfel decât copiii de grădiniță, de exemplu,
sau măscăricii de pe internet, ori oamenii care confundă dezbaterea cu cearta
sau cu replicile tăioase.
Nu. Filosofii au la dispoziție tot felul de instrumente retorice pe care le pot folosi
pentru a formula o idee sau pentru a analiza ideile interlocutorilor.
Deci, pentru a-ți putea susține punctul de vedere intr-o dezbatere filosofică, trebuie să știi diferența
dintre două lucruri care par a fi același lucru: declarație și propoziție logică.
Și trebuie să poți să îți dai seama dacă cineva știe despre ce vorbește
sau dacă doar crede că ceea ce spune s-ar putea să fie adevărat.
De exemplu, propoziția pe care o spun acum este o declarație. Declarația este o manifestare lingvistică,
fie orală sau scrisă, ce are o valoare de adevăr. Și, chiar dacă ar putea părea așa
Arabic:
أجوبة تلك الأسئلة الغريبة والمزيد بأنتظارك
كما القطط!
معنى المعرفة
سبق أن سمعت هذا: الفلاسفة يحبون الحجج الجيدة
لكنك لاحظت إلى حد الآن أن الفلاسفة يتناقشون بطريقة مختلفة عن أطفال الروضة
أو متصيدو الانترنت أو الآخرون الذين يخلطون "النقاش" بالجدال
أو يحاولون التفكير بردود مفحمة
لا، الفلاسفة في حوزتهم جميع الأدوات البلاغية التي يمكنهم استخدامها
لتحسين فكرة، أو التشكيك في أفكار محاوريهم.
لذا، لتتمكن من أن تتماسك في مناظرة فلسفية، عليك أن تعرف الفرق
بين شيئين يظهران متماثلين تماما: التوكيد والإفتراض
وتحتاج أن تكون قادرًا على معرفة ما إذا كان الفرد يعرف بالضبط ما يتحدث عنه
أو أنه يعتقد بأن ما يتحدث عنه قد يكون صحيحا
على سبيل المثال: الجملة التي أقولها الأن هي توكيد، التوكيد هو
فعل لغوي -منطوق أو مكتوب- ذو قيمة حقيقية
Turkish:
Bu soruların ve daha fazlasının cevapları sizi bekliyor, hem de
kedilerle birlikte!
[Tema Müziği]
Şunu zaten öğrenmiştiniz: Filozoflar iyi bir argümanı çok sever.
Ancak şu ana kadar filozofların kreş çocuklarından,
internet trollerinden, ya da tartışmayı ileri geri atmak veya
hazırcevap dönüşlerle karıştıranlardan farklı bir şekilde tartıştıklarını farkettiniz.
Hayır. Filozoflar bir fikri ilerletmek ya da muhataplarının fikirlerini sorgulamak için
kullanabileceği her türlü teorik aygıtı zaten ellerinde bulundurur.
Yani felsefi bir tartışmada bulunmak istiyorsanız, kulağa tamamen
aynı şeymiş gibi gözüken iki şey arasındaki farkı bilmelisiniz: bir varsayım, ve bir önerme.
Birilerinin gerçekten konuştukları şeyi bildiğini, ya da sadece söylediklerinin
doğru olabileceklerini inandıklarını söyleyebilmeniz gerekir.
Örneğin: Şu anda söylediğim cümle bir iddiadır. İddia doğruluk değeri olan
konuşulan ya da yazılan linguistik bir eylemdir.
Ve göründüğünün aksine,
Spanish:
Las respuestas a estas preguntas raras y más te esperan, así como
¡Gatos!
Ya has escuchado esto antes; a los filósofos les encanta una buena discusión.
Pero ya te diste cuenta de que los filósofos discuten de una forma distinta a, digamos, infantes
o trolls de internet o a otras personas que confunden "discutir" con hacer críticas de un lado
para el otro o solo pensar respuestas ingeniosas.
Nop. Los filósofos tienen muchos tipos de elementos retóricos a su disposición que pueden usar
para avanzar una idea, o poner en cuestionamiento ideas de sus interlocutores.
Así que para defender tu posición en un debate filosófico debes saber la diferencia
entre dos cosas que suenan como exactamente la misma cosa: una afirmación y una proposición.
Y necesitarás ser capaz de ver si alguien en verdad sabe de lo que está hablando
o si solo creen que lo que están diciendo puede ser verdad.
Por ejemplo: la oración que estoy diciendo ahora mismo es una afirmación. Una afirmación es un acto
lingüístico -escrito o hablado - que tiene valor verdadero. Y a pesar de como pueda
French:
Des réponses à ces questions et plus encore vous attendent, ainsi que
des chats !
[Musique du générique]
Vous avez déjà entendu ceci : les philosophes adorent les bons arguments.
Mais vous avez compris maintenant que les philosophes argumentent d’une manière différente des, genre, gamins
du jardin d’enfants, ou des trolls Internet, ou d’autres personnes qui confondent « argumenter » et critiquer à tort
et à travers ou juste inventer des réparties spirituelles.
Nan. Les philosophes ont plein de procédés rhétoriques à leur disposition qu’ils peuvent utiliser
pour avancer une idée, ou remettre en question les idées de leurs interlocuteurs.
Donc afin de défendre votre bifteck dans un débat philosophique, vous allez devoir connaitre la différence
entre deux choses qui semblent être exactement la même chose : une assertion et une proposition.
Et vous aurez besoin de pouvoir dire si quelqu’un sait vraiment de quoi il parle
ou s’il croit juste que ce qu’il dit pourrait être vrai.
Par exemple : la phrase que je dis tout de suite est une assertion. Une assertion est un acte
linguistique – soit parlé, soit écrit – qui a une valeur de vérité. Et malgré
English:
Answers to these questions and more await
you, as well as
cats!
[Theme Music]
So you’ve heard this already: Philosophers
love a good argument.
But you’ve figured out by now that philosophers
argue in a different way than, like, kindergarten
kids, or Internet trolls, or other people
who confuse “arguing” with sniping back
and forth or just thinking up witty comebacks.
Nope. Philosophers have all kinds of rhetorical
devices at their disposal that they can use
to advance an idea, or call into question
the ideas of their interlocutors.
So in order to hold your own in a philosophical
debate, you’re gonna have to know the difference
between two things that sound like exactly
the same thing: an assertion, and a proposition.
And you’ll need to be able to tell whether
someone actually knows what they’re talking
about, or if they just believe what they’re
saying might be true.
For example: The sentence I’m saying right
now is an assertion. An assertion is a linguistic
act – either spoken or written – that
has a truth value. And despite what it might
Dutch:
Antwoorden op deze vragen en meer staan je te wachten, net als
katten!
[Muziek]
Je hebt dit al wel eerder gehoord: Filosofen houden van een goede discussie.
Maar je hebt ondertussen wel al beseft dat filosofen op een andere manier discussiëren dan, bijvoorbeeld,
kleuters, of internet trolls, of andere mensen die 'discussiëren' verwarren met heen
en weer schieten of gewoon gevatte replieken bedenken.
Nee. Filosofen beschikken over een heleboel retorische middelen die ze kunnen gebruiken
om een idee voorop te stellen, of de ideeën van hun gesprekspartner in vraag te stellen.
Dus om je mannetje te staan in een filosofisch debat, moet je het verschil kennen
tussen twee zaken die klinken als hetzelfde ding: een bewering, en een propositie.
En je zal moeten in staat zijn om te achterhalen of iemand daadwerkelijk weet waar ze het over
hebben, of of ze gewoon geloven dat wat ze zeggen waar zou kunnen zijn.
Bijvoorbeeld: De zin die ik nu aan het zeggen ben is een bewering. Een bewering is een linguïstische
daad - gesproken of geschreven - die een waarheidswaarde heeft. En ondanks hoe het zou
Modern Greek (1453-):
Απαντήσεις σε αυτές τις ερωτήσεις και περισσότερα σε περιμένουν, όπως επίσης
γάτες!
[Μουσική Θέματος]
Το έχετε ήδη ακούσει: Οι φιλόσοφοι αγαπάνε ένα καλό επιχείρημα.
Αλλά είδαμε μέχρι τώρα ότι οι φιλόσοφοι επιχειρηματολογούν με διαφορετικό τρόπο από, παιδιά
νηπιαγωγείου, ή τρολ στο διαδίκτυο, ή άλλους ανθρώπους που μπερδεύουν την επιχειρηματολογία με το να "την λέει"
ο ένας στον άλλο ή να σκέφτεται πνευματώδεις απαντήσεις.
Όχι. Οι φιλόσοφοι έχουν όλων των ειδών τους ρητορικούς μηχανισμούς στην διάθεσή τους τους οποίος μπορούν να χρησιμοποιήσουν
για να προχωρήσουν τις ιδέες τους, ή να αμφισβητήσουν τις ιδέες των συνομιλητών τους.
Οπότε για να έχετε το δικό σας σε έναν φιλοσοφικό διάλογο, πρέπει να ξέρετε την διαφορά
μεταξύ δύο πραγμάτων που ακούγονται σαν το ίδιο ακριβώς πράγμα: ένας ισχυρισμός και μια δήλωση.
Και πρέπει να είσαι ικανός/η να ξεχωρίσεις αν κάποιος πραγματικά ξέρει για ποιο πράγμα μιλάει,
ή απλά πιστεύουν ότι αυτό που λένε μπορεί να είναι αληθές.
Για παράδειγμα: Η πρόταση που λέω αυτή την στιγμή είναι ένας ισχυρισμός. Ένας ισχυρισμός είναι μια γλωσσική
πράξη - είτε προφορικό είτε γραπτό - το οποίο έχει κάποια τιμή αληθείας. Και παρά το
iw:
תשובות לשאלות כאלו, ועוד מחכים לך, ובנוסף
חתולים!
[מוזיקת פתיחה]
אז כבר שמעתם את זה: פילוסופים
אוהבים ויכוח טוב.
אבל אתם כבר מבינים בעצמכם שפילוסופים
מתווכחים בצורה שונה מאשר, למשל, ילדים בגן ילדים
או טרולים באינטרנט, או אנשים אחרים
אשר מבלבלים "ויכוח" עם צליפה חזור
ושוב או רק ממציאים בדיחות שנונות
לא. יש לפילוסופים כל מיני שיטות רטורית
העומדים לרשותם שהם יכולים להשתמש
כדי לקדם רעיון, או לתשאל את
הרעיונות של בני שיחם.
אז להפעיל דיון פילוסופי משלך, אתה מוכרח לדעת את ההבדל
בין שני דברים שנשמעים בדיוק אותו הדבר: קביעה, טענה.
ואתה צריך להיות מסוגל לומר אם
מישהו באמת יודע על מה הם מדברים
או אם הם רק מאמינים למה שהם
אומרים, ויכול להיות שזה נכון.
לדוגמה: המשפט שאני אומר
כרגע הוא טענה. טענה היא מעשה
לשוני - או בדיבור או בכתיבה -יש לו ערך אמת. ולמרות שזה
Vietnamese:
Trả lời những câu hỏi này và chờ đợi bạn chính là
những chú mèo!
Bạn đã nghe về điều này: Các nhà triết gia thích một cuộc tranh luận tốt.
Nhưng bây giờ bạn đã nhận rằng những nhà triết gia tranh luận theo cách khác với, như
đứa trẻ mẫu giáo, hay Internet trolls ( những người đăng tin gây tranh cãi), hay những người nhầm lẫn giữa "tranh luận" và cãi
tới lui hay chỉ nghĩ ra những màn đáp trả dí dỏm.
Không. Những nhà triết gia có tất cả các loại ngôn từ hùng biện để tùy ý sử dụng
để đề xuất ý tưởng, hoặc kiểm tra lại những ý tưởng của người đối thoại với họ.
Vậy để giữ quan điểm của mình trong cuộc tranh luận triết học, bạn sẽ phải biết sự khác biệt
giữa hai thứ nghe có vẻ giống nhau: sự khẳng định, và nghĩa mệnh đề .
Và bạn sẽ cần biết nói lên được khi nào một người thực sự biết họ đang nói về điều gì
hay họ chỉ tin điều họ nói có thể là đúng.
Ví dụ như: Câu nói tôi đang nói bây giờ là một sự khẳng định. Sự khẳng định là hành động ngôn ngữ
-- được nói hoặc được viết-- có giá trị thực. Và mặc dù nó vẻ ra sao,
Portuguese:
Resposta a estas questões estranhas e mais esperam por você, assim como
gatos!
Então, você já ouviu isso: Filósofos adoram um bom argumento.
Mas você já deve ter imaginado que filósofos discutem de uma forma diferente de pré-primários
crianças, trolls da internet, ou outras pessoas que confundem "argumentar" com dar "pitacos"
ou se sentindo sabichão com respostas simples.
Não, filósofos tem todos os tipos de dispositivos de retórica à sua disposição que eles usam
para avançar em uma ideia, ou se colocar em uma questão de seus interlocutor.
Então para se garantir em debate filosófico, você terá que saber a diferença
entre duas coisas que soam exatamente como a mesma coisa: uma assertiva e uma proposição.
E você precisará ser capaz de dizer se alguém realmente sabe do que está falando
ou se apenas acreditam que aquilo que dizem é verdade.
Por exemplo: A sentença que estou dizendo agora é uma assertiva. Uma assertiva é um ato linguístico
- seja falada ou escrita - que tem um valor lógico. E, sem levar em conta da
Russian:
Ответы на эти странные вопросы и многое другое ожидают вас дальше, а еще
коты!
Музыка.
Это вы уже знаете: философы любят поспорить.
Но вы также уяснили, что философы спорят не так, как детсадовцы
или интернет тролли, или другие люди, путающие "спор" с пререканиями или просто придумыванием
остроумных подколов.
Нет. Философы имеют всевозможные риторические приемы в своём арсенале, чтобы
развить идею, или зародить сомнения в идеях собеседника.
Итак для того, чтобы продержаться в философских дебатах, вам нужно знать разницу
между двумя вещами, которые звучат совершенно одинаково: утверждением и предположением.
И вы должны уметь распознавать, когда кто-то действительно знает о чем говорит, а когда
они просто верят в то, что они говорят, — правда.
Например: предложение, которое я сейчас произношу — это утверждение. Утверждение — это лингвистическое
действие: письменное или устное, имеющее значение истинности. И несмотря на то, как это может
Russian:
показаться, значение истинности не является мерой того, насколько что-то верно. Оно может быть
либо верно, либо ложно, либо не определено. У всех повествовательных предложений есть значение истинности.
Повествовательные предложения, которые утверждают что-либо о прошлом или настоящем всегда либо истинны, либо ложны.
А утверждения о будущем не определены, по крайней мере тогда, когда они произносятся, так как
никто еще не знает правдивы ли они.
Например, я утверждаю, что "к концу эпизода этот кот написает на мой стол".
У этого утверждения есть значение истинности, но оно не определено, потому что эпизод еще не окончен.
Поэтому мы просто подождем и увидем.
Утверждениям противопоставляются другие типы лингвистических структур, такие как вопросы, которые ничего не утверждают.
"Это кот" — утверждение, а "Это кот?" тоже лингвистическая структура,
но не утверждение.
Но у сути вашего утверждения тоже есть название.
Содержание вашего утверждения — это предположение. Оно лежит в основе того, что вы говорите.
То есть, даже, если утверждение может изменяться, например, в зависимости от языка, на котором вы говорите,
его значение не меняется, в отличие от внешней оболочки.
К примеру, и "Это кот", и "Este es un gato" утверждают одно предположение.
Portuguese:
a maneira que soa, valor lógico não é uma medida de quão certo alguma coisa está. É apenas
um estado de ser verdadeiro ou falso ou indeterminado. Todas as sentenças declarativas têm valor lógico.
Declarações que afirmam algo sobre o passado ou sobre o presente e são verdadeiras ou falsas.
E assertivas sobre o futuro são indeterminadas, pelo menos até que aconteçam
ninguém sabe se elas estão certas ou não.
Por exemplo. Eu vou afirmar que "Este gato vai fazer xixi na minha mesa antes do fim do programa."
Essa assertiva tem um valor lógico, mas é indeterminado, porque o programa ainda não acabou.
Vamos ter que esperar pra ver o que acontece.
Agora, todo esse contraste com tipos de atos linguísticos, como questões, que não afirmam nada,
"Isso é um gato" é uma assertiva, ao contrário de "Isso é um gato?", que é um ato linguístico
mas não uma assertiva.
Mas a essência do que você afirma também tem um nome.
O conteúdo da sua afirmação é a proposição. É o significado oculto do que você está dizendo.
Então mesmo uma assertiva pode mudar, dependendo, digamos, que idioma é falado
seu significado não só muda como também muda o seu rótulo.
Tipo, "Isso é um gato" e "Este és un gato", ambas assertivas têm a mesma proposição.
Modern Greek (1453-):
πώς μπορεί να ακούγεται, η τιμή αληθείας δεν είναι ένα μέτρο για το πόσο σωστό είναι κάτι. Είναι απλά η
κατάσταση του να είναι είτε αληθές, είτε ψευδές, είτε αόριστο. Όλες οι δηλωτικές προτάσεις έχουν τιμή αληθείας.
Οι δηλώσεις που ισχυρίζονται κάτι για το παρελθόν ή το παρόν είναι είτε αληθείς είτε ψευδείς.
Και οι ισχυρισμοί για το μέλλον είναι αόριστοι, τουλάχιστον όταν εκφράζονται, διότι
κανείς δεν ξέρει αν είναι αληθείς ή ψευδείς ακόμη.
Για παράδειγμα, θα ισχυριστώ ότι "Αυτή η γάτα θα κατουρήσει στο γραφείο μου πριν το τέλος της εκπομπής."
Αυτός ο ισχυρισμός έχει μια τιμή αληθείας, αλλά είναι αόριστη, διότι η εκπομπή δεν έχει τελειώσει ακόμα.
Πρέπει απλά να περιμένουμε και να δούμε.
Τώρα, όλα αυτά αντιτίθενται με άλλα είδη γλωσσικών πράξεων, όπως οι ερωτήσεις, οι οποίες δεν ισχυρίζονται κάτι.
"Αυτό είναι μια γάτα" είναι ένας ισχυρισμός, σε αντίθεση με το "Είναι αυτό μια γάτα;", το οποίο είναι μια γλωσσική
πράξη, αλλά όχι ένας ισχυρισμός.
Αλλά η ουσία αυτού που ισχυρίζεστε έχει επίσης όνομα.
Το περιεχόμενο του ισχυρισμού σου είναι η δήλωσή σου. Είναι το βαθύτερο νόημα αυτού που λες.
Οπότε ακόμα και αν ένας ισχυρισμός μπορεί να αλλάξει, ανάλογα μας πούμε, με την γλώσσα που εκφράζεται,
το νόημά του δεν αλλάζει απλά επειδή η εξωτερική συσκευασία άλλαξε.
Όπως, "Αυτό είναι μια γάτα" και "Este es una gato", και τα δύο ισχυρίζονται την ίδια δήλωση.
Vietnamese:
giá trị thực không phải là thước đo một điều đúng như thế nào. Nó chỉ là
phát biểu về điều đúng, hay sai, hay không rõ. Tất cả những câu tuyên bố có những giá trị thực.
Sự tuyên bố khẳng định về quá khứ hay hiện tại có thể đúng hoặc sai.
Và sự khẳng định về tương lai thì không rõ, ít nhất là khi họ tuyên bố, bởi vì
chưa ai biết chúng là đúng hay sai.
Ví dụ tôi sẽ khẳng định rằng "con mèo này sẽ tè lên bàn của tôi trước khi kết thúc chương trình"
Sự khẳng định có giá trị thực, nhưng nó mơ hồ, bởi vì chương trình chưa kết thúc.
Chúng ta phải đợi xem
Bây giờ, tất cả điều này tương phản với những hành động ngôn ngữ khác, ví dụ như những câu hỏi không khẳng định điều gì cả.
"Đây là con mèo" là một sự khẳng định, đối nghịch với "Đây có phải là con mèo?"- một hành động
ngôn ngữ nhưng không phải là sự khẳng định.
Nhưng thực thể của cái mà bạn khẳng định của có tên
Nội dung trong lời khẳng định của bạn là nghĩa mệnh đề. Nó là ý nghĩa cơ bản trong những gì bạn nói.
Vì thế nên cho dù lời khẳng định tự bản thân nó có thể thay đổi, tùy theo ngôn ngữ nó được dùng
nghĩa của nó không đổi chỉ vì vẻ ngoài của nó.
Giống như "đây là con mèo" và "Este es un gato" đều khẳng định cùng một một đề.
Turkish:
doğruluk değeri bir şeyin ne kadar doğru olduğunun bir ölçüsü değildir. Sadece
doğru, yanlış veya belirsiz olma durumudur.
Tüm yargı cümlelerinin doğruluk değeri vardır.
Yargılar geçmiş veya gelecek hakkında doğru ya da yanlış iddialarda bulunur.
Ve gelecek hakkındaki varsayımlar belirsizdir, en azından ifade edildiklerinde,
çünkü kimse henüz doğru ya da yanlış olduklarını bilmez.
Örneğin, "Şov bitmeden önce bu kedinin masama işeyeceğini" iddia edeceğim.
Bu iddianın bir doğruluk değeri vardır, ancak belirsizdir, çünkü şov henüz bitmedi.
Yalnızca beklememiz ve görmemiz gerekiyor.
Şimdi, tüm bunlar, sorular gibi hiç bir iddiada bulunmayan diğer linguistik eylemlerle tezatlık gösterir.
"Bu bir kedidir" bir iddiayken, "bu bir kedi mi?" linguistik bir eylem olsa da,
bir iddia değildir.
Ama iddia ettiğiniz şeyin özünün de bir adı vardır.
İddianızın içeriği önermenizdir. Söylediğiniz şeyin altında yatan anlamdır.
Yani bir iddianın kendisi değişebilse de, mesela hangi dilde konuşulduğuna göre,
sırf dış ambalajı değişiyor diye anlamı değişmez.
Örneğin, "Bu bir kedidir" ve "Este es un gato"nun ikisi de aynı önermeyi iddia ediyor.
Estonian:
kõlab, tõeväärtust ei mõõdeta selle järgi, kui tõene miski on. See on
kas tõene või väär või määramatu. Igal väitlausel on tõeväärtus.
laused, mis väidavad midagi mineviku või oleviku kohta on kas tõesed või väärad.
Ja väited tuleviku kohta on määramatud, vähemalt seni, kuni need pole juhtunud,
sest seni ei tea keegi, kas need on tõesed või mitte.
Näiteks ma väidan, et "See kass urineerib enne saate lõppu mu laua peale."
Sellel väitel on tõeväärtus, kuid see on määramatu, sest saade pole veel läbi.
Me peame lihtsalt ootama ja vaatama.
Aga see kõik on vastandub teiste keeleliste toimingutega nagu küsimused, mis ei väida midagi.
"See on kass" on väide "Kas see on kass?" aga ei ole, see on küll keeleline
toiming, aga ei ole väide.
Aga sisul, mida sa väidad on samuti oma nimetus.
Sinu väite sisu on propositsioon. See on mõte, mida sa edastad.
Seega isegi kui väide ise võib muutuda, sõltudes näiteks sellest, mis keelt sa räägid,
siis mõte ei muutu lihtsalt sellepärast, et selle pakend muutub.
Nagu "See on kass" ja “Este es un gato,” mõlemad edastavad sama propositsiooni.
Dutch:
mogen klinken, waarheidswaarde is geen maat voor hoe juist iets is. Het is gewoon
de staat van ofwel waar, ofwel vals, ofwel onbepaald te zijn. Alle declaratieve zinnen hebben waarheidswaarde.
Uitspraken die iets beweren over het verleden of het heden zijn ofwel waar ofwel vals.
En beweringen over de toekomst zijn onbepaald, ten minste wanneer ze gedaan worden, want
niemand weet al of ze correct zijn of niet.
Bijvoorbeeld, ik ga beweren dat 'Deze kat zal plassen op mijn bureau voor het einde van deze aflevering.'
Deze bewering heeft een waarheidswaarde, maar hij is onbepaald, omdat de aflevering nog niet afgelopen is.
We moeten het einde ervan afwachten.
Nu, dit alles staat in contrast met andere soorten linguïstische handelingen, zoals vragen, die niets beweren.
'Dit is een kat' is een bewering, in tegenstelling tot 'Is dat een kat?', wat een linguïstische
handeling is, maar geen bewering.
Maar de inhoud van wat je beweert heeft eveneens een naam.
De inhoud van je bewering is de propositie. Het is de onderliggende betekenis van wat je aan het zeggen bent.
Dus ook al kan een bewering op zich veranderen, afhankelijk van bijvoorbeeld, in welke taal hij gedaan
is, zijn mening wijzigt niet louter omdat de verpakking verandert.
Bijvoorbeeld, 'Dit is een kat' en 'Este es un gato,' beweren beide dezelfde propositie.
iw:
נשמע כמו, ערך האמת אינו מדד
לכמה משהו נכון. זה
מצב של או אמת, או שקר, או בלתי מוגדר.
לכל משפט הצהרתי יש ערכי אמת.
הצהרות שטוענות משהו על
העבר או ההווה הם או אמת או שקר.
וטענות על העתיד הן לא מוגדרות,
לפחות כשהם באות לידי ביטוי, כי
אף אחד לא יודע כרגע אם הן צודקות או לא.
לדוגמה, אני הולך לטעון ש "החתול הזה הולך להשתין על שולחני לפני סוף המופע."
לטענה זו יש ערך אמת, אבל זה
לא מוגדר, כי המופע עדיין לא נגמר.
אנחנו פשוט נצטרך לחכות ולראות.
עכשיו, כל זה עומד בניגוד לסוגים אחרים של מעשים לשוניים, כמו שאלות, אשר אינם טוענים דבר
"זה חתול" זה טענה, בניגוד
ל"האם זה חתול?" ,שהינה מעשה
לשוני, אך לא טענה.
אבל התוכן של מה שאתה טוען יש
שם, גם.
התוכן של הטענה שלך הוא העמדה שלך.
זה המשמעות הבסיסית של מה שאתה אומר.
אז למרות שטענה יכולה לשנות,
תלוי למשל, באיזו שפה מדובר,
המשמעות אינה משתנה רק בגלל
שהחיצונית שלה משתנה.
כמו, "זה חתול" ו "זה חתול(ספרדית)"
לשניהן יש את אותה המשמעות.
Arabic:
وبغض النظر عما تبدو، القيمة الحقيقة ليست المقياس لمدى صحة شيء ما.
هي فقط حالة تكون صائبة أو خاطئة أو غير محددة. كل الجمل التصريحية لها قيم حقيقية
التصاريح التي تؤكد شيء عن الماضي أو الحاضر تكون إما صائبة أو خاطئة
والتوكيدات عن المستقبل غير محددة، على الأقل ساعة التصريح بها
لا أحد يعلم إذا كانت حقًا أم لا
على سبيل المثال: سوف أؤكد بأن هذه القطة ستتبول على مكتبي قبل نهاية العرض
ذلك التوكيد له قيمة حقيقية، لكنها غير محددة، لأن العرض لم ينتهي بعد.
يجب علينا ان ننتظر و نرى.
الآن كل هذا الاختلاف مع الأنواع الأخرى من الأفعال اللغوية، مثل: الأسئلة، والتي لا تحمل أي توكيدات
"هذه قطة" هو توكيد مخالف لـ "هل هذه قطة؟" حيث أنه فعل لغوي
لكنه ليس توكيدا.
لكن العنصر الذي تؤكده له اسم أيضا.
محتوى ما تؤكده هو افتراضك، هو المعنى الكامن لما تقوله.
بالرغم من أن التوكيد نفسه قد يتغير اعتمادًا - فلنقل - على أي لغة نُطق بها
فمعناه لا يتغير فقط لأن الغلاف الخارجي تغير
"هذه قطة" و “Este es un gato” كلاهما تؤكدان نفس الافتراض.
French:
ce à quoi ça peut ressembler, la valeur de vérité n’est pas une mesure de comment est quelque chose. C’est juste
l’état d’être soit vrai, soit faux, soit indéterminé. Toutes les phrases déclaratives ont une valeur de vérité.
Les déclarations qui affirment quelque chose à propos du passé ou du présent sont soit vraies, soit fausses.
Et les assertions sur le futur sont indéterminées, au moins quand elles sont exprimées, parce que
personne ne sait encore si elles sont vraies ou pas.
Par exemple, je vais affirmer que « ce chat va pisser sur mon bureau avant la fin de cette émission ».
Cette assertion a une valeur de vérité, mais elle est indéterminée parce que l’émission n’est pas encore terminée.
Va juste falloir qu’on attende.
Maintenant, tout ceci contraste avec d’autres genres d’actes linguistiques, comme les questions, qui n’affirment rien.
« Ceci est un chat » est une assertion, comparé à « Est-ce que c’est un chat ? », qui est un acte
linguistique, mais pas une assertion.
Mais la substance de ce qu’on affirme a un nom aussi.
Le contenu de votre assertion est votre proposition. C’est le sens sous-jacent de ce que vous dites.
Donc même si une assertion peut changer, dépendamment de la langue dans laquelle
on la dit, son sens ne change pas, c’est juste son emballage extérieur.
Genre, « Ceci est un chat » et « Este es un gato », affirment toutes les deux la même proposition.
Spanish:
sonar, el valor verdadero no es una medida de cuán cierto sea algo. Es solo el
estado de ser verdadero o falso o indeterminado. Todas las oraciones declarativas tienen valores verdaderos.
Declaraciones que afirman algo sobre el pasado o el presente son o verdaderas o falsas.
Y afirmaciones sobre el futuro son indeterminadas, por lo menos cuando son expresadas, porque
todavía nadie sabe si son ciertas o no.
Por ejemplo, voy a afirmar que "Este gato va a mear en mi escritorio antes de que termine el show."
Esa afirmación tiene valor verdadero pero es indeterminado, porque todavía el show no terminó.
Vamos a tener que esperar y ver que pasa.
Ahora, todo esto contrasta con otros tipos de actos lingüísticos como preguntas, que no afirman nada.
"Esto es un gato" es una afirmación, en oposición a ¿esto es un gato? lo que es un acto
lingüístico pero no una afirmación.
Pero la sustancia de lo que afirmas también tiene un nombre.
El contenido de tu afirmación es tu proposición. Es el significado subyacente de lo que estás diciendo.
Así que aunque una afirmación pueda cambiar, dependiendo de , ejemplo, en que lenguaje se diga
su significado no cambia sólo porque su envoltura lo hace.
Como "This is a cat" y "Este es un gato", ambas afirman la misma proposición.
Romanian:
valoarea de adevăr nu măsoară dacă ceva este corect, ci
reprezintă faptul că ceva este adevărat, fals sau nedeterminat. Toate propozițiile declarative au valoare de adevăr.
Declarațiile prin care se spune ceva despre prezent sau despre viitor sunt fie adevărate, fie false.
Declarațiile despre viitor sunt nedeterminate, cel puțin atunci când sunt exprimate, pentru că
nimeni nu știe încă dacă are dreptate sau nu.
De exemplu, o să declar că această pisică va face pipi pe birou înainte să se termine emisiunea.
Declarația are o valoare de adevărat, dar ea este nedeterminată (necunoscută), pentru că emisiunea nu s-a terminat încă.
O să așteptăm și o să vedem.
Toate aceste lucruri se diferențiază față de alte manifestări lingvistice, cum ar fi întrebările, pentru că ele nu declară nimic.
"Aceasta este o pisică" este o declarație total opusă față de "Aceasta este o pisică?", care este o
manifestare lingvistică, dar nu o declarație
Dar ceea ce declari are și un nume.
Conținutul declarației este o propoziție logică. Ea reprezintă înțelesul a ceea ce spui.
Deci, chiar dacă declarația se poate schimba, în funcție de limba vorbită, de exemplu,
înțelesul nu se schimbă doar pentru că învelișul este diferit.
De exemplu, "Aceasta este o pisică" și "Este es un gato" reprezintă aceeași propoziție.
Italian:
sembrare, valore di verità non è una misura di quanto giusto sia qualcosa. È solo lo
stato di essere o vero o falso, o indeterminato. Tutte le frasi dichiarative hanno valori di verità.
Le dichiarazioni che affermano qualcosa sul passato o sul presente sono o vere o false.
E affermazioni sul futuro sono indeterminate, almeno quando sono espresse, perché
nessuno sa ancora se sono giuste o no.
Per esempio, affermerò che "Questo gatto farà pipì sulla mia scrivania entro la fine dello show."
Quella affermazione ha un valore di verità, ma è indeterminato, perché lo show non è ancora finito.
Possiamo solo aspettare e vedere.
Ora, tutto questo è in contrasto con altri tipi di atti linguistici, come le domande, che non affermano nulla.
«Questo è un gatto» è una affermazione, in contrapposizione a «È un gatto quello?» che è un atto
linguistico, ma non una affermazione.
Ma anche la sostanza di ciò che affermi ha un nome.
Il contenuto della tua affermazione è la tua proposizione. È il significato di fondo di ciò che stai dicendo.
Così anche se l'affermazione in sé può cambiare, a seconda di, per dire, in che lingua è,
il suo significato non cambia solo perché lo fa il suo imballaggio esterno.
Cioè, «Questo è un gatto» e «Este es un
gato», affermano entrambi la stessa proposizione.
English:
sound like, truth value isn’t a measure
of how right something is. It’s just the
state of being either true, or false, or indeterminate.
All declarative sentences have truth values.
Declarations that assert something about the
past or present are either true or false.
And assertions about the future are indeterminate,
at least when they’re expressed, because
no one knows if they’re right or not yet.
For example, I’m gonna assert that “This cat will pee on my desk before the end of the show.”
That assertion has a truth value, but it’s
indeterminate, because the show’s not over yet.
We’re just gonna have to wait and see.
Now, all of this contrasts with other kinds of linguistic acts, like questions, which don’t assert anything.
“This is a cat” is an assertion, as opposed
to “Is that a cat?,” which is a linguistic
act, but not an assertion.
But the substance of what you assert has a
name, too.
The content of your assertion is your proposition.
It’s the underlying meaning of what you’re saying.
So even though an assertion itself can change,
depending on say, what language it’s spoken
in, its meaning doesn’t change just because
its outer packaging does.
Like, “This is a cat” and “Este es un
gato,” both assert the same proposition.
English:
And a proposition is true if it asserts a
claim that corresponds to reality.
The proposition when I assert “This is a
cat,” is true if the object of the “this”
is in fact a cat, and false if it is anything
other than a cat. Like, “This is a cat.”
It’s worth pointing out that attitude counts,
too, when you’re asserting something.
A speaker’s mental state toward the proposition
they’re making is their propositional attitude.
If I say, like, “This is a cat,” but I
actually believe it to be a rat and I’m
trying to fool you, then philosophers would
say that I have a propositional attitude of disbelief.
Whereas, if I think I’m speaking truthfully,
I have a propositional attitude of belief.
And of course, you’re not going to get very
far as a philosopher unless you understand
the classic definition of belief itself. Based
on the lingo you’ve learned so far today,
belief is just when you take a propositional
attitude of truth.
I believe that this is a cat, if I think it’s
true – that is, if my attitude is that the
assertion corresponds to reality. And even
if I’m wrong -- even if there were an aardvark
on my desk, or if there weren’t a cat on
my desk at all, which there isn’t anymore
-- if I really thought there was a cat on
my desk, that would just be my belief.
Modern Greek (1453-):
Και μια δήλωση είναι αληθής αν ισχυρίζεται έναν ισχυρισμό που αντιστοιχεί στην πραγματικότητα.
Η δήλωση όταν ισχυρίζομαι "Αυτό είναι μια γάτα", είναι αληθής αν το αντικείμενο "αυτό"
είναι στην πραγματικότητα μια γάτα, και ψευδής αν είναι οτιδήποτε άλλο από γάτα. Όπως, "Αυτό είναι μια γάτα"
Αξίζει να επισημάνουμε ότι η διάθεση μετράει, επίσης, όταν ισχυρίζεστε κάτι.
Η διανοητική κατάσταση του ομιλητή ως προς την δήλωση που κάνουν είναι η δηλωτική διάθεσή τους.
Αν πω, "Αυτό είναι μια γάτα", αλλά στην πραγματικότητα πιστεύω ότι είναι ένας αρουραίος και προσπαθώ
να σας ξεγελάσω, οι φιλόσοφοι θα έλεγαν ότι έχω δηλωτική διάθεση δυσπιστίας.
Ενώ, αν πιστεύω ότι μιλάω αληθώς, έχω δηλωτική διάθεση αξιοπιστίας.
Και φυσικά, δεν θα προχωρήσετε πολύ ως φιλόσοφος αν δεν κατανοήσετε
τον κλασσικό ορισμό της πίστης καθεαυτής. Βασιζόμενοι στην διάλεκτο που μάθατε μέχρι τώρα σήμερα,
η πίστη είναι όταν έχεις δηλωτική συμπεριφορά αλήθειας.
Πιστεύω ότι αυτό είναι μια γάτα, αν νομίζω ότι είναι σωστό - αυτό σημαίνει, αν η διάθεσή μου είναι ότι ο
ισχυρισμός αντιστοιχεί στην πραγματικότητα. Και ακόμα και αν κάνω λάθος - ακόμα και αν υπήρχε ένας μυρμηγκοφάγος
στο γραφείο μου, ή αν δεν υπήρχε καμία γάτα εντελώς στο γραφείο μου, που δεν υπάρχει πλέον
- αν πραγματικά πίστευα ότι υπήρχε μια γάτα στο γραφείο μου, αυτή θα ήταν η πίστη μου.
Italian:
E una proposizione è vera se si afferma una dichiarazione che corrisponde alla realtà.
La proposizione quando affermo «Questo è un gatto», è vera se l'oggetto del «questo»
è infatti un gatto, e falsa se è qualsiasi cosa diversa da un gatto. Tipo, «Questo è un gatto.»
Vale la pena sottolineare che anche l'atteggiamento conta, quando si sta affermando qualcosa.
Lo stato mentale di un oratore nei confronti della proposizione che sta facendo è il suo atteggiamento proposizionale.
Se dico, tipo, «Questo è un gatto.» ma in realtà credo sia un topo e sto
cercando di ingannarti, allora i filosofi direbbero che ho un atteggiamento proposizionale di incredulità.
Mentre, se penso di star dicendo la verità, ho un atteggiamento proposizionale di convinzione.
E naturalmente, non farai molta strada come filosofo a meno che tu non capisca
la definizione classica di convinzione stessa. Basandoci sul gergo che hai imparato finora oggi,
convinzione è semplicemente quando assumi un atteggiamento proposizionale di verità.
Credo che questo sia un gatto, se penso che sia vero – cioè, se il mio atteggiamento è che
l'affermazione corrisponda alla realtà. E persino se sbaglio – anche se ci fosse un oritteropo
sulla mia scrivania, o se non ci fosse per niente un gatto sulla mia scrivania, che infatti non c'è più
– se davvero pensassi che ci fosse un gatto sulla mia scrivania, quello sarebbe solo la mia convinzione.
Vietnamese:
Và một đề là đúng nếu nó khẳng định một tuyên bố dựa vào thực tế.
Mệnh đề khi tôi khẳng định "Đây là con mèo" , là đúng nếu vật thể của "đây là"
trong thực tế là con mèo, và sai nếu là thứ gì khác con mèo. Giống như là "đây là con mèo"
Thái độ của bạn cũng được tính đến khi bạn khẳng định một điều gì đó.
Trạng thái tinh thần của người nói với mệnh đề mà họ nói là thái độ tuyên bố
Nếu tôi nói," đây là con mèo", nhưng tôi thực sự tin đây là con chuột và tôi
đang cố lừa bạn, vậy thì những nhà triết gia sẽ nói tôi có thái độ tuyên bố của sự bất tin.
Trong khi đó, nếu tôi tin tưởng điều tôi đang nói, tôi có thái độ tuyên bố của sự tin tưởng.
Và đương nhiên, bạn không thể đi sâu hơn như một nhà triết gia trừ khi bạn hiểu
khái niệm kinh điển của sự tin tưởng. Dựa trên những tiếng lóng mà bạn mới được học hôm nay
sự tin tưởng là khi bạn có thái độ tuyên bố sự thật.
Tôi tin đây là con mèo, nếu tôi nghĩ đó là sự thật- đó là, nếu thái độ của tôi
là sự khẳng định dựa trên thực tế. Và thậm chí nếu tôi sai -- thậm chí nếu có một con lợn đất
trên bàn của tôi, hoặc nếu không hề có con mèo trên bàn nữa
nếu tôi thật sự tin rằng có một con mèo trên bàn, thì đó là niềm tin của tôi.
Turkish:
Ve bir önerme eğer gerçeklikle uyuşan bir iddiada bulunuyorsa doğrudur.
İddia ettiğim "bu bir kedidir" önermesi, eğer "bu"nun nesnesi esasında bir
kedi ise doğrudur, ve başka bir şey ise yanlıştır.
"Bu bir kedidir" gibi.
Bir iddiada bulunurkenki tutumunuzun da önemli olduğunu belirtmekte fayda var.
Bir konuşmacının belli bir önermeyle ilgili zihin durumu onun önermesel tutumudur.
Eğer, "Bu bir kedidir" dersem ancak aslında bir fare olduğuna inanıyorsam sizi
kandırmaya çalışıyorsam, filozoflar önermesel inançsızlık davranışına sahip olduğumu söyleyeceklerdir.
Buna karşın, eğer doğruları konuştuğumu düşünürsem, önermesel inançlılık davranışına sahibimdir.
Ve tabi ki, bir filozof olarak inancın kendisinin klasik tanımını bilmeden
pek de ileriye gidemezsiniz. Bugün öğrendiğiniz jargona dayanaraktan,
inanç yalnızca önermesel bir doğruluk tavrı takınmanızdır.
İddianın gerçekle uyuştuğu tutumundaysam, eğer doğru olduğunu düşünüyorsam,
bunun bir kedi olduğuna inanıyorumdur. Ve yanılıyor olsam bile -- masamda bir yerdomuzu
olsa bile, ya da masamda bir ket hiç olmasa bile, ki artık yok,
-- eğer masamda kedinin olduğunu düşündüysem, bu benim inancım olurdu.
Spanish:
Y una proposición es cierta si afirma una declaración que se corresponde con la realidad.
La preposición cuando afirmo "Esto es un gato" es verdadera si el objeto de "esto"
es ,de hecho, un gato y es falsa si es cualquier cosa aparte de un cato. Como "esto es un gato."
Vale la pena señalar que la actitud también cuenta cuando estás afirmando algo.
El estado mental del orador hacia la proposición que están haciendo es su Actitud Proposicional.
Si yo digo "esto es un gato" pero en realidad creo que es una rata y yo estoy
tratando de engañarte, entonces los filósofos dirán que tengo una actitud proposicional de descreimiento.
Mientras que si pienso que estoy hablando honradamente tengo una actitud proposicional de creencia.
Y por supuesto no vas a llegar muy lejos como filósofo a menos que entiendas
la definición clásica de "creencia". Basándonos en el lenguaje que aprendimos hasta ahora,
"creencia" se refiere a la actitud proposicional de verdad.
Yo creo que esto es un gato, si lo pienso verdad, eso es si mi actitud es que la
afirmación corresponde a la realidad. E incluso si estoy equivocado - si hubiese un aardvark
en mi escritorio, o si no hubiese ningún gato en absoluto, el cual ya no está más
si de verdad pienso que hay un gato en mi escritorio, eso solo sería mi creencia.
Dutch:
En een propositie is waar als een bewering wordt gedaan die correspondeert aan de realiteit.
De propositie wanneer ik beweer 'Dit is een kat,' is waar als het object van de 'dit'
werkelijk een kat is, en vals als het eender wat anders dan een kat is. Bijvoorbeeld, 'Dit is een kat.'
Het is interessant op te merken dat ook je attitude telt wanneer je iets beweert.
De mentale staat van een spreker ten opzichte van de propositie die ze maken is hun propositionele attitude.
Als ik bijvoorbeeld zeg, "Dit is een kat," maar ik eigenlijk geloof dat het een rat is en ik
aan het trachten ben je om de tuin te leiden, dan zouden filosofen zeggen dat ik een propositionele attitude heb van ongeloof.
Indien ik daarentegen denk dat ik naar waarheid spreek, heb ik een propositionele attitude van geloof.
En je zal natuurlijk niet ver geraken als filosoof tenzij je
de klassieke definitie van geloof zelf begrijpt. Gebaseerd op het jargon dat je tot nu toe vandaag hebt geleerd,
is geloof gewoon wanneer je een propositionele attitude van waarheid aanneemt.
Ik geloof dat dit een kat is, indien ik denk dat het waar is - dus, als mijn attitude is dat de
bewering correspondeert met de realiteit. En zelfs indien ik het fout heb - zelfs als er een aardvarken
op mijn bureau zou zitten, of als er helemaal geen kat op mijn bureau zou zijn, wat nu ook zo is
- als ik echt dacht dat er een kat op mijn bureau zat, dan zou dat mijn geloof zijn.
Arabic:
والافتراض يكون صحيحًا إذا أكّد أن مايزعمه موافق للواقع
الافتراض هو عندما أؤكد أن (هذه قطة) صحيح إذا كان الغرض المشار إليه في (هذه) هو في الواقع (قطة)
و خاطئ إذا كان أي شيء غير القطة، مثل: "هذه قطة"
جدير بالذكر أن السلوك له اعتبار أيضًا، عندما تؤكد شيئا.
الحالة الذهنية للمتحدث نحو الإفتراض الذي يفترضه هو سلوكه الفرضي
إذا قلت مثلا "هذا قط" لكن أنا أؤمن أنه جرذ وأني أحاول أن أخدعك
فسيقول الفلاسفة أن لدي سلوكا فرضياً من الإنكار
بينما إذا كنت أتكلم بصدق، فلدي سلوك فرضي من التصديق
و بالطبع لن تصبح فيلسوفا إلا إذا فهمت التعريف التقليدي للاعتقاد نفسه
بناء على اللغة التي تعلمتها اليوم
الاعتقاد هو فقط عندما تسلك سلوكا فرضيا من التصديق
أنا أؤمن أن هذه قطة إذا كنت أعتقد أنه صحيح -
هذا يعني أن سلوكي هو أن التوكيد متوافق مع الواقع..
حتى لو كنت مخطئًا -- حتى لو كان هناك آكل النمل على مكتبي
أو لم يكن هناك قط على مكتبي، حيث أنه ليس موجودًا الآن
إذا اعتقدت فعلا أن هناك قط على مكتبي، سيكون فقط هذا اعتقادي .
French:
Et une proposition est vraie si elle affirme une chose qui correspond à la réalité.
La proposition quand j’affirme : « Ceci est un chat » est vraie si le référent de « ceci »
est en effet un chat et fausse si n’importe quoi d’autre qu’un chat. Genre, « Ceci est un chat. »
Faut dire que l’attitude compte aussi quand on affirme quelque chose.
L’état mental d’un locuteur envers la proposition qu’il fait est son attitude propositionnelle.
Si je dis, genre, « Ceci est un chat », mais que je crois en fait que c’est un rat et
que j’essaye de vous tromper, alors les philosophes que j’ai une attitude propositionnelle d’incrédulité.
Alors que si je pense que ce que je dis est vrai, j’ai une attitude propositionnelle de crédulité.
Et bien sûr, vous n’allez pas aller bien loin comme philosophe si vous ne comprenez pas
la définition classique de la croyance elle-même. Basée sur le jargon que vous avez appris aujourd’hui,
la croyance, c’est juste quand on prend une attitude propositionnelle de vérité.
Je crois que ceci est un chat, si je crois que c’est vrai – c-à-d si mon attitude est que
l’assertion correspond à la réalité. Et même si j’ai tort – même s’il y avait un oryctérope du Cap
sur mon bureau, ou s’il n’y avait pas de chat du tout sur mon bureau, ce qui est le cas
– si je pensais vraiment qu’il y avait un chat sur mon bureau, ce serait juste ma croyance.
Russian:
И предположение правдиво тогда, когда то, что оно утверждает, совпадает с реальностью.
Суждение, когда я утверждаю "это кот", правдиво, если объект "это" на самом деле
кот, и ложно, если не кот. Например: "Это кот".
Стоит отметить, что личное отношение тоже имеет значение, когда вы утверждаете что-то.
Внутреннее состояние говорящего делает суждения, которые он выносит, субъективными.
Если я скажу, например, "Это кот", но я на самом деле верю, что это крыса, и я
пытаюсь обмануть вас, то философы скажут, что я имею субъективную позицию неверия.
В то время как я думаю, что говорю правду и имею субъективную позицию веры.
Конечно, вы не сможете зайти так далеко, как философы, пока не поймёте
классическое определение веры. Основываясь на терминах, изученных сегодня,
вера - это лишь, когда вы имеете субъективную позицию правдивости, верите, что это правда.
Я верю, что это кот, если я думаю, что это правда - то есть, моя позиция такова, что
моё утверждение соответствует реальности. И даже, если я не прав, даже если это муравьед
на моём столе, или, если на моём столе не было кота вовсе, которого, кстати, больше здесь нету.
Если я действительно думал, что кот был на столе, это всего лишь моё убеждение.
iw:
וגם הצעה נכונה אם זה קובע
טענה תואמת את המציאות.
המשמעות כאשר אני טוען "זה חתול",
באמת נכון אם האובייקט של "זה"
הוא למעשה חתול, ושקרי אם הוא כל דבר
מלבד חתול. כמו, "זה חתול".
ראוי לציין כי היחס גם נחשב,
כשאתה טוען משהו.
הגישה של דוברים כלפי ההצעה
שהם עושים זאת גישת ההיגדים שלהם.
אם אני אומר, למשל, "זה חתול", אבל אני
מאמין שזה עכברוש ואני
מנסה להפיל אותך בפח, אז הפילוסופים היו
אומרים שיש לי יחס של חוסר אמון.
לעומת זאת, אם אני חושב שאני מדבר בכנות,
יש לי יחס של אמונה.
וכמובן, אתה לא הולך להגיע
רחוק כפילוסוף אלא אם אתה מבין
את ההגדרה הקלאסית של האמונה עצמה. מבוסס
על הלשון שלמדת עד כה היום,
אמונה היא רק כאשר אתה לוקח היגדים
עם יחס של אמת.
אני מאמין שזה חתול, אם אני חושב שזה
נכון - כלומר, אם הגישה שלי היא
קביעה שתואמת את המציאות. ואפילו
אם אני טועה - גם אם היה עוד דוב נמלים
על השולחן שלי, או אם לא היה חתול על
השולחן שלי בכלל, אשר אין עוד
- אם אני באמת חשבתי שיש חתול על
השולחן שלי, זה יהיה אמונתי.
Portuguese:
E uma proposição é verdadeira se suas assertivas corresponderem à realidade.
A proposição de quando eu afirmo "Isso é um gato" é verdadeira se o objeto de "Isso"
é de fato um gato e falso se for qualquer outra coisa. Tipo "Isso é um gato".
Um ponto válido é que a atitude conta também quando você afirma algo.
O estado mental do falante em relação à proposição forma a sua atitude proposicional.
Se eu disser "Isso é um gato..." mas na verdade acreditar que é um rato
e tentar te enganar, então os filósofos diriam que eu estou tendo uma "atitude proposicional de descrença".
Enquanto que se eu disser com convicção, tenho uma "atitude proposicional de crença"
E, claro, você não irá muito longe como filósofo até que você entenda
a definição clássica de "crença". Baseado no dialeto que você aprendeu até hoje,
"crença" é a apenas quando você tem uma "atitude proposicional para a verdade"
Eu acredito que isso é um gato, se eu achar que é verdade - isso é, se minha atitude
corresponde à realidade. E mesmo que eu estiver errado - se fosse um "porco da terra"
na minha mesa, ou se não houvesse nenhum gato na minha mesa, e agora não tem mesmo
- se eu realmente pensar que havia um gato na minha mesa, esta seria apenas a minha crença.
Estonian:
Ja propositsioon on tõene kui see väidab midagi, mis on vastavuses reaalsusega.
Kui ma väidan "See on kass" omab tõest propositsiooni siis kui objekt, millele "see" viitab
on tõesti kass ja väär kui see on midagi muud, kui kass. Nagu "See on kass".
Tasub veel märkida, et hoiak on oluline, kui sa midagi väidad.
Kõneleja vaimne seisund selle propositsiooni kohta, mida nad väidavad on nende propositsiooniline hoiak.
Kui ma näiteks ütlen, "See on kass" aga tegelikult usun, et see on rott ja ma
proovin sind lolliks teha, siis filosoofid väidaksid, et minu propositsiooniline hoiak on mitte uskumine.
Aga kui ma arvan, et ma räägin tõeselt, on minu propositsiooniline hoiak uskumine.
Ja otseloomulikult ei jõua sa filosoofina kaugele, kui sa ei saa aru
klassikaliselt uskumuse definitsioonist. Kasutades sõnavara, mida sa oled täna õppinud,
on uskumus see kui sinu propositsiooniline hoiak on tõene.
Ma usun, et see on kass, kui ma arvan, et see on tõene -- See tähendab minu hoiak on see, et
väide on reaalsusega kooskõlas. Ja isegi kui ma eksin -- isegi kui mu laual on tuhnik
või mu laual ei ole kassi, nagu hetkel ei ole
-- kui ma tõesti arvan, et mu laual on kass, oleks see lihtsalt minu uskumus.
Romanian:
Iar o propoziție este adevărată dacă ceea ce propune corespunde realității.
Pentru ca propoziția "Aceasta este o pisică" să fie adevărată, înseamnă că lucrul desemnat de "aceasta"
trebuie să fie, într-adevăr, o pisică. Dacă e altceva, atunci propoziția este falsă, cum ar fi "ACEASTA este o pisică".
E important să ținem minte că atitudinea e importantă atunci când declarăm ceva.
Atitudinea vorbitorului față de propoziția pe care o spune se numește atitudine propozițională.
Dacă spun "Aceasta este o pisică", dar eu cred, de fapt, că e un șoarece și
încerc să te păcălesc, atunci filosofii ar spune că atitudinea mea propozițională este una de neîncredere.
În schimb, dacă consider că spun adevărul, atunci atitudinea mea propozițională este una de convingere.
Și, bineînțeles, nu o să ajungi prea departe ca filosof dacă nu înțelegi
clasica definiție a "convingerii" însăși. Pe baza a ceea ce ai învățat azi,
convingerea înseamnă a avea o atitudine propozițională de adevăr.
Cred că aceasta este o pisică dacă consider că acest lucru este e adevărat, adică dacă atitudinea mea
reflectă că declarația corespunde realității. Și chiar dacă greșesc - chiar dacă acum ar fi un porc furnicar
pe biroul meu, sau dacă nu ar fi nicio pisică pe birou, așa cum nu e acum -
dacă într-adevăr credeam că o pisică e pe biroul meu, atunci asta ar fi convingerea mea.
Russian:
Моя субъективная позиция, другими словами, это то, что определяет имею ли я веру.
Что это всё значит - это то, что каждый может иметь неверные убеждения. Просто мысли о чём-либо
не делают это соответствующим реальности, что необходимо для того, чтобы быть правдивым.
Но, конечно, удовольствие в споре - это покрасоваться вашими знаниями перед другими людьми, или, как минимум,
предоставить действительно умные доказательства для поддержки вашей идеи.
Итак, это поднимает вопрос о том, что означает "действительно знать что-либо" в философском смысле.
Традиционное определение знания - это обоснованное верное суждение.
Заметьте, что здесь присутствуют три аспекта.
Итак, я действительно знаю, что это кот если: во-первых, я верю, что это кот.
Также я верю в то, что это кот на самом деле, то есть, моя вера соответствует реальности
и поэтому верна. И, наконец, я могу сказать, что знаю, что это кот, если моя вера
обоснована смыслом, то есть у меня есть несколько законных доказательств для поддержки моего суждения.
Сейчас, мы уже определили правду и веру. Обоснование - это просто доказательство или любая другая
поддержка для вашей веры. Если вы вернётесь на два эпизода назад, то вы вспомните, что предпосылки
предполагают обоснование для выводов. Обоснование может выражаться в различных формах. Чаще всего
Arabic:
سلوكي الفرضي، بمعنى آخر هو ما يحدد إن كنت أمتلِك اعتقادًا
ما يعنيه كل هذا، أنه أنا وأي شخص آخر يمكن أن يكون لديه "اعتقادات خاطئة"
ببساطة شيء لا يتوافق مع الواقع، وهو ما يلزم للحقيقة
لكن بالتأكيد، متعة النقاش هي الاستعراض بما تعرفه أمام الاخرين، أو على الأقل
إثبات دليل جيد ليدعم قضيتك.
إذن هذا يثير تساؤل: ماذا يعني معرفة الشيء فعليا، بمعنى فلسفي
التعريف التقليدي للمعرفة هو أنه اعتقاد حقيقي مسوغ
لاحظ أنه هناك 3 مكونات مختلفة
إذن لدي معرفة بأن هذه قطة إذا اعتقدت أولا بأنها قطة
و أيضا لابد أن تكون فعلًا قطة - هذا يعني أن اعتقادي متوافق مع الواقع ولهذا يصبح صحيحا.
و أخيرا يمكن أن يقال أن لدي معرفة بهذه القطة إذا كان إعتفادي مسوغ -
معناه، أن لدي نوعا من الأدلة المنطقية ليدعم اعتقادي
الآن، عرَّفنا الحقيقة والاعتقاد. التبرير هو ببساطة إثبات أو دعم آخر لاعتقادك.
إذا استرجعت الحلقة الثانية، ستتذكر أن المقدمَات تبرِّر الإستنتاجات.
والمبررات قد تأتي يأشكال مختلفة.
English:
My propositional attitude, in other words,
is what determines if I have a belief.
What all this means is that I, like everyone
else, can have false beliefs. Simply thinking
something doesn’t make it correspond to
reality, which is what’s needed for truth.
But of course, the fun of arguing is showing
off what you know to other people, or at least
producing really clever evidence to support
your case.
So, this raises the question of what it means to actually know something, in the philosophical sense.
The traditional definition of knowledge is
that it’s a justified true belief.
Note that there are three separate components here.
So, I have knowledge that this is a cat if:
I first believe i’s a cat
And also that it is in fact a cat – that
is, my belief corresponds to reality and is
therefore true. And finally, I can be said
to have knowledge about this cat if my belief
is justified – meaning, I have some sort
of legitimate evidence to support my belief.
Now, we’ve already defined truth and belief.
Justification is simply evidence, or other
support, for your belief. If you remember
back to episode 2, you’ll recall that premises
offer justification for conclusions. And justification
can come in a variety of forms. Most often,
iw:
היחס ההגדי שלי, במילים אחרות,
הוא מה שקובע אם יש לי אמונה.
מה שזה אומר זה שגם אני, כמו כל אחד
אחר, יכולות להיות אמונות שווא. פשוט לחשוב
על משהו לא עושה את זה מציאותי,
שזה מה שצריך בשביל אמת.
אבל כמובן, הכיף של להתווכח זה להראות
את מה שאתה יודע לאנשים אחרים, או לפחות
להפיק ראיות חוכמה שיתמכו במקרה שלך
אז, זה מעלה את השאלה מה זה אומר בעצם לדעת משהו, במובן הפילוסופי.
ההגדרה המסורתית של ידע היא
אמונה אמיתית מוצדקת.
שים לב כי ישנם שלושה מרכיבים נפרדים כאן.
אז, יש לי ידע שזהו חתול אם:
בהתחלה אני מאמין שזה חתול
וגם אם זה למעשה חתול-והוא כן,
ולכן האמונה שלי תואמת את המציאות
והמשפט נכון. ולבסוף, יכולים להגיד עלי
שיש לי ידע על החתול, והאמונה שלי
מוצדקת - המשמעות: שיש לי מעין
ראיות לגיטימיות בשביל לתמוך באמונה שלי.
עכשיו, אנחנו כבר הגדרנו אמת ואמונה.
הצדקה היא פשוט ראיות, או אחרים
שתומכים באמונה שלך. אם אתם זוכרים
את פרק 2, אתם ודאי זוכרים שהנחות
נותנות הצדקה למסקנות. והצדקה
יכולה לבוא במגוון של צורות. לרוב,
Spanish:
Mi actitud proposicional, en otras palabras, es lo que determina si yo creo en algo.
Lo que todo esto significa es que, como todos lo demás, puedo tener creencias falsas. Por el simple
hecho de pensar algo no lo hace corresponder a la realidad, que es lo que se necesita para la verdad.
Pero por supuesto la diversión de una discusión es presumir lo que sabemos a otras personas, o por lo menos
producir evidencia inteligente para apoyar tu caso.
Esto alza preguntas sobre que significa realmente saber algo, en el sentido filosófico.
La definición tradicional de conocimiento es que es una creencia verdadera justificada.
Notemos que hay tres componentes separados aquí.
Tengo el conocimiento de que esto es un gato si: primero creo que es un gato
y también si de hecho es un gato - mi creencia corresponde a la realidad y
por lo tanto es verdad. Y finalmente puedo decir que tengo conocimiento sobre este gato si mi creencia
está justificada - significando, tengo algún tipo de evidencia legítima para apoyar mi creencia.
Ya definimos verdad y creencia. Justificación es simplemente la evidencia, o otro
apoyo, para tu creencia. Si recuerdas del episodio 2, recordarás que las premisas
ofrecen justificaciones para conclusiones. Y las justificaciones pueden venir en una variedad de formas. Más a menudo,
Turkish:
Önermesel tutumum, başka bir değişle, bir inancımın olduğunu belirleyen şeydir.
Tüm bunlar benim, tıpkı diğer herkes gibi, yanlış inançlara sahip olabileceğim anlamına gelir. Basitçe
bir şeyi düşünmek onun gerçeğe tekabül etmesini sağlamaz, ki doğruluk için gereken budur.
Ama tabi ki, tartışmanın eğlencesi bildiklerini diğer insanlara göstermek ya da en azından
davanızı desteklemek için gerçekten zekice kanıtlar üretmektir.
Böylece, bu bir şeyi gerçekten bilmenin ne anlama geldiği sorusunu meydana getiriyor, felsefi manada.
Bilginin geleneksel tanımı gerekçelendirilmiş doğru bir inanç olduğudur.
Burada ayrı bileşenlerin olduğunu not edin.
Yani, bunun bir kedi olduğu bilgisine ancak: önce kedi olduğuna inanırsam
ve ayrıca gerçekten de bir kedi ise - yani, inancım gerçeklikle uyumluysa ve dolayısıyla
doğruysa sahip olabilirim. Son olarak, inancım gerekçelendirilmiş ise, bu kedi hakkında bilgiye sahip
olduğum söylenebilir - yani, inancımı desteklemek için bir çeşit mantıklı kanıta sahipsem.
Şuan, zaten doğruluk ve inancı tanımladık. Gerekçe basitçe inancınızı desteklemek için,
kanıt ya da başka bir destektir. Eğer ikinci bölümü hatırlıyorsanız, öncüllerin sonuçlar için
gerekçe sağladığını anımsayacaksınız. Ve gerekçe bir çok farklı çeşitte gelebilir. Genellikle,
Modern Greek (1453-):
Η δηλωτική μου διάθεση, με άλλα λόγια, είναι αυτή που καθορίζει αν πιστεύω κάτι.
Όλα αυτά σημαίνουν ότι εγώ, όπως όλοι οι υπόλοιποι, μπορεί να έχω λανθασμένα πιστεύω. Απλά σκεπτόμενος
κάτι δεν το κάνει να αντιστοιχεί στην πραγματικότητα, πράγμα που χρειάζεται για την αλήθεια.
Αλλά φυσικά, η πλάκα με το να επιχειρηματολογείς είναι να επιδεικνύεις το τι ξέρεις σε άλλους ανθρώπους, ή τουλάχιστον
να παράγεις πραγματικά έξυπνες στοιχεία για να υποστηρίξεις την θέση σου.
Οπότε, αυτό δημιουργεί την απορία του τι σημαίνει πραγματικά να ξέρεις κάτι, με την φιλοσοφική έννοια.
Ο παραδοσιακός ορισμός της γνώσης είναι ότι είναι μια αιτιολογίσημη αληθής πίστη.
Σημειώστε ότι υπάρχουν τρία διαφορετικά Μέρη εδώ.
Οπότε, έχω την γνώση ότι αυτή είναι μια γάτα αν: Πρώτα πιστεύω ότι είναι μια γάτα
και επίσης αυτό είναι όντως μια γάτα - αυτό είναι, η πίστη μου αντιστοιχεί στην πραγματικότητα και
γιαυτό είναι αληθινή. Και τέλος, μπορώ να πω ότι έχω γνώση ότι αυτή είναι μια γάτα αν η πίστη μου
είναι αιτιολογίσημη - εννοώντας, έχω κάποιου είδους θεμιτό στοιχείο να υποστηρίξω την πίστη μου.
Τώρα, έχουμε ήδη ορίσει την αλήθεια και την πίστη. Η αιτιολόγηση είναι απλά στοιχεία ή άλλη
υποστήριξη, για το πιστεύω σου. Αν θυμάστε το 2ο επεισόδιο, θα ανακαλείται ότι οι προκείμενες
προσφέρουν αιτιολόγηση για τα συμπεράσματα. Και η αιτιολόγηση μπορεί να έρθει σε ποικίλες μορφές. Πιο συχνά,
Portuguese:
Minha atitude proposicional, em outras palavras, é o que determina se eu tenho uma crença.
O que isso significa é que eu, como todo mundo, posso ter falsas crenças. Apenas pensar
em algo não o faz verdadeiro, que é o necessário para a "verdade".
Mas, claro, o divertido de argumentar é mostrar o que você sabe para outras pessoas, ou, pelo menos,
produzir evidências claras que deem suporte ao seu caso.
Então, isso levanta a questão do que significa realmente saber alguma coisa, no sentido filosófico.
A definição tradicional de conhecimento é uma crença verdadeira justificada.
Note que há três componentes separados aqui.
Então, eu tenho o conhecimento que isso é um gato se: Antes, eu acreditar que é um gato.
E também se for mesmo um gato - quer dizer, se minha crença corresponder à realidade
e portanto verdadeira. E finalmente, posso dizer que tenho o conhecimento sobre esse gato se minha crença
é justificada - ou seja, eu tenho algumas evidências legítimas que suportam minha crença.
Agora, já definimos o que é verdade e crença. Justificativa é simplesmente evidência, ou
outros suportes à sua crença. Se você lembrar do episódio 2, você vai lembrar que premissas
oferecem justificativas à conclusões. E justificativas podem vir em várias formas.
Italian:
Il mio atteggiamento proposizionale, in altre parole, è ciò che determina se ho una convinzione.
Tutto questo significa che io, come chiunque altro, posso avere convinzioni false. Semplicemente pensare
qualcosa non la fa corrispondere alla realtà, che è ciò che è necessario per la verità.
Ma, naturalmente, il divertimento nel discutere sta nello sfoggiare ciò che sai ad altre persone, o almeno
produrre prove molto intelligenti a sostegno del tuo caso.
Quindi, questo pone la questione su cosa significhi sapere qualcosa per davvero, nel senso filosofico.
La definizione tradizionale di conoscenza è
che si tratta di una convinzione vera e giustificata.
Nota che ci sono tre componenti separate qua.
Dunque, ho conoscenza che questo è un gatto se: Io credo prima di tutto sia un gatto
E anche che infatti è un gatto – cioè, la mia convinzione corrisponde alla realtà ed è
dunque vera. E infine, si può dire che ho conoscenza di questo gatto se la mia convinzione
è giustificata – ossia, ho una specie di prova legittima per sostenere la mia convinzione.
Ora, abbiamo già definito verità e convinzione. La giustificazione è semplicemente la prova, o altro
supporto, per la tua credenza. Se ripensi all'episodio 2, ricorderai che le premesse
offrono giustificazione per le conclusioni. E la giustificazione può venire in una varietà di forme. Più spesso,
Vietnamese:
Thái độ tuyên bố, nói cách khác là thứ quyết định xem tôi có niềm tin hay không.
Điều đó nói lên điều gì, giống như những người khác, tôi có thể có niềm tin sai. Đơn giản là nghĩ về
điều gì đó không có nghĩa là nó phản ánh thực tế, điều mà cần thiết cho sự thật.
Nhưng tất nhiên, niềm vui trong tranh luận là cho người khác thấy cái mà bạn biết, hay ít nhất
là đưa ra những bằng chứng thông minh để ủng hộ quan điểm của bạn.
Vì vậy, điều này làm dấy lên một câu hỏi về việc thật sự biết về điều gì đó có nghĩa là gì trong triết học.
Định nghĩa truyền thống của tri thức là nó là niềm tin sự thật hợp lý.
Chú ý là có 3 nhân tố ở đây.
Vì thế, tôi có tri thức đây là con mèo nếu: đầu tiên tôi tin nó là con mèo
và thực tế nó là con mèo - đó là niềm tin dựa trên thực tế và
nó là thật. Và cuối cùng, tôi có thể được nói là có tri thức về con mèo nếu niềm tin của tôi là
hợp lý - có nghĩa là, tôi có đại loại vài bằng chứng hợp lý để ủng hộ niềm tin của tôi.
Bây giờ, chúng ta đã định nghĩa về sự thật và niềm tin. Sự biện hộ đơn giản là bằng chứng, hoặc những thứ
chứng minh khác cho niềm tin của tôi. Nếu bạn nhớ về tập 2, bạn sẽ nhớ về những tiền đề
yêu cầu sự biện hộ để kết luận. Và sự biện hộ có thể ở nhiều dạng. Thông thường nhất
Dutch:
Mijn propositionele attitude, met andere woorden, is wat bepaalt of ik een geloof heb.
Wat dit alles betekent is dat ik, net als iedereen, valse overtuigingen kan bezitten. Gewoon iets denken
betekent niet dat het correspondeert met de realiteit, wat nodig is voor waarheid.
Het leuke aan discussies is natuurlijk je kennis tentoon te spreiden aan andere mensen, of tenminste
heel gewiekste bewijzen aanbrengen om je zaak te verdedigen.
Dus, dit werpt de vraag op wat het betekent om werkelijk iets te weten, in de filosofische betekenis.
De traditionele definitie van kennis is dat het een gerechtvaardigde ware overtuiging is.
Merk op dat er hier drie verschillende componenten zijn.
Dus, ik heb de kennis dat dit een kat is indien: ik eerst geloof dat het een kat is;
en ook dat het daadwerkelijk een kat is - namelijk, mijn geloof correspondeert met de realiteit en is
daarom waar; en ten laatste, men kan stellen dat ik kennis heb over deze kat indien mijn geloof
gerechtvaardigd is - ik heb een of ander legitiem bewijs om mijn geloof te ondersteunen.
We hebben nu al waarheid en geloof gedefinieerd. Verantwoording is eenvoudigweg bewijs, of andere
ondersteuning, voor jouw geloof. Indien je je aflevering 2 herinnert, weet je dat premissen
de verantwoording bieden voor conclusies. En verantwoording kan diverse vormen aannemen. Meestal
Estonian:
Minu propositsiooniline hoiak on teisisõnu miski, mis määrab kas mul on uskumus.
Mida see kõik tähendab on see, et minul, nagu ka kõigil teistel, võib olla vääraid uskumusi. Mõtlemisest ei piisa,
et see mõte ka reaalsusele vastaks. Ja seda on tõeks vaja.
Aga otseloomulikult arutlemise mõte on selles, et näidata teistele mida sa tead, või vähemalt
esitada väga kavalaid tõendusi oma juhtumi kasuks.
See tõstatab küsimuse, mida tegelikult tähendab midagi teada, filosoofilises mõttes.
Traditsiooniline teadmise definitsioon on õigustatud tõene uskumus.
Pane tähele, et siin on kolm eraldiseisvat osa.
Seega, mul on teadmine, et see on kass siis kui ma esmalt usun, et see on kass.
Ja lisaks see on tõepoolest kass -- ehk minu uskumus on reaalsusega kooskõlas ja on
seega tõene. Ja viimaks võin ma väita, et ma tean, et see on kass, kui mu uskumus
on õigustatud. Tähendab mul on mingit sorti legitiimne tõestus oma uskumuse toetuseks.
Me oleme juba defineerinud "tõe" ja "uskumuse". Õigustus on lihtsalt tõestus, või muu
toetus, sinu uskumusele. Kui sa meenutad episoodi 2, siis sa võid meelde tuletada, et eeldused
õigustavad järeldust. Ja õigustused võivad tulla väga erinevas vormis. Kõige tavalisemalt
French:
Mon attitude propositionnelle, en d’autres termes, est ce qui détermine si j’ai une croyance.
Ce que tout ceci veut dire est que, comme tout le monde, je peux avoir des croyances fausses. Simplement penser
quelque chose ne le fait pas correspondre à la réalité, ce qui est nécessaire à la vérité.
Mais bien sûr, la joie d’argumenter est de montrer ce qu’on sait à d’autres personnes, ou au moins
fournir des preuves vraiment astucieuses pour soutenir sa position.
Ceci pose la question de ce que ça signifie de vraiment savoir quelque chose, dans le sens philosophique.
La définition traditionnelle de la connaissance est que c’est une croyance vraie justifiée.
Notez qu’il y a trois différents composants ici.
Donc, j’ai la connaissance que ceci est un chat si : je crois d’abord que c’est un chat
et aussi que c’est en effet un chat – c-à-d, que ma croyance correspond à la réalité et est
donc vraie. Et enfin, on peut dire que j’ai la connaissance à propos de ce chat si ma croyance
est justifiée – c-à-d, j’ai une quelconque preuve légitime pour soutenir ma croyance.
Là, on a déjà défini la vérité et la croyance.
La justification est simplement une preuve, ou un autre
soutien, pour votre croyance. Si vous vous souvenez de l’épisode 2, vous vous souviendrez que les prémisses
offrent des justifications pour les conclusions. Et la justification peut venir sous plusieurs formes. Très souvent,
Romanian:
Cu alte cuvinte, atitudinea mea propozițională determină dacă am o convingere.
Mai exact, eu, ca orice altă persoană, pot avea convingeri false. Doar pentru că
ai o convingere, nu înseamnă că ea corespunde realității, adică exact de ce e nevoie pentru a avea un adevăr.
Dar, bineînțeles, distracția în dezbatere e în a le arăta celorlalți cât de mult știi, sau, măcar
să îți demonstrezi convingător cazul.
Iar astfel se pune problema a ce înseamnă să știi ceva, în sens filosofic.
Definiția tradițională a cunoașterii este: o convingere adevărată și justificată.
Fii atent la cele trei componente distincte.
Deci, cunosc că aceasta este o pisică dacă: în primul rând, cred că este o pisică,
dar este și într-adevăr o pisică, adică convingerea mea corespunde cu realitatea, deci
este adevărată. În concluzie, pot spune că am cunoștință despre această pisică dacă convingerea mea
este justificată, adică am dovezi puternice prin care să îmi susțin convingerea.
Am definit deja adevărul și convingerea. Justificarea este pur și simplu dovada, ori orice alt ajutor
pentru convingerea ta. Dacă mai ții minte al doilea episod, îți amintești că premisele
oferă justificarea concluziilor, iar justificarea poate avea mai multe forme. De cele mai multe ori,
Estonian:
tulevad need tunnistuste kujul -- lihtsalt uskudes kellegi sõnu. Otseloomulikult mitte kõik tunnistused
ei ole tugevad ega usaldusväärsed. Aga kui see tuleb kelleltki, kes on käesoleva
teema ekspert, siis on sul põhjust pidada tunnistust usaldusväärseks.
Ja tõepoolest, enamus mida sa tead maailma kohta on õpitud läbi tunnistuste.
Sa usaldasid oma õpetajaid, kui nad sulle asju õpetasid ja sama kehtib ka
iga raamatu kohta, mida sa oled lugenud ja iga uudise kohta, mida sa näinud oles. Need kõik
on lihtsalt erinevad tunnistuste vormid, mida sa aktsepteerid kui õigustust oma teadmistele ja uskumustele.
Aga õigustused võivad ka tulla teistes vormides. Teine levinud tüüp on esimese isiku vaatlused
-- informatsioon mida sa saad oma meelte kaudu.
Kui ma usun, et kass on kass, sest mul juba on tugev ja hästi informeeritud uskumus
kasside kohta, siis, kuna mul on olnud nendega minevikus laialdasi kogemusi saan ma tuvastada
kassi kui kassi, kui ma temaga otseselt kokku puutun.
See paistab, tundub ja käitub nagu kass. Järelikult -- kass!
Aga filosoofia ei oleks lõbus, kui teadmistega oleks asi nii lihtne, eksole?
Kuni Ameerika filosoofi Edmund Gettieri tulemiseni 1960. aastatel olid filosoofid
Turkish:
tanıklık, başka birinin sözünü almak üzerinden gelir. Tüm şahitlikler
güçlü ya da güvenilir değildir tabi ki. Ama sorulan konuda uzman olan biri tarafından
yapılırsa, tanıklığın güvenilir olduğunu düşünebilirsiniz.
Ve gerçek şu ki, dünya hakkında bildiğiniz çoğu şeyi, tanıklık üzerinden öğrendiniz.
Size bir şeyler öğretirlerken öğretmenlerinizin sözünü alırsınız, ve aynısı
okuduğunuz her kitap ve gördüğünüz her haber raporu için geçerlidir.
Hepsi bilginiz ve inançlarınız için gerekçe olarak kabul ettiğiniz tanıklığın biçimleridir.
Ama gerekçe bir çok farklı formda da gelebilir. Bir diğer yaygın tip birincil şahıs gözlemidir.
Duyularınız aracılığıyla elde ettiğiniz bilgi.
Eğer bu kedinin kedi olduğuna inanırken, zaten kediler hakkında sağlam ve iyi-bilgilendirilmiş
inançlara sahipsem, o halde, onlarla geçmişte geniş çaplı deneyimlere sahip olurken, kediyi
doğrudan deneyimlediklerim aracılığıyla kedi olarak tanımlarım;
görünüşü, hisler, kedi gibi davranması.
Dolayısıyla: kedi!
Ancak! Eğer bilginin sırrı bu kadar basit olsaydı felsefenin eğlencesi kalmazdı, değil mi?
Amerikan filozof Edmund Gettier 1960'larda ortaya çıkana kadar, filozoflar
Russian:
они проходят через свидетельство, просто опираясь на чьё-то слово. Конечно, не всегда свидетельство
является весомым или заслуживающим доверия. Но, если оно приходит со стороны эксперта
в данной теме или вопросе, то вы можете считать свидетельство надёжным.
И ведь действительно, многое из того, что вы знаете об этом мире, вы узнали с чьих-то слов, через свидетельства.
Вы доверяли учителю, когда она учил вас, и, точно так же,
вы доверяли каждой книге, которую когда-либо читали, или новостному репортажу, который когда-либо смотрели.
Это всё формы свидетельства, которые вы принимаете в качестве обоснования для ваших знаний и суждений.
Но обоснование также может выражаться и в других формах. Другим распространённым типом обоснования являются ваши наблюдения,
информация, которую вы приобрели через органы чувств.
Если я верю, что кот - это кот, потому что я уже хорошо осведомлён в данной области и имею здравые суждения
насчёт котов, то, имея богатый опыт с ними в прошлом, я могу определить,
что "кот - это кот" через прямой контакт с ним.
Он выглядит, ощущается, действует как кот. Значит это кот!
Но! Философы не были бы такими весельчаками, если бы ключ к знанию был бы таким простым, верно?
Пока американский философ Эдмунд Геттьер не появился в 1960-ых, философы были
Romanian:
aceasta are forma testimonialului, adică să crezi ce îți spune cineva. Totuși, nu toate testimonialele
sunt puternice și de încredere, normal, dar dacă vin de la un expert
pe domeniul în cauză, atunci putem considera că testimonialul este de încredere.
Iar adevărul este că multe din lucrurile pe care le știi despre lume le-ai învățat prin testimoniale.
Ți-ai crezut profesorii când îți predau chestii, iar acest
lucru se poate aplica fiecărei cărți pe care ai citit-o și fiecărui reportaj pe care l-ai văzut. Toate
sunt forme de testimonial pe care l-ai acceptat ca justificare pentru cunoștintele și convingerile tale.
Dar justificarea poate îmbrăca și ea forme diferite. Un tip comun este observația personală -
informația pe care o primești prin intermediul simțurilor.
Dacă eu cred că o pisică este o pisică, pentru că am deja convingeri serioase și bine documentate
despre pisici, atunci, având deja experiență vastă cu ele în trecut, identific
pisica drept pisică prin intermediul contactului direct cu ea.
Arată, se simte și se poartă ca o pisică, ergo: pisică!
Dar! Filosofia nu ar fi distractivă dacă drumul către cunoaștere ar fi atât de ușor, corect?
Până la filosoful Edmund Gettier, în anii 60, majoritatea filosofilor era
English:
it comes about through testimony – just
taking someone’s word for it. Not all testimony
is strong, or trustworthy, of course. But
if it comes from someone who’s an expert
on the topic in question, you might consider
the testimony to be reliable.
And the fact is, most of what you know about
the world, you learned through testimony.
You took your teachers’ word for it when
they were teaching you stuff, and the same
goes for every book you’ve ever read and
every news report you’ve ever seen. They’re
all just forms of testimony, which you accepted as justification for your knowledge, and your beliefs.
But justification can come in other forms,
too. Another common type is first person observation
– information you acquire through your senses.
If I believe that a cat is a cat, because
I already have robust and well-informed beliefs
about cats, then, having had extensive experience
with them in the past, I’m identifying the
cat as a cat through my direct contact with
it
It looks, feels, acts like a cat. Ergo: cat!
But! Philosophy wouldn’t be any fun if the
key to knowledge were that easy, right?
Until American philosopher Edmund Gettier
came along in the 1960s, philosophers were
French:
elles viennent à travers un témoignage – juste en prenant la parole de quelqu’un pour vraie. Tous les témoignages
ne sont pas solides, ou fiables bien sûr. Mais si ça vient de quelqu’un qui est un expert
du sujet en question, on peut considérer le témoignage comme étant fiable.
Et le fait est que, la plupart des choses que vous savez sur le monde, vous l’avez appris via témoignage.
Vous avez tenu la parole de vos profs pour vraie quand ils vous enseigné des trucs, et c’est la même
chose pour tous les livres que vous avez lus et tous les bulletins d’info que vous avez entendus. Ce sont
juste des formes de témoignage, que vous avez acceptées comme justification pour votre connaissance et vos croyances.
Mais la justification peut prendre d’autres formes encore. Un autre type commun est l’observation à la première personne
– les informations que vous obtenez via vos sens.
Si je crois qu’un chat est un chat parce que j’ai déjà des croyances robustes et bien informées
sur les chats, alors, ayant eu une vaste expérience des chats par le passé, j’identifie
le chat comme un chat via mon contact direct avec lui.
Il ressemble à et agit comme un chat. Ergo : chat !
Mais ! La philosophie ne serait pas drôle si la clé de la connaissance était si facile, n’est-ce pas ?
Jusqu’à ce que le philosophe Edmund Gettier arrive dans les années 1960, les philosophes étaient
Dutch:
is het een gevolg van getuigenis - gewoon iemand op zijn woord geloven. Niet alle getuigenissen
zijn sterk, of betrouwbaar, natuurlijk. Maar als het van iemand komt die een expert is
over het gevraagde onderwerp, kan je de getuigenis als betrouwbaar beschouwen.
En het feit is dat je het meeste wat je weet over de wereld geleerd hebt door getuigenissen.
Je nam de woorden van je leerkrachten voor waarheid aan wanneer ze je zaken aanleerden, en hetzelfde
gaat op voor elk boek dat je ooit gelezen hebt en elk nieuwsbericht dat je ooit hebt gezien. Het zijn
allemaal gewoon vormen van getuigenissen, die je accepteerde als verantwoording voor jouw kennis, en jouw overtuigingen.
Maar verantwoording kan eveneens in andere vormen komen. Een ander veelvoorkomend type is eerste persoon observatie
- informatie die je vergaart door je zintuigen.
Als ik geloof dat een kat een kat is, omdat ik reeds robuuste en gefundeerde overtuigingen heb
over katten, dan indentificieer ik, aan de hand van mijn uitgebreide ervaring met hen in het verleden,
de kat als een kat door mijn direct contact ermee.
Het ziet eruit, voelt, en gedraagt zich als een kat. Dus: kat!
Maar! Er zou geen lol aan filosofie zijn als de sleutel tot kennis zo voor het grijpen lag, nietwaar?
Tot de Amerikaanse filosoof Edmund Gettier op het toneel verscheen in de jaren '60, waren filosofen het
Arabic:
في أغلب الأحيان، تأتي على شكل "شهادات" الأخذ بكلام شخص ما
ليست كل الشهادات قوية أوجديرة بالثقة طبعا
لكن إذا جاءت من خبير (في موضوع النقاش) قد تعتمد شهادته
في الحقيقة، معظم ما تعرفه عن العالم تعلمته عن طريق الشهادات
كنت تثق بكلام أساتذتك عندما كانوا يدرسونك، و ينطبق الكلام على كل كتاب قرأته
و كل تقرير أخبار رأيته
كلها أشكال من الشهادات، والتي تقبلتها كمسوِّغ لمعرفتك واعتقاداتك
لكن التبرير قد يأتي بشكل آخر أيضا، الشكل المشهور: "الملاحظة الشخصية"
المعلومات التي تكسبها عن طريق أحاسيسك
إذا اعتقدت أن هذا القط "قط" لأن لدي اعتقادات قوية ومتينة مسبقة عن القطط
ثم لدي خبرة واسعة معهم في الماضي
أنا أعرِّف القط كـ"قط" من خلال اتصالي المباشر معه
إنه يبدو ويتصرف مثل القطط، إذن هو: قط.
لكن الفلاسفة لن يكونوا راضِين إن كان المفتاح للمعرفة بهذه السهولة، صحيح؟
حتى مجيء الفيلسوف الأمريكي إدموند جيتر 1960
Modern Greek (1453-):
εμφανίζεται μέσω μαρτυριών - πιστεύοντας τα λόγια κάποιου για κάτι. Δεν είναι όλες οι μαρτυρίες
ισχυρές, ή αξιόπιστες, φυσικά. Αλλά αν έρχεται από κάποιον που είναι αυθεντία
στο θέμα που διερευνάτε, μπορείς να θεωρήσεις την μαρτυρία αξιόπιστη.
Και το γεγονός είναι, τα περισσότερα που ξέρεις για τον κόσμο τα έμαθες μέσω μαρτυριών.
Πίστεψες τα λόγια των δασκάλων σου όταν σε δίδασκαν πράγματα και το ίδιο
ισχύει για κάθε βιβλίο που έχεις διαβάσει και κάθε δελτίο ειδήσεων που έχει δει. Είναι
όλα απλά μορφές μαρτυριών, τις οποίες αποδέχεσαι ως αιτιολόγηση για τις γνώσεις σου και τα πιστεύω σου.
Αλλά η αιτιολόγηση μπορεί να έρθει σε διάφορες μορφές επίσης. Ένας άλλος κοινός τύπος είναι οι παρατηρήσεις πρώτου προσώπου
- πληροφορίες που αποκτάς μέσω των αισθήσεών σου.
Αν πιστεύω ότι μια γάτα είναι μια γάτα, διότι ήδη έχω στιβαρά και καλά πληροφορημένα πιστεύω
για τις γάτες, τότε, έχοντας εκτεταμένες εμπειρίες με αυτές στο παρελθόν, αναγνωρίζω την
γάτα ως γάτα μέσω της άμεσης επαφής με αυτήν.
Μοιάζει, την αισθάνομαι, συμπεριφέρεται σαν γάτα. Άρα: γάτα!
Αλλά! Η φιλοσοφία δεν θα είχε καθόλου πλάκα αν το κλειδί για την γνώση ήταν τόσο απλό, σωστά;
Μέχρι να έρθει ο Αμερικάνος φιλόσοφος Edmund Gettier στα 1960, οι φιλόσοφοι ήταν
Spanish:
vienen a través de testimonios - tomando la palabra de alguien. No todo testimonio es
fuerte, o merece confianza por supuesto. Pero si viene de un experto
en el tópico en cuestión, considerarás que el testimonio es fiable.
Y la cosa es que la mayoría de lo que sabes sobre el mundo lo aprendiste a través de testimonio.
tu tomas la palabra de tus profesores cuando te enseñan cosas, y lo mismo
va para cada libro que hayas leído o cada reporte de televisión que hayas visto. Son
todas formas de testimonio que aceptas como justificación a tu conocimiento y tus creencias.
Pero la justificación también puede venir en otras formas. Otro tipo común es observación en primera persona
- información que adquiriste a través de los sentidos.
Si yo creo que ese gato es un gato porque ya tengo creencias sólidas y bien informadas
sobre los gatos, luego, habiendo tenido experiencias con ellos en el pasado, estoy identificando al
gato como un gato a través de mi contacto directo con él.
Se ve, se siente, actúa como un gato. Ergo: ¡gato!
¡Pero! La filosofía no sería divertida si la llave para el conocimiento fuera tan fácil, ¿no?
Hasta que el filósofo americano Edmun Gettier llegó en los 60s, los filósofos estaban
Vietnamese:
nó thông qua lời chứng - dùng lời người nào đó khác. Không phải tất cả các lời chứng
đều mạnh, hay có giá trị, đương nhiên. Nhưng nếu nó đến từ một người có chuyên môn
trong chủ đề câu hỏi, bạn có thể xem xét lời chứng đó là có thể tin cậy.
Và thực tế là, phần lớn những gì bạn biết về thế giới là thông qua lời chứng.
Bạn chấp nhận lời nói của giáo viên bạn khi họ dạy bạn về các thứ, và tương tự
về những cuốn sách bạn đọc và tin tức mỗi ngày bạn xem. Chúng
đều là các dạng của lời chứng, cái mà bạn chấp nhận như sự biện hộ cho sự nhận biết và niềm tin của bạn.
Nhưng sự biện hộ cũng có thể đến theo những cách khác. Dạng hay dùng khác là sự quan sát đầu tiên
-thông tin thu được thông qua các giác quan.
Nếu tôi tin rằng con mèo là con mèo, bởi vì tôi có những niềm tin rõ ràng và thiết thực
về những con mèo sau đó có những trải nghiệm bao quát với chúng trong quá khứ, tôi đang nhận biết con mèo
là con mèo thông qua sự tiếp xúc trực tiếp với nó.
Nó có vẻ ngoài, cảm giác và hành động như con mèo. Vì thế: mèo!
Nhưng! Triết học sẽ chẳng có gì vui nếu chìa khóa dẫn đến tri thức dễ như thế, đúng không?
Cho đến khi nhà triết gia người Mỹ Edmund Gettier xuất hiện vào những năm 1960, các nhà triết học
Italian:
avviene attraverso la testimonianza – semplicemente fidandosi di qualcuno. Non tutte le testimonianze
sono forti, o affidabili, naturalmente. Ma se proviene da qualcuno che è un esperto
sul tema in questione, potresti considerare la testimonianza come affidabile.
E il fatto è che, la maggior parte di quello che sai del mondo, lo hai appreso attraverso la testimonianza.
Ti sei fidato dei tuoi insegnanti quanto ti insegnavano cose, e lo stesso
vale per ogni libro che tu abbia mai letto e
ogni telegiornale tu abbia mai visto. Sono
tutte solamente forme di testimonianza, che hai accettato come giustificazione per la tua conoscenza, e le tue convinzioni.
Ma la giustificazione può venire anche in altre forme. Un altro tipo comune è l'osservazione in prima persona
– informazioni che acquisisci attraverso i sensi.
Se ritengo che un gatto sia un gatto, perché ho già credenze robuste e ben informate
sui gatti, poi, avendo avuto una vasta esperienza con loro in passato, sto identificando il
gatto come un gatto attraverso il mio contatto diretto con esso
Appare, sembra, si comporta come un gatto. Ergo: gatto!
Ma! La filosofia non sarebbe alcun divertimento se la chiave per la conoscenza fosse così facile, giusto?
Prima che il filosofo americano Edmund Gettier entrasse in scena negli anni 1960, i filosofi erano
iw:
מדובר על דרך עדות - רק
לקחת מילה של מישהו על זה. לא כל העדויות
הן חזקות, או אמינות, כמובן. אבל
אם זה מגיע ממישהו מומחה
על הנושא הנדון, אולי כדאי שתשקלו
את עדותו להיות אמינה.
והעובדה היא, רוב הדברים שאתה יודע על
העולם, למדת דרך עדות.
לקחת את המילה של המורים שלך על זה כאשר
הם לימדו אותך דברים, ואותו
הדבר נכון גם לגבי כל ספר שאי פעם קראת
ובכל מהדורת חדשות שראית אי פעם. זה
הכל רק צורות של עדות, אשר קבלו את הצדקת ידיעתך, ואת האמונות שלך.
אבל הצדקה יכולה להתבטא באופנים אחרים,
בנוסף. עוד סוג נפוץ הוא התבוננות בגוף ראשון
- מידע המתקבל דרך החושים שלך.
אם אני מאמין שחתול הוא חתול, כי
יש לי כבר חזקות באמונות שלי
על חתולים, אם כן, יש לי ניסיון רב
איתם בעבר, אני מזהה
חתול כחתול באמצעות המגע הישיר שלי
איתו
זה נראה, מרגיש, מתנהג כמו חתול. ולכן: חתול!
אבל! פילוסופיה לא תהיה כל כיף אם
המפתח לידע היה כל כך קל, נכון?
עד שהפילוסוף האמריקאי אדמונד גטייר
בא ב -1960, הפילוסופים היו
Portuguese:
A maioria através de testemunhos - apenas levar em conta as palavras de alguém. Nem todo testemunho
é forte, ou confiável, claro. Mas se vêm de alguém que é especialista
no tópico em questão, você pode considerar seu testemunho como fidedigno.
E o fato é que a maior parte do que você sabe sobre o mundo, você aprendeu através de testemunhos.
Você tomou as palavras dos seus professores enquanto eles te ensinavam, e o mesmo
vale para todo livro que você ler e qualquer jornal ou notícia que você verá.
São todas formas de testemunho, que você aceita como justificativa para o seu conhecimento e suas crenças.
Mas justificativas podem vir em outras formas também. Um tipo comum é a "observação em primeira pessoa"
- que é informação que você adquire através dos seus sentidos.
Se eu acredito que um gato é um gato, porque eu já tenho crenças robustas e bem formadas sobre gatos
já que tive muita experiência com eles no passado, eu identifico
um gato como um gato através do meu contato direto com ele.
Parece, age e eu sinto que é um gato. Ergo: gato!
Mas! Filosofia não seria divertido se a chave para o conhecimento fosse tão fácil, certo?
Até que o filósofo americano Edmund Gettier aparecesse no anos 60, filósofos tinham
French:
largement d’accord sur la définition de la connaissance – que c’est une croyance vraie justifiée.
Parce que, on peut croire n’importe quel vieux truc, mais afin de savoir quelque chose, c’est évident
qu’on doit aussi avoir des preuves pour sa croyance, et elles doivent être vraies. En d’autres
termes, on peut avoir une croyance fausse, mais on ne peut pas avoir de connaissance fausse. Et si quelque chose
qu’on pensait savoir se révèle ne pas être vrai, alors le fait est qu’on ne savait en fait rien, on croyait simplement savoir quelque chose.
Et de la même manière, on peut avoir une vraie croyance, mais si on n’a pas de justification, si on a
juste accidentellement raison, ce qui arrive parfois – ça ne compte pas comme de la connaissance non plus.
Entre Edmund Gettier. Gettier a écrit un court mais incroyablement influent article qui a chamboulé
la compréhension standard de la connaissance.
Il a fait ça en proposant ce qui est maintenant connu comme les problèmes de Gettier – des cas dans lesquels
on peut avoir des croyances vraies justifiées, mais pas de la connaissance.
Ce qui nous amène au Flash Philosophy de cette semaine ! Allons dans la Thought Bubble.
Voici un des cas originels de Gettier. Smith et Jones ont tous les deux postulé pour le même poste.
Le président de la compagnie dit à Smith que Jones aura le poste. Ceci compte comme une preuve ;
Modern Greek (1453-):
σε αρκετά διαδεδομένη συμφωνία για τον ορισμό της γνώση -- ότι είναι αιτιολογημένη αληθής πίστη.
Διότι, μπορείς να πιστεύεις οτιδήποτε, αλλά για να ξέρεις κάτι, φαίνεται
λογικό να πρέπει να έχεις στοιχεία για το πιστεύω σου, και πρέπει να είναι αληθές. Με άλλα
λόγια, μπορείς να έχεις μια ψευδή πίστη, αλλά δεν μπορείς να έχει μια ψευδή γνώση. Και αν κάτι
που πίστευες ότι ήξερες αποδειχθεί μη αληθές, τότε η πραγματικότητα είναι, ότι ποτέ πραγματικά δεν το ήξερες, απλά το πίστευες.
Και αντίστοιχα, μπορεί να έχεις μια αληθή πίστη, αλλά αν δεν έχεις καμία απόδειξη για αυτή, αν
συμπτωματικά έτυχε να έχεις δίκιο, το οποίο συμβαίνει κάποιες φορές - αυτό δεν μετράει ως γνώση, επίσης.
Μπαίνει ο Edmund Gettier. Ο Gettier έγραψε μια σύντομη αλλά θαυμάσια ισχυρή δημοσίευση η οποία αναποδογύρισε
την καθιερωμένη αντίληψη της γνώσης.
Το έκανε αυτό προτείνοντας αυτό που έγινε γνωστό ως υπόθεση του Gettier - καταστάσεις στις οποίες κάποιος
μπορεί να έχει αιτιολογημένη αληθής πίστη, αλλά όχι γνώση.
Το οποίο μας φέρνει στην Γρήγορη Φιλοσοφία αυτής της εβδομάδας! Ας πάμε στην φυσαλίδα της σκέψης.
Εδώ είναι μια αυθεντική υπόθεση του Gettier. Ο Smith και ο Jones έχουν και οι δύο κάνει αίτηση για την ίδια δουλειά.
Ο πρόεδρος της εταιρίας είπε στον Smith ότι ο Jones θα πάρει την δουλειά. Αυτό μετράει ως στοιχείο·
English:
in pretty widespread agreement about the definition
of knowledge -- that it’s justified true belief.
Because, you can believe any old thing, but
in order to know something, it just makes
sense that you must also have evidence for
your belief, and it must be true. In other
words, you can have a false belief, but you
can’t have false knowledge. And if something
you thought you knew turns out not to be true, then the fact is, you never actually knew it, you just believed it.
And likewise, you might happen to hold a true belief, but if you don’t have any justification for it, if you
just accidentally happened to be right, which happens sometimes – that doesn’t count as knowledge, either.
Enter Edmund Gettier. Gettier wrote a short
but fabulously influential paper that turned
the standard understanding of knowledge upside
down.
He did this by proposing what came to be known
as Gettier cases – situations in which one
can have justified true belief, but not knowledge.
Which brings us to this week’s Flash Philosophy!
Let’s go to the Thought Bubble.
Here’s one of Gettier’s original cases.
Smith and Jones have both applied for the same job.
The president of the company told Smith that Jones will get the job. This counts as evidence;
Dutch:
vrij algemeen over de definitie van kennis eens - dat het een kwestie van gerechtvaardigde ware overtuigingen is.
Immers, je kan eender wat geloven, maar om iets te weten, moet je
ook bewijs hebben voor je overtuiging, en het moet waar zijn. Met andere
woorden, je kan een vals geloof hebben, maar je kan geen valse kennis bezitten. En indien iets
waarvan je dacht het te weten niet waar blijkt te zijn, dan wist je het in feite nooit, je geloofde het enkel.
Op dezelfde manier heb je misschien wel een ware overtuiging, maar indien je er geen verantwoording voor hebt, als je
gewoon toevallig correct bent, wat soms gebeurt - dan telt ook dat niet als kennis.
Hier maakt Edmund Gettier zijn entrée. Gettier schreef een korte maar geweldig invloedrijke paper dat
het standaard begrip van kennis op z'n kop zette.
Hij deed dit door wat als Gettier gevallen bekend zou worden voor te stellen - situaties waarin iemand
een gerechtvaardigde overtuiging kan hebben, maar geen kennis.
Wat ons brengt tot de Flash Filosofie van deze week! Laten we naar de Thought Bubble gaan.
Hier is een van Gettiers originele gevallen. Smith en Jones hebben beiden gesolliciteerd voor dezelfde job.
De voorzitter van het bedrijf vertelde Smith dat Jones de job zal krijgen. Dit telt als bewijs;
Italian:
abbastanza ampiamente d'accordo sulla definizione di conoscenza – che sia credenza vera giustificata.
Perché, puoi credere qualsiasi cosa, ma al fine di sapere qualcosa, ha senso
che tu debba anche avere prove per la tua convinzione, e devono essere vere. In altre
parole, puoi avere una falsa convinzione, ma non puoi avere falsa conoscenza. E se qualcosa
che credevi sapere risulta non essere vero, allora il fatto è che in realtà non l'avevi mai davvero saputo, solo creduto.
E allo stesso modo, potresti avere una convinzione vera, ma se non hai alcuna giustificazione al riguardo, se
ti è capitato accidentalmente di avere ragione, il che capita a volte – neppure qullo conta come conoscenza.
Fa il suo ingresso Edmund Gettier. Gettier ha scritto un breve ma favolosamente influente articolo che ha
capovolto la normale interpretazione di conoscenza
Lo ha fatto proponendo quelli che sono finiti per essere conosciuti come come casi di Gettier - situazioni in cui
si può avere convinzioni vere giustificate, ma non conoscenza.
Il che ci porta alla Filosofia Flash di questa settimana! Andiamo alla Bolla del Pensiero.
Ecco uno dei casi originali di Gettier. Smith e Jones hanno entrambi fatto domanda per lo stesso lavoro.
Il presidente della società ha detto a Smith che Jones otterrà il lavoro. Questo conta come prova;
Arabic:
كان الفلاسفة اتفقوا اتفَاقًا تامًا على تعريف المعرفة بأنها اعتقاد حقيقي مبرر
لأنك تستطيع الاعتقاد بأي شيء قديم
لكن لمعرفة الشيء لابد لك من أن تملك دليلًا عليه، ولابد أن يكون صحيحا
بمعنى آخر، يمكن أن يكون لك اعتقاد خاطئ لكن لا يمكن ان تكون لديك معرفة خاطئة.
وإذا اتضح أن شيئًا تعرفه ليس صحيحا، إذن في الحقيقة أنت لم تعرفه من قبل فعلا، أنت فقط اعتقدته
وبالمثل، قد يحصل أن تعتقد اعتقادا صحيحا، لكن إذا كنت لا تملك أي مبرر له
فقط كانت مصادفة -والتي قد تحدث أحيانا- هذا لا يعد معرفة أيضا
دخل إدموند جيتر هنا. كتب جيتر ورقة قصيرة لكنها في غاية التأثير
حيث قلبت الفهم القياسي للمعرفة رأسًا على عقب
كتب تلك الورقة بعد افتراضه لما سماه حالات جيتر -
حالة يكون للشخص فيها اعتقاد صحيح مبرر، لكنه ليس معرفة
والذي يقودنا إلى لمحة الأسبوع الفلسفية الخاطفة! لنذهب لفقاعة الفكر
هنا إحدى حالات جيتر الأصلية، سميث وجون تقدَّما لنفس الوظيفة.
أخبر رئيس الشركة سميث أن جون سيحصل على الوظيفة. يعد هذا دليلًا
Romanian:
de acord cu definiția cunoașterii - o convingere adevărată și justificată,
pentru că poți crede în orice lucru, dar pentru a ști ceva, atunci are sens
faptul că trebuie să ai și dovezi în legătură cu această convingere, iar aceasta trebuie să fie adevarată. Altfel spus,
poți avea o convingere falsă, dar nu poți avea o cunoștință falsă, iar dacă ceva
ce știai se dovedește a nu fi adevărat, atunci, de fapt, nu ai știut niciodată cu adevărat, ci doar ai crezut.
Pe același principiu, s-ar putea să ai o convingere adevărată, dar dacă nu ai niciun motiv pentru ea, atunci
doar s-a întâmplat să ai dreptate, pentru că așa se întamplă uneori, dar nu se pune drept cunoaștere.
Apoi a venit Edmund Gettier. Gettier a scris o lucrare scurtă, dar incredibil de influentă, ce a întors pe dos
standardul de înțelegere a cunoașterii.
A făcut acest lucru propunând ceea ce acum este cunoscut drept "probleme de tip Gettier" - situații în care
poți avea o convingere adevărată și justificată, însă nu o cunoștință.
Iar asta ne conduce către problema de gândire a saptămânii! Să mergem la Balonul cu Idei.
Acestea sunt originalele probleme de tip Gottier. Smith și Jones au aplicat amândoi pentru același job.
Președintele companiei i-a spus lui Smith că Jones a primit slujba. Acest lucru reprezintă dovada -
Spanish:
en extendido acuerdo sobre la definición de conocimiento - que es una creencia verdadera justificada.
Porque tu puedes creer cualquier cosa vieja pero para saber algo, tiene sentido que
también debas tener evidencia para tus creencias y debe ser verdadera. En otras
palabras, puedes tener una creencia falsa pero no puedes tener conocimiento falso. Y si algo
que pensabas que sabías resulta no ser verdad, el hecho es que en realidad nunca lo supiste solo lo creías.
Asimismo, es posible que tengas una creencia verdadera, pero si no tienes ninguna justificación, si solo
por accidente tienes razón, lo que a veces pasa - eso tampoco cuenta como conocimiento.
Entra Edmund Gettier. Gettier escribió un documento corto pero fantástico que puso al revés
el entendimiento estándar de conocimiento.
Él hizo esto proponiendo lo que se conoce como "Casos de Gettier" - situaciones en las que se
puede tener una creencia verdadera justificada pero no conocimiento.
Lo que nos lleva al ¡Flash de Filosofía de esta semana! Vayamos a la Burbuja del Pensamiento.
Este es uno de los casos originales de Gettier. Smith y Jones solicitaron el mismo trabajo.
El presidente de la compañía le dijo a Smith que Jones iba a tener el trabajo. Esto cuenta como evidencia;
Russian:
в довольно широком согласии насчёт определении знания - это обоснованное верное суждение.
Вы можете верить во что угодно, но для того, чтобы действительно знать что-либо, обязательно необходимо
иметь доказательства для вашей веры во что-то, и это что-то должно быть обязательно правдиво. Другими словами,
вы можете иметь неверные суждения, но вы не можете иметь неверные знания. И, если
вы думали, что действительно что-то знали, а это оказалось ложью, то, значит, что на самом деле вы никогда не знали этого, вы просто верили в это.
Также, если так случилось, что вы имеете верное суждение, но вы не имеете никаких обоснований для этого суждения,
если вы случайно оказались правыми, что происходит временами, то это также не засчитывается за знание.
Поговорим об Эдмунде Геттьере. Он написал короткий, но невероятно влиятельный трактат, который перевернул
стандарты понимания "знания" с ног на голову.
Он сделал это предположив, что вы можете иметь обоснованное верное суждение, но не иметь знания об этом,
что в дальнейшем стало известно как случаи Геттьера.
Что приводит нас к еженедельной "Минутке Философии", давайте подумаем вместе с "Пузырём Мыслей".
Это один из оригинальных случаев проявления идеи Геттьера. Смит и Джонс, оба, претендуют на одну и ту же работу.
Президент компании сказал Смиту, что Джонс получит эту работу. Это считается доказательством, так как
Portuguese:
um amplo acordo do que seria definido por conhecimento - ou seja a crença verdadeira justificada.
Porque, você pode acreditar em qualquer coisa antiga, mas para saber de algo, só faz
sentido se você tiver evidência para sua crença, o que deve ser verdade.
Em outras palavras, você pode ter falsas crenças, mas não pode ter um falso conhecimento. E se algo que você pensou
saber acaba não sendo verdadeiro, então o fato é que você nunca soube realmente, você apenas acreditou
E, da mesma forma, você pode se segurar numa crença verdadeira, mas se você não tiver nenhuma justificativa,
se apenas, acidentalmente, estava certo, o que acontece às vezes - isso não conta como conhecimento também.
Introduzindo Edmundo Gettier. Gettier escreveu um curto mas fabuloso e influente artigo que
acabou virou o entendimento de "conhecimento" de cabeça pra baixo.
Ele fez isso propondo o que ficaram conhecidos como os Casos Gettier - situações nas quais
alguém pode ter crença verdadeira justificada, mas não conhecimento.
O que nos traz o Flash Philosophy dessa semana! Vamos para a Bolha de Pensamento.
Aqui está um dos Casos Gettier original. Smith e Jones se candidataram ao mesmo emprego.
O presidente da empresa disse ao Smith que Jones ia ficar com a vaga. Isso conta como evidência;
Vietnamese:
khá đồng tình với về định nghĩa của tri thức -- đó là niềm tin sự thật hợp lý.
Bởi vì, bạn có thể tin vào bất cứ thứ gì trước đó, nhưng để biết về thứ gì đó, nó chỉ có nghĩa
rằng bạn cũng phải có bằng chứng cho niềm tin của bạn và bằng chứng đó phải đúng. Nói cách khác
bạn có thể có niềm tin sai nhưng bạn không thể có tri thức sai. Và nếu có thứ gì đó
bạn nghĩ là bạn biết mà nó hóa ra không đúng, vậy thực tế là, bạn không hề thực sự biết, bạn chỉ tin nó.
Và cũng như thế, bạn có thể vô tình có niềm tin đúng, nhưng nếu như bạn không có bất cứ sự biện hộ nào cho nó, nếu như bạn
chỉ vô tình đúng, điều đôi lúc xảy ra - nó cũng không tính là tri thức.
Enter Edmund Gettier. Gettier đã viết một bài ngắn nhưng có ảnh hưởng khó tin làm cho
tiêu chuẩn của việc hiểu về tri thức bị đảo ngược lại.
Ông ấy làm điều này bằng cách đề xuất cái mà được biết đến như những tình thế Gettier -- những tường hợp mà
bạn có thể có niềm tin sự thật hợp lý nhưng không phải là tri thức.
Điều này đưa chúng ta đến Flash Philosophy tuần này! Hãy đến với Thought Bubble.
Đây là một trong những trường hợp Gettier gốc. Smith và Jones đều nộp đơn xin cùng một công việc.
Giám đốc của công ty nói với Smith là Jones sẽ nhận được việc. Đây được tính là bằng chứng
Turkish:
geniş bir şekilde bilginin tanımı konusunda hemfikirdiler -- gerekçelendirilmiş doğru inanç olduğuna.
Çünkü, her eski şeye inanabilirsiniz, ancak bir şeyi bilmek için, aynı zamanda
inancınız için kanıtınızın da olması gerekir, ve doğru olmalıdır. Başka bir değişle,
yanlış bir inanca sahip olabilirsiniz, ancak yanlış bir bilgiye sahip olamazsınız. Ve eğer bildiğinizi
düşündüğünüz bir şeyin doğru olmadığı ortaya çıkarsa, o zaman gerçek, onu hiç bilmediğiniz, sadece inandığınızdır.
Ve benzer şekilde, doğru bir inanca sahip olabilirsiniz, ancak hiç bir gerekçeye sahip olmayabilirsiniz, eğer
yanlışlıkla doğru olduysa, ki bazen olur - bu da bilgi olarak sayılmaz.
Giriş: Edmun Gettier. Gettier'in kısa ancak inanılmaz etkili bir makale yazması
standart bilgi anlayışının alt üst olmasına neden oldu.
Bunu Gettier durumları olarak da bilinen şeyi ileri sürerek yaptı - kişinin gerekçelendirilmiş
doğru inanca sahip olabileceği ancak bilgiye sahip olamayacağı durumlar.
Ki bu da bizi bu haftanın Flaş Felsefesi'ne götürür! Düşünce Balonu'na gidelim!
İşte Gettier'in orjinal durumlarından birisi. Smith ve Jones'un ikisi de aynı iş için başvurdular.
Şirketin müdürü Smith'e Jones'un işi alacağını söyledi. Bu kanıt olarak sayılır;
iw:
בהסכמה רחבה למדי לגבי ההגדרה של
ידע - שזה אמונה אמיתית מוצדקת.
בגלל, שאתה יכול להאמין לכל דבר ישן, אבל
כדי לדעת משהו, זה רק גורם
מובן זה שאתה גם חייב להיות ראיות
לאמונה שלך, וזה גם חייב להיות אמיתי.
במילים אחרות, אתה יכול לקבל אמונה שקרית, אבל אתה
לא יכול להיות בעל ידע שקרי. ואם משהו
שחשבת שאתה יודע מתברר כלא נכון, אז העובדה היא, שאתה אף פעם לא באמת ידעת את זה, רק האמנת לזה
וכמו כן, אתה יכול שיהיה לך אמונה אמיתית, אבל אם אין לך שום צדקה, אם אתה
רק בטעות קרה שאתה צודק, וזה קורה לפעמים - זה לא נחשב כמו ידע, גם.
זן אדמונד גטייר. גטייר כתב מקרה קצר
אבל נוגע שהפך את
ההבנה של הידע
מלמטה למעלה.
הוא עשה זאת על ידי הצעה של מה שנודע
כמו במקרים גטייר - מצבים שבהם אחד
יכול היה להצדיק אמונה אמיתית, אבל לא ידע.
מה שמביא אותנו אל הפילוסופיה הזריזה של השבוע!
בואו נלך אל בועת המחשבה.
הנה אחד מהמקרים המקוריים של גטייר.
סמית וג'ונס מנסים להתקבל לאותה עבודה
נשיא החברה אמר לסמית שג'ונס יקבל את העבודה. זה נחשב לראיה;
Estonian:
üldiselt nõus kehtiva teadmise definitsiooniga -- et see on õigustatud tõene uskumus.
Sest sa võid uskuda igat asja, aga selleks, et teada, tundub loogiline,
et sul peab ka olema tõestus oma uskumuse jaoks ja uskumus peab olema tõene. Teisisõnu
Sul võib olla vääraid uskumusi, aga sul ei saa olla vääraid teadmisi. Ja kui miski,
mida sa arvasid end teadvat osutub vääraks, siis sa tegelikult kunagi ei teadnud seda, sa lihtsalt uskusid seda.
Ning samuti sa võid omada tõest uskumust, aga kui sulk ei ole sellele mingeid tõendeid, kui
sul lihtsalt kogemata on õigus, mis ka mõnikord juhtub -- siis ei ole samuti tagamist teadmisega.
Siis tuli Edmund Gettier. Gettier kirjutas lühikese, aga ilmeliselt mõjuvõimsa artikli mis pööras
traditsioonilise arusaama teadmisest pea peale.
Ta tegi seda luues mõtteeksperimendi, mida meie tunneme kui Gettieri juhtumit -- olukord kus kellelgi
võib olla õigustatud tõene uskumus, aga mitte teadmist.
See toob meid selle nädalase Flash Filosoofia juurde. Läheme Mõttemulli.
Siin on üks Gettieri algsetest juhtumitest. Nii Smith kui ka Jones kandideerivad samale töökohale.
Firma president ütles Smithile, et Jones saab töö endale. Tee kõlbab tõestuseks --
Modern Greek (1453-):
ο πρόεδρος της εταιρίας φαίνεται να είναι μια αξιόπιστη πηγή αυτής της πληροφορίας.
Στο μεσοδιάστημα, ο Smith μετράει τα κέρματα στην τσέπη του Jones και βλέπει ότι υπάρχουν
δέκα κέρματα εκεί. Ο Smith τότε διαμορφώνει ένα πιστεύω, βασισμένο στο πρώτου προσώπου παρατηρητικό στοιχείο
των κερμάτων, όπως επίσης στην μαρτυρία του προέδρου της εταιρίας.
Πιστεύει ότι: Το άτομο που θα πάρει την δουλειά έχει 10 κέρματα στην τσέπη του.
Αλλά, αποδεικνύεται, ότι η μαρτυρία του προέδρου ήταν ψευδής, και ο Smith, όχι ο Jones, θα πάρει την δουλειά.
ΚΑΙ, συμβαίνει, εν αγνοία του Smith, να έχει και αυτός 10 κέρματα στην τσέπη του.
Οπότε, ο Smith έχει μια πίστη - ότι το πρόσωπο που θα πάρει την δουλειά έχει 10 κέρματα στην τσέπη του.
Και είναι αιτιολογημένη - διότι μέτρησε τα κέρματα του Jones και ο πρόεδρος του είπε
ότι ο Jones θα πάρει την δουλειά. Και η πίστη του αποδεικνύεται αληθής - το άτομο που
πήρε την δουλειά είχε όντως 10 κέρματα στην τσέπη του.
Εντούτοις, κανένα κομμάτι της αιτιολόγησης πραγματικά οδήγησε τον Smith στην σωστή απάντηση. Η μαρτυρία
του προέδρου ήταν ψευδής, και τα 10 κέρματα που είδε ήταν στην τσέπη του Jones, όχι στη δικιά του.
Οπότε φαίνεται ο Smith έτυχε να έχει δίκιο.
French:
le président de la compagnie semblerait être une source fiable pour cette information.
Entretemps, Smith compte les pièces dans la poche de Jones et voit qu’il y a
dix pièces dedans. Smith forme ensuite une croyance basée sur sa preuve d’observation personnelle
des pièces, ainsi que sur la déclaration du président de la compagnie.
Il vient à croire que : la personne qui obtient le poste a 10 pièces dans sa poche.
Mais, il s’avère que la déclaration du président était fausse, et c’est Smith, pas Jones, qui obtient le poste.
ET, il s’avère aussi sans que Smith le sache, qu’il a aussi 10 pièces dans sa poche.
Smith a donc une croyance – que la personne qui obtient le poste a 10 pièces dans sa poche.
Et cela est justifiée – parce qu’il a compté les pièces de Jones et que le président lui a dit que
Jones obtenait le poste. Et sa croyance s’est aussi avérée – la personne qui
a obtenu le poste avait bien 10 pièces dans sa poche.
Cependant, aucune justification n’a en réalité guidé Smith vers la bonne réponse. La déclaration
du président était fausse et les 10 pièces qu’il a vues étaient dans la poche de Jones, pas la sienne.
Il semble donc que Smith a simplement eu raison par chance.
Russian:
президент компании является самым надёжным источником информации в данном случае.
Тем временем Смит считает монеты в кармане Джонса и видит, что
там десять монет. Поэтому Смит формирует мнение, основанное на увиденных
монетах, также как и на свидетельстве со стороны президента компании.
Он приходит к выводу, что "человек, который получает работу, имеет 10 монет в кармане".
Но, оказывается, что свидетельство со стороны президента оказалось ложным, и Смит, не Джонс получает эту работу.
И, просто так случилось, неведомо для Смита, что он тоже имеет 10 монет в своём кармане.
Итак, Смит имел суждение о том, что тот, кто получает работу, имеет 10 монет в своём кармане.
И оно было обосновано, потому что он посчитал монеты в кармане Джонса, и президент компании сказал ему,
что Джонс получает эту работу. Соответственно, его суждение также оказалось верным, так как персона,
которая получила эту работу, имела в кармане ровно 10 монет.
Однако, ни одно из указанных обоснований, в действительности, не указало Смиту правильный ответ.
Свидетельство президента было неверным, и 10 монет, которые он (Смит) заметил, были в кармане Джонса, а не в его собственном.
Выходит, что Смиту просто повезло быть правым.
Turkish:
Şirketin müdürü bu bilgi için güvenilir bir kaynak olarak görülebilinir.
Bu sırada, Smith Jones'un cebindeki bozuk paraları sayar ve orada on bozuk para
olduğunu görür. Smith daha sonra bozuk paralardan birinci şahıs gözlemleriyle
edindiği kanıtlardan ve şirket müdürünün tanıklığına dayanarak bi inanç geliştirir
İşi alan kişinin cebinde 10 bozuk para olduğu inancına varır.
Ancak, müdürün tanıklığının yanlış olduğu ortaya çıkar, ve işi alanın Jones değil, Smith olduğu ortaya çıkar.
Ve, öyle ki, Smith'in haberi olmasa da, kendi cebinde de 10 bozuk para olduğu ortaya çıkar.
Yani, Smith'in cebinde 10 bozuk parası olan kişinin işi alacağına dair bir inancı vardır.
Ve gerekçelendirilmiştir - çünkü Jones'un bozuk paralarını saymış, ve müdür ona Jones'un
işi alacağını söylemiştir. Ve inancı aynı zamanda doğrudur da - işi alan kişinin
cebinde 10 bozuk para vardır.
Ne varki, gerekçelerin hiç biri Smith'i gerçekten de doğru cevaba yönlendirmedi. Müdür'ün
tanıklığı yanlıştı, ve Jones'un cebinde gördüğü 10 bozuk para, kendisinin değildi.
Yani öyle gözüküyor ki basitçe Smith doğru olmakta şanslıydı.
Portuguese:
o presidente da empresa seria uma fonte confiável com essa informação.
Enquanto isso, Smith conta as moedas no bolso de Jones e percebe que há
dez moedas. Smith então forma uma crença, baseado em sua evidência da observação em primeira pessoa
das moedas, e também no testemunho do presidente da empresa.
Ele passa a acreditar nisso: "A pessoa que que conseguiu o emprego tem 10 moedas no bolso"
Mas acontece que o testemunho do presidente era falso, e Smith, não Jones, é quem fica com a vaga.
E, por coincidência, sem Smith saber, ele também tinha 10 moedas em seu bolso.
Então, Smith tinha uma crença - que a pessoa que ficaria com a vaga tinha 10 moedas no bolso.
E que era justificada - porque ele contou as moedas no bolso de Jones, e o presidente disse a ele
que Jones ficaria com a vaga. E a crença dele também acabou sendo verdadeira - a pessoa
que ficou com a vaga tinha 10 moedas no bolso.
Entretanto, nenhuma parte das justificativas realmente apontaram Smith para a resposta certa. O testemunho
do presidente estava errado e as 10 moedas ele viu no bolso de Jones, não no dele.
Então parece que Smith deu sorte em estar certo.
English:
the president of the company would seem to be a reliable source of this information.
Meanwhile, Smith counts the coins
in Jones’ pocket and sees that there are
ten coins in there. Smith then forms a belief,
based on his first person observational evidence
of the coins, as well as the testimony of
the company president.
He comes to believe that: The person who gets
the job has 10 coins in his pocket.
But, it turns out, the testimony of the president
was false, and it’s Smith, not Jones, who gets the job.
AND, it just so happens, unbeknownst to Smith,
that he also has 10 coins in his own pocket.
So, Smith has a belief – that the person
who gets the job has 10 coins in his pocket.
And that is justified – because he counted
Jones’ coins, and the president told him
Jones was getting the job. And his belief
also turns out to be true – the person who
got the job did have 10 coins in his pocket.
However, neither pieces of justification actually
pointed Smith to the right answer. The president’s
testimony was wrong, and the 10 coins that
he saw were in Jones’ pocket, not his own.
So it seems Smith simply lucked into being
right.
Vietnamese:
vị giám đốc công ty này có vẻ như là nguồn tin đáng tin cậy.
Trong khi đó, Smith đến số đồng xu trong túi Jones và thấy có
10 xu trong đó. Smith sau đó hình thành nên niềm tin, dựa trên bằng chứng mà anh thấy
về đồng xu, cũng như là lời chứng của giám đốc công ty.
Anh ấy tin rằng: người nhận được việc sẽ có 10 xu trong túi.
Nhưng hóa ra, lời chứng của giám đốc là sai, và Smith chứ không phải Jones nhận được việc.
Và, nó xảy ra, mà Smith không biết, anh ấy cũng có 10 xu trong túi.
Vì thế, Smith có niềm tin rằng -- người nhận được việc sẽ có 10 xu trong túi.
Và điều này được chứng minh là đúng -- bởi vì anh ấy đếm xu của Jones, và giám đốc nói với anh ấy
là Jones sẽ nhận được việc. Và niềm tin của anh ấy hóa ra lại đúng- người nhận
được việc sẽ có 10 xu trong túi.
Tuy nhiên, cả hai sự biện hộ này đều không chỉ ra Smith có câu trả lời đúng. Lời chứng
của giám đốc là sai, và 10 xu anh ấy thấy trong túi Jones, chứ không phải túi anh ấy.
Vì vậy có vẻ như Smith chỉ đơn giản là may mắn đúng.
Dutch:
de voorzitter van het bewijs lijkt een betrouwbare bron te zijn voor deze informatie.
Ondertussen telt Smith de geldstukken in Jones's zak en ziet dat er
tien in zitten. Smith vormt dan een geloof, gebaseerd op zijn eerste persoon observationeel bewijs
van de geldstukken, evenals de getuigenis van de voorzitter van het bedrijf.
Hij komt tot het volgende geloof: de persoon die de job krijgt heeft 10 geldstukken in zijn zak.
Maar, zo blijkt, de getuigenis van de voorzitter was vals, en het is Smith, niet Jones, die de job krijgt.
EN, wat blijkt nu, zonder het te weten heeft ook Smith 10 geldstukken in zijn eigen zak.
Dus, Smith heeft een geloof - dat de persoon die de job krijgt 10 geldstukken in zijn zak heeft.
En dat is gerechtvaardigd - want hij telde Jones's geldstukken, en de voorzitter vertelde hem dat
Jones de job zou krijgen. En zijn geloof bleek ook waar te zijn - de persoon die
de job kreeg had inderdaad 10 geldstukken in zijn zak.
Geen van de bewijsstukken brachten Smith echter tot het juiste antwoord. De getuigenis van de voorzitter
was vals, en de 10 geldstukken die hij zag waren in Jones's zak, niet in zijn eigen.
Het lijkt dus dat Smith gewoon met een gelukje juist was.
Romanian:
președintele companiei pare a fi o sursă sigură de informații.
Între timp, Smith numără monedele din buzunarul lui Jones și observă că
sunt 10 monede. Smith apoi elaborează o convingere pe baza observației personale
asupra monedelor, dar și pe baza testimonialului președintelui companiei.
El ajunge să creadă că persoana care obține slujba are 10 monede în buzunar,
dar se pare că testimonialul președintelui era fals, deci Smith, nu Jones, a primit slujba.
Și, fără să știe asta măcar, Smith are și el 10 monede in buzunar.
Deci, Smith are o convingere - persoana care primește slujba are 10 monede în buzunar,
iar acest lucru este justificat, pentru că a numărat monedele lui Jones și președintele i-a spus că
Jones primise slujba. Această convingere se dovedește a fi adevărată - persoana care
a primit slujba avea 10 monede in buzunar.
Totuși, nicio motivație nu l-a condus pe Smith către răspunsul corect. Testimonialul
președintelui era fals, iar cele 10 monede pe care le-a văzut erau în buzunarul lui Jones, nu al lui.
Deci, se pare că Smith a fost norocos să aibă dreptate.
Estonian:
firma president paistab piisavalt usaldusväärne sellise informatsiooni allikas.
Samalajal Smith loeb üle sendid Jonesi taskus ja näeb, et
seal on kümme senti. Võttes arvesse oma vaatluse andmeid ja firma presidendi
tunnistust formuleerib Smith uskumuse.
Ta usub, et inimese, kes saab tööd, taskus on kümme senti.
Aga tuleb välja, et presidendi tunnistus osutub vääraks ja Smith, mitte Jones, saab töö.
JA juhtub nii, et Smithile teadmata on ka tema enese taskus kümme senti.
Seega, Smithil on uskumus, et inimese, kes saab töö, taskus on kümme senti.
Ja see on õigustatud -- sest ta luges üle sendid Jonesi taskus ja president ütles talle,
et Jones saab töö. Ning ta uskumus on ka tõene -- Inimese, kes saab töö,
taskus on kümme senti.
Aga ometi, kumbki õigustus ei suuna Smithi õige vastuse poole. Presidendi
tunnistus oli väär ja kümme senti, mida ta nägi, olid Jonesi taskus, mitte tema enda omas.
Sega paistab, et Smithil lihtsalt vedas.
Arabic:
رئيس الشركة يبدو كمصدر معتمد لهذه المعلومة.
في هذه الأثناء يحسب سميث كمية نقود جون، ويرى أن هناك 10 نقود
فاعتقد سميث -اعتمادا على دليل ملاحظته الشخصية من عد النقود-
اضافة إلى تصريح رئيس الشركة
وصل الى اعتقاد أن: الشخص الذي يحصل على الوظيفة لديه 10 نقود في جيبه
لكن، اتضح أن تصريح رئيس الشركة خاطئ، وأن سميث هو من حصل على الوظيفة وليس جون
وحدثت ودون علم سميث، أنه أيضا يملك 10 نقود في جيبه
لذا سميث يعتقد أن الشخص الذي يحصل على الوظيفة لديه 10 نقود في جيبه
وهذا مبرَّر- لأنه عدَّ نقود جون، عندما أخبره الرئيس أن جون هو من حصل على الوظيفة
واتضح أن اعتقاده صحيح -- الشخص الذي يحصل على الوظيفة يملك 10 نقود في جيبه
بالرغم من ذلك، التبريران لم يوجها سميث للاجابة الصحيحة
شهادة رئيس الشركة كانت خاطئة و الـ10 نقود التي رآها لم تكن ملكه
لذا يبدو أن سميث حالفه الحظ وكان محقا
iw:
נשיא החברה נראה בתור מקור אמין של מידע מסוג זה.
בינתיים, סמית סופר את המטבעות
בכיס של ג'ונס ורואה שיש
עשרה מטבעות שם. סמית מכך יוצר אמונה,
המבוססת על ראיות תצפיתיות
(על המטבעות), כמו גם את עדותו של
נשיא החברה.
הוא בא להאמין: שלמי שמקבל
את העבודה יש 10 מטבעות בכיסו.
אבל, מתברר, שעדותו של הנשיא
היתה שקר, וזה סמית, לא ג'ונס, שיקבל את התפקיד.
וגם, זה פשוט קרה, ללא ידיעה סמית,
שגם לו יש 10 מטבעות בכיסו.
אז, לסמית' יש אמונה - שהאדם
שמקבל את העבודה יש 10 מטבעות בכיסו.
וזה מוצדק - כי הוא ספר את
המטבעות של ג'ונס, והבוס אמר לו
שג'ונס היה מקבל את התפקיד. ואמונתו
גם התבררה כנכונה - למי
שקיבל את העבודה היו 10 מטבעות בכיסו.
אם זאת, כל פיסות ההצדקה למעשה
לא הראו לסמית את התשובה הנכונה.
העדות של הבוס הייתה שגויה, וה10 המטבעות
היו בכיס של ג'ונס, לא שלו.
אז נראה סמית פשוט שהתמזל מזלו להיות נכון.
Spanish:
el presidente de la compañía parecería una fuente fiable de información.
Mientras tanto, Smith cuenta las monedas en el bolsillo de Jones y ve que allí
hay diez monedas. Entonces Smith forma una creencia basado en la evidencia observacional en primera persona
de las monedas así como también el testimonio del presidente de la compañía.
Él cree que: La persona que tiene diez monedas en el bolsillo obtiene el trabajo.
Pero, resulta que el testimonio del presidente era falso y Smith, no Jones,es quien consigue el trabajo.
Y, justo pasa que, desconocido para Smith, él también tiene diez monedas en el bolsillo.
Así que Smith tiene una creencia - que la persona que obtiene el trabajo, tiene 10 monedas en su bolsillo.
Y eso está justificado porque contó las monedas de Jones y el presidente le dijo
que Jones iba a tener el trabajo. Y su creencia resulta ser verdad porque la persona que
obtuvo el trabajo tiene 10 monedas en su bolsillo.
Sin embargo, ninguna de las piezas de justificación en realidad apuntan a Smith como la respuesta correcta. El testimonio del
presidente era incorrecto y las 10 monedas que vio estaban en el bolsillo de Jones, no en el suyo.
Así que parece que Smith simplemente tuvo la suerte de estar en lo correcto.
Italian:
il presidente della società sembrerebbe essere una fonte affidabile per questa informazione.
Nel frattempo, Smith conta le monete nella tasca di Jones e vede che ci sono
dieci monete. Smith poi forma una convinzione, basata sulla sua evidenza osservativa di prima persona
delle monete, nonché sulla testimonianza del presidente della società.
Egli giunge a credere che: la persona che ottiene il lavoro ha 10 monete in tasca.
Ma, a quanto pare, la testimonianza del presidente era falsa, ed è Smith, no Jones, che ottiene il lavoro.
E, si dà il caso, all'insaputa di Smith, che anche lui abbia 10 monete nella sua tasca.
Quindi, Smith ha una convinzione – che la persona che ottiene il lavoro ha 10 monete in tasca.
E ciò è giustificato – in quanto ha contato le monete di Jones, e il presidente gli ha detto
che Jones avrebbe ottenuto il lavoro. E la sua convinzione risulta anche essere vera - la persona che
ha ottenuto il lavoro infatti aveva 10 monete in tasca.
Tuttavia, nessuno dei pezzi di giustificazione in realtà ha puntato Smith verso la risposta giusta. La testimonianza
del presidente era sbagliata, e le 10 monete che aveva visto erano nella tasca di Jones, non la propria.
Così sembra Smith abbia avuto ragione per pura fortuna.
Portuguese:
Gettier argumenta que agora temos um caso de crença verdadeira justificada que não é conhecimento.
E assinala, você não SABE algo se simplesmente tropeçou na resposta certa.
Obrigado Bolha de Pensamento, o mundo filosófico virou de ponta-cabeça com essa ideia, e os filósofos -
amando um contra-exemplo - começaram a fazer seus próprios Casos Gettier.
O filósofo americano Roderick Chisolm propôs esse
Olhando um campo, você vê um objeto que parece uma ovelha, e forma a crença
que "há uma ovelha no campo".
Mas acontece que o objeto é na verdade um cachorro.
Ainda assim, também há uma ovelha, escondida da visão por uma colina.
Então, você tem uma crença verdadeira justificada, mas a justificativa para sua crença - o objeto que viu
- não é uma ovelha. Você apenas deu sorte em estar certo.
Uma vez que você entende como isso funciona, é bem fácil fazer o seu próprio Caso Gettier.
E muitos filósofos hoje em dia acham que Gettier destruiu com sucesso a definição de conhecimento como "crença verdadeira justificada"
Mas mesmo a década de 60 parecendo há muito tempo atrás, lembre-se: filósofos estão
no ramo de ter debates milenares sobre as coisas. Então não se surpreenda
se o debate filosófico sobre isso ainda for furioso.
Mas se conhecimento não é uma crença verdadeira justificada... o que é???
Romanian:
Gettier a afirmat că acum avem un caz de convingere adevărată și justificată ce nu este cunoștință.
Așa cum a demonstrat, NU ȘTII ceva dacă pur și simplu ai dreptate din întâmplare.
Mulțumesc, Balonule cu Idei. Mediul filosofic a fost răsturnat de această idee, iar filosofii
- pentru că le place să contraargumenteze - au început să conceapă propriile probleme de tip Gettier.
Filosoful american Roderick Chisholm l-a propus pe acesta:
Uitându-te pe un câmp, vezi un lucru ce pare a fi o oaie, așa că îți formezi
convingerea că "o oaie este pe câmp".
Se pare însă că lucrul pe care l-ai văzut e de fapt un câine.
Totuși, pe câmp se află și o oaie, pe care nu o vezi din cauza unui deal,
deci ai o convingere adevărată și justificată, însă justificarea convingerii - lucrul pe care l-ai văzut -
nu este o oaie. Pur și simplu s-a întâmplat să ai dreptate.
Odată ce înțelegi cum merge, e destul de ușor să formulezi probleme de tip Gettier și singur.
Mulți filosofi din ziua de azi cred că Gettier a distrus cu succes definiția cunoașterii - convingere adevărată și justificată,
însă chiar dacă anii 60 par a fi o perioadă îndepărtată, ține minte că filosofilor
le place să aibă dezbateri care se întind pe milenii. Nu ar trebui să te surprindă
faptul că dezbaterea filosofică despre acest lucru este încă în desfășurare.
Dar din moment ce cunoașterea nu este o convingere adevărată și justificată, atunci... ce este?
Italian:
Gettier sosteneva che ora abbiamo un caso di convinzione vera giustificata che non è conoscenza.
Come ha sottolineato, non SAI qualcosa se ti sei semplicemente imbattuto nella risposta giusta.
Grazie Bolla del Pensiero; il mondo filosofico è stato stravolto da questa idea, e filosofi
– amando un buon controesempio – hanno cominciato a generare i propri casi di Gettier.
Il filosofo americano Roderick Chisholm propose questo:
Guardando attraverso un campo, vedi un oggetto che assomiglia ad una pecora, e formi la
convinzione che «c'è una pecora nel campo».
Salta fuori che l'oggetto che vedi è in realtà un cane.
Tuttavia, c'è anche una pecora, oscurata alla tua visione da una collina.
Quindi, hai una convinzione vera giustificata, ma la giustificazione per la tua convinzione – l'oggetto
che hai visto – non è una pecora. Hai solo avuto un colpo di fortuna di aver ragione.
Una volta capito come funziona, è abbastanza facile generare casi di Gettier da te.
E molti filosofi oggi pensano che Gettier abbia distrutto con successo la definizione di «convinzione vera giustificata» della conoscenza.
Ma anche se gli anni 60 potrebbero sembrare tanto tempo fa per te, ricorda: i filosofi sono
pronti ad avere dibattiti lunghi millenni sulle cose. Quindi non ti dovrebbe sorprendere
che il dibattito filosofico su questo sia ancora accanito.
Ma se la conoscenza non convinzione vera giustificata, allora... cooos'è?
Vietnamese:
Gettier tranh luận rằng bây giờ chúng ta đã có một trường hợp niềm tin đúng hợp lý mà không phải là tri thức.
Như ông ấy chỉ ra, bạn không biết thứ gì gì đó nếu bạn chỉ vô tình có câu trả lời đúng
Cám ơn Thought Bubble, thế giới triết học bị đảo lộn bởi ý tưởng này, và các nhà triết gia
- những người thích một ví dụ ngược- bắt đầu tạo ra những trường hợp Gettier của bản thân họ.
Nhà triết gia người Mỹ Roderick Chisholm đề xuất ví dụ sau:
Nhìn ra cánh đồng, bạn thấy một vật giống như con cừu, và bạn hình thành một niềm tin
là " có một con cừu trên cánh đồng".
Hóa ra vật thể bạn thấy trên cánh đồng thực sự là một con chó.
Trong khi đó, cũng có một con cừu, khuất tầm nhìn của bạn bởi cái đồi.
Vì vậy, bạn có một niềm tin đúng hợp lý, nhưng sự biện hộ cho niềm tin của bạn -- vật thể
mà bạn thấy-- không phải là con cừu. Bạn chỉ may mắn đúng thôi.
Một khi bạn hiểu được cách vận hành của nó, bạn có thể dễ dàng tạo ra những trường hợp Gettier cho bản thân bạn.
Và nhiều nhà triết gia ngày nay cho rằng Gettier đã phá hủy định nghĩa của tri thức "niềm tin đúng hợp lý" một cách thành công.
Nhưng thậm chí những năm 1960 có vẻ xa xôi với bạn, hãy nhớ: những nhà triết gia
đang trong cuộc tranh luận kéo dài ngàn năm về các vấn đề. Nên bạn không có gì ngạc nhiên
khi cuộc tranh luận về vấn đề này vẫn còn dữ dội.
Nhưng nếu tri thứ không phải là niềm tin đúng hợp lý vậy.. nó là gì?
Spanish:
Gettier argumentó que ahora tenemos un caso de creencia verdadera justificada que no es conocimiento.
Como él señaló, no SABES algo si simplemente caíste en la respuesta correcta.
Gracias Burbuja del Pensamiento, el mundo filosófico se dio vuelta por esta idea y los filósofos
- amantes de un buen contra ejemplo - comenzaron a generar sus propios casos de Gettier.
El filósofo americano Roderick Chisholm propuso esta:
Mirando a través de un campo ves un objeto que se parece a una oveja y formas la
creencia de que "hay una oveja en el campo".
Resulta que el objeto que estas observando es en realidad un perro.
Sin embargo también hay una oveja, oculta de tu visión por una montaña.
Tienes una creencia verdadera justificada pero la justificación para tu creencia - el objeto
que tu viste - no es una oveja. Solo tuviste la suerte de estar en lo correcto.
Una vez que entiendes como funciona, es bastante fácil generar casos de Gettier propios.
Y muchos filósofos hoy piensan que Gettier triunfantemente destruyó la definición de conocimiento "creencia verdadera justificada".
Pero aunque 1960 te parezca mucho tiempo atrás, recuerda: los filósofos están en
el negocio de tenes debates sobre cosas que duran un milenio. Así que no debería sorprenderte
que el debate filosófico sobre esto todavía oscila.
Pero si el conocimiento no es una creencia verdadera justificada entonces ¿queee es?
Arabic:
ناقش جيتر أنه لدينا الآن حالة من الاعتقاد الصحيح المبَّررالذي لا يعد معرفةً.
كما أشار إلى أنك لا تعرف شيئا إذا كنت ببساطة صادفت الإجابة الصحيحة.
شكرًا فقاعة الفكر، انقلب العالم الفلسفي رأسا على عقب بهذه الفكرة
والفلاسفة المحبين للمتضادات -بدأوا- بخلق حالات جيتر الخاصة بهم
افترض الفيلسوف الأمريكي رودريك شيسهولم أنه:
أنظر عبر الحقل، تشاهد شيئا ما يشبه الخروف، فتعتقد أن:
"هناك خروف في الحقل"
اتضح لاحقا أن ذلك الشيء الذي تراه هو في الواقع كلب.
لكن لا زال هناك خروفا، متواري عن نظرك خلف التل
إذن أنت بررت اعتقادًا صحيحًا، لكن التبرير لاعتقادك
- الشيء الذي رأيته - ليس خروفا. فقط حالفك الحظ بأن تكون محقا.
حالما تفهم كيف تعمل، سيكون من السهل أن تنتج حالات جيتر بنفسك.
يعتقد الكثير من الفلاسفة أن جيتر فعلا استطاع تدمير تعريف المعرفة بصفتها اعتقادًا صحيحًا مبررًا
لكن رغم ذلك، فد تكون ستينات القرن الماضي بعيدة في وجهة نظرك، تذكر:
عمل الفلاسفة هو المناظرة على الأشياء لآلاف السنين، فلا يفاجئك
أن النقاشات الفلسفية حول هذا لا زالت قائمة
لكن إذا لم تكن المعرفة هي اعتقاد صحيح مبرر، فماذا تكون؟
French:
Gettier a soutenu qu’on a maintenant un cas de croyance vraie justifiée qui n’est pas de la connaissance.
Comme il le soulignait, on ne SAIT pas quelque chose si on tombe simplement sur la bonne réponse.
Merci Thought Bubble, le monde philosophique a été chamboulé par cette idée, et les philosophes
– qui adorent les contrexemples – ont commencé à générer leurs propres problèmes de Gettier.
Le philosophe américain Roderick Chisholm a proposé celui-ci :
En regardant à travers un champ, vous voyez une chose qui ressemble à un mouton, et vous formez la
croyance qu’« il y a un mouton dans le champ ».
Il s’avère que la chose que vous voyez est en fait un chien.
Pourtant, il y a aussi un mouton, caché de votre vue par une colline.
Vous avez donc une croyance vraie justifiée, mais la justification de votre croyance – la chose
que vous avez vue – n’est pas un mouton. Vous avez juste eu raison par chance.
Une fois qu’on a compris comment ça marche, c’est assez facile de générer soi-même des cas de Gettier.
Et beaucoup de philosophes pensent aujourd’hui que Gettier a détruit avec succès la définition « croyance vraie justifiée » de la connaissance.
Mais même si les années 1960 peuvent vous sembler lointaines, rappelez-vous : les philosophes ont comme occupation
des débats de plusieurs millénaires sur les choses. Ça ne devrait donc pas vous surprendre
que le débat philosophique sur ceci fait encore rage.
Mais si la connaissance n’est pas une croyance vraie justifiée, alors... c’est quoi ?
Modern Greek (1453-):
Ο Gettier ισχυρίστηκε ότι τώρα έχουμε μια περίπτωση αιτιολογημένης αληθής πίστης η οποία δεν είναι γνώση.
Όπως επισήμανε, δεν ΓΝΩΡΙΖΕΙΣ κάτι αν απλά σκόνταψες στην σωστή απάντηση.
Ευχαριστούμε Φυσαλίδα της Σκέψης, ο φιλοσοφικός κόσμος αναποδογύρισε με αυτή την ιδέα, και οι φιλόσοφοι
- αγαπώντας ένα καλό αντεπιχείρημα- άρχισαν να δημιουργούν τις δικές τους υποθέσεις Gettier.
Ο Αμερικανός φιλόσοφος Roderick Chisholm πρότεινε αυτή:
Κοιτώντας ένα λιβάδι, βλέπεις ένα αντικείμενο που μοιάζει με αρνί, και σχηματίζεις
της άποψη ότι "υπάρχει ένα αρνί στο λιβάδι".
Αποδεικνύεται ότι το αντικείμενο που βλέπεις είναι στην πραγματικότητα ένα σκυλί.
Όμως, υπάρχει ένα αρνί, κρυμμένο από την θέα σου από έναν λόφο.
Επομένως, έχεις μια αιτιολογημένη αληθής πίστη, αλλά η αιτιολόγηση της πίστης σου - το αντικείμενο
που έβλεπες - δεν είναι ένα αρνί. Απλά έτυχε να έχεις δίκιο.
Μόλις καταλάβετε πώς λειτουργεί, είναι αρκετά εύκολο να δημιουργήσετε δικές σας υποθέσεις Gettier.
Και πολλού φιλόσοφοι σήμερα πιστεύουν ότι ο Gettier επιτυχώς κατέστρεψε τον "αιτιολογημένη αληθής πίστη" ορισμό της γνώσης.
Αλλά ακόμα και αν τα 1960 σας φαίνονται μακρινά, θυμηθείτε: οι φιλόσοφοι είναι
στην δουλειά του να έχουν διαλόγους χιλιετιών για πράγματα. Οπότε δεν θα έπρεπε να σας εκπλήσσει
το ότι ο φιλοσοφικός διάλογος για αυτό ακόμα διευθετείται.
Αλλά αν η γνώση δεν είναι αιτιολογημένη αληθής πίστη τότε... τιιι είναι;
Turkish:
Böylece Gettier gerekçelendirilmiş doğru inancın bilgi olmadığı bir sorunumuzun olduğunu savundu.
Gösterdiği gibi, eğer yanlışlıkla doğru cevaba ulaşırsanız bir şeyi bilmiyorsunuzdur.
Teşekkürler Düşünce Balonu, felsefi dünya bu fikirle baş aşağı döndü, ve
karşıt örnekleri seven filozoflar kendi Gettier durumlarını oluşturmaya başladılar.
Amerikan filozof Roderick Chrisholm şunu önerdi:
Bir alana karşıdan bakarken, kuzu gibi görünen bir nesne görüyorsunuz, ve
"oradaki alanda bir kuzu" var inancını oluşturuyorsunuz.
Gördüğünüz nesnenin aslında bir köpek olduğu ortaya çıkıyor.
Yine de, bir tepe aracılığıyla görüş açınızdan gizlenmiş bir kuzu da vardır.
Yani, gerekçelendirilmiş doğru inanca sahipsiniz, ancak inancınızın gerekçesi -- gördüğünüz
nesne -- bir kuzu değil. Sadece şansınız yaver gitti.
Nasıl çalıştığını bir kez anladığınızda, kendi Gettier durumlarınızı üretmek oldukça kolaydır.
Ve bugünün çoğu filozofu Gettier'in bilginin "gerekçelendirilmiş doğru inanç" tanımını başarılı bir şekilde yok ettiğini düşünür.
Ancak 1960'larda bile, size uzun zaman önceymiş gibi gözükebilir, hatırlayın: filozoflar
şeyler hakkında bin yıllık tartışmaların içerisindeydiler. Yani bunun hakkındaki
felsefi tartışmanın hala köpürmesi sizi şaşırtmasın.
Ama eğer bilgi gerekçelendirilmiş doğru inanç değil ise... nedir?
Russian:
Геттьер утверждал, что в данном случае мы имеем обоснованное подтверждённое суждение, но не знание.
Как он отметил, вы не знаете ничего, если вы просто натолкнулись на правильный ответ.
Спасибо "Пузырю Мыслей". Мир философии был перевёрнут сверху вниз благодаря этой идее, и философы,
любители хороших контрпримеров, начали придумывать свои "примеры Геттьера" .
Американский философ Родерик Чизем предложил следующий.
Глядя на поле, вы видите объект, который выглядит как овечка, и вы формируете
мнение, что "это овечка в поле".
Однако оказывается, что объект, который вы видите, - это собака.
Хотя, на поле есть овечка, спрятанная от вашего взгляда за холмом.
Итак, у вас есть подтверждённое верное суждение, но обоснование вашего верования, объект,
который вы видите, не является собакой. Вам просто повезло оказаться правым.
Когда вы понимаете, как это работает, то становится очень легко самостоятельно генерировать "случаи Геттьера".
И сейчас, многие философы думают, что Геттьер успешно разрушил "обоснованное верное суждение" в качестве определения знания.
Но, даже если 60-ые кажутся вам довольно далёкими, помните, философы находятся
в процессе споров о чём угодно тысячелетиями. Поэтому вас не должно удивлять,
что философские дебаты по нашей теме всё ещё бушуют.
Но, если знание не является "обоснованным верным суждением", то.... чтоооо же это?
English:
Gettier argued that we now have a case of
justified true belief that is not knowledge.
As he pointed out, you don’t KNOW something
if you simply stumbled into the right answer.
Thanks Thought Bubble, the philosophical world
was turned upside down by this idea, and philosophers
– loving a good counterexample – began
generating their own Gettier cases.
American philosopher Roderick Chisholm proposed
this one:
Looking across a field, you see an object
that looks like a sheep, and you form the
belief that “there is a sheep in the field.”
It turns out that the object you see is actually
a dog.
Yet, there is also a sheep, obscured from
your vision by a hill.
So, you have a justified true belief, but
the justification for your belief -- the object
that you saw – is not a sheep. You just
lucked into being right.
Once you understand how it works, it’s pretty
easy to generate Gettier cases of your own.
And many philosophers today think that Gettier successfully destroyed the “justified true belief” definition of knowledge.
But even though the 1960s might seem long
ago to you, remember: philosophers are in
the business of having millennia-long debates
about stuff. So it shouldn’t surprise you
that the philosophical debate about this is
still a-raging.
But if knowledge is not justified true belief,
then…whaaat is it?
Estonian:
Gettier väitis, et antud olukorras on meil juhtum kus õigustatud tõene uskumus ei ole teadmine.
Ja ta väitis et sa ei TEA midagi, kui sa kogemata pakud õige vastuse.
Aitäh, Mõttemull! Filosoofiline maailm pöörati selle ideega peapeale ja filosoofid
-- kes armastavad häid vastuargumente -- lõid ka oma Gettieri juhtumeid.
Ameerika filosoof Roderick Chisholm pakkus välja sellise:
Sa vaatad üle nurme ja näed objekti, mis paistab nagu lammas, ning sa moodustad
uskumuse "Nurmel on lammas"
Aga tuleb välja, et objekt mida sa näed, on tegelikult koer.
Aga seal on ka lammas, keda sa ei näe, sest ta jääb künka taha.
Sul on õigustatud tõene uskumus, aga õigustus sinu uskumusele -- objekt
mida sa nägid -- ei ole lammas. Sul lihtsalt vedas.
Kui sa mõistad kuidas see töötab, on üsna lihtne ka ise Gettieri juhtumeid luua.
Ja paljud tänapäeva filosoofid usuvad, et Gettier hävitas edukalt teadmise definitsiooni -- õigustatud tõene uskumus.
Aga isegi kui 1960. aastate keskpaik oli ammu, siis pea meeles, filosoofidel on
kombeks pidada tuhandeid aastaid kestvaid vaidlusi. Seega ei tohiks sind üllatada,
et filosoofilised debatid sellel teemal on endiselt tulised.
Aga kui teadmine ei ole õigustatud tõene uskumus ... siis mis see on?
iw:
גטייר טען כי עכשיו יש לנו מקרה של
אמונה אמיתית מוצדקת שהיא אינה ידע.
כפי שציין, אתה לא יודע משהו
אם אתה פשוט מועד לתוך התשובה הנכונה.
תודה בועת המחשבה, העולם הפילוסופי
התהפך על ידי רעיון זה, ופילוסופים
- אוהבים דוגמה נגדית טובה - החלו
ליצור מקרי גייטר משלהם.
הפילוסוף האמריקאי רודריק צ'יזהולם
הציע את זה:
במבט על פני שדה, אתה רואה אובייקט
שנראה כמו כבשה, ואתה מייצר את
האמונה כי "יש כבשה בתחום".
מתברר כי האובייקט שאתה רואה הוא בעצם
כלב.
למרות זאת, יש גם כבשה, הנסתרת מעיניך
על ידי גבעה.
אז, יש לך אמונה אמיתית מוצדקת, אבל
הצדקת האמונה שלך - האובייקט
שראית - הוא לא כבשה. אתה פשוט
התמזלת להיות צודק.
ברגע שאתה מבין איך זה עובד, זה די
קל ליצור מקרי גייטר משלך.
ורבי פילוסופים היום חושבים שגייטר הצליח להרוס את הגדרת ה"אמונה נכונה מוצדקת" של ידע.
אבל למרות ששנות ה -1960 אולי נראים
לך לפני הרבה זמן, זכור: פילוסופים נמצאים
בעובודות שיש להם ויכוחים ארוכים מלפני אלפי שנים
על דברים. אז זה לא אמור להפתיע אותך
כי הדיון הפילוסופי על זה
עדיין משתולל.
אבל אם ידע אינו אמונה אמיתית מוצדקת,
אז ... ממממה זה?
Dutch:
Gettier argumenteerde dat we nu een geval hebben van een gerechtvaardigde ware overtuiging die geen kennis is.
Zoals hij aantoonde, je WEET iets niet als je simpelweg toevallig op het correcte antwoord stuit.
Bedankt Thought Bubble! De filosofische wereld werd op z'n kop gezet door dit idee, en filosofen
- die houden van een goed tegenvoorbeeld - begonnen met hun eigen Gettier gevallen op de proppen te komen.
De Amerikaanse filosoof Roderick Chrisholm stelde deze voor:
Kijkend over een veld, zie je een object dat eruitziet als een schaap, en je vormt de
overtuiging dat "er een schaap in het veld is."
Het blijkt uiteindelijk dat het object dat je ziet eigenlijk een hond is.
Er is echter ook een schaap, verborgen uit het zicht door een heuvel.
Dus, je hebt een gerechtvaardigde ware overtuiging, maar de rechtvaardiging voor je overtuiging - het object
dat je zag - is geen schaap. Je had het gewoon met een gelukje bij het rechte eind.
Eens je begrijpt hoe het werkt, is het vrij eenvoudig om je eigen Gettier cases uit te vinden.
En vele filosofen menen vandaag de dag dat Gettier met succes de "gerechtvaardigde ware overtuiging" definitie van kennis aan diggelen sloeg.
Maar zelfs als de jaren '60 misschien lang geleden lijken voor jou, herinner je dat filosofen
millenia-lange debatten hebben over dingen. Het zou je dus niet mogen verbazen
dat het filosofisch debat hierover nog steeds volop woedt.
Maar als kennis niet gerechtvaardigde ware overtuiging is... wat is het dan wel?
Modern Greek (1453-):
Την επόμενη φορά, θα κοιτάξουμε μια πιθανή απάντηση.
Στο μεταξύ, μάθατε για κάποιες έννοιες κλειδιά που χρησιμοποιούμε όταν συζητάμε τα πιστεύω
και την γνώση. Μάθατε τι καθορίζει έναν ισχυρισμό και μια δήλωση, και ότι η πίστη
είναι ένα είδος δηλωτικής διάθεσης. Μάθαμε επίσης για είδη αιτιολόγησης και τον
παραδοσιακό ορισμό της γνώσης, τον οποίο ο Edmund Gettier μπέρδεψε τελείως, χρησιμοποιώντας τις υποθέσεις Gettier.
Και η γάτα δεν κατούρησε στο γραφείο μου! Διότι η γάτα ήταν ανίκανη να περάσει χρόνο
πάνω στο γραφείο μου. Οπότε αποδεικνύεται ότι ο ισχυρισμός που έκανα ήταν ψευδής.
Αλλά είναι ένας αληθής ισχυρισμός ότι το επεισόδιο αυτό χορηγήθηκε από το Squarespace. Το Squarespace
σε βοηθά να δημιουργήσεις ιστοσελίδες, μπλογκ και διαδικτυακά καταστήματα για εσένα και τις ιδέες σου. Οι ιστοσελίδες φαίνονται
σχεδιασμένες επαγγελματικά άσχετα με το επίπεδο δεξιοτήτων, δεν απαιτείτε προγραμματισμός. Δοκιμάστε το Squarespace
στο squarespace.com/crashcourse για μια ειδική προσφορά.
Το crash course φιλοσοφίας δημιουργείται σε συνεργασία με τα PBS Digital Studios. Μπορείτε να κατευθυνθείτε
στο κανάλι τους για να δείτε καταπληκτικά σόου όπως τα Game/Show, The Chatterbox, και Physics Girl.
Αυτό το επεισόδιο Crash Course γυρίστηκε στο Crash Course Studio του Doctor Cheryl C. Kinney
Italian:
La prossima volta, vedremo una possibile risposta.
Nel frattempo, hai imparato alcuni concetti chiave che usiamo quando si parliamo di convinzioni
e conoscenza. Hai imparato cosa definisce un'asserzione ed una proposizione, e che una convinzione
è un tipo di atteggiamento proposizionale. Abbamo anche imparato a conoscere le forme di giustificazione e
la definizione tradizionale di conoscenza, che Edmund Gettier ha scombussolato, usando i suoi casi di Gettier.
E il gatto non ha fatto pipì sulla mia scrivania! Perché il gatto non è stato in grado di passare alcun tempo
sulla mia scrivania. Così salta fuori che l'affermazione che ho fatto era falsa.
Ma è una vera affermazione che questo episodio è stato offerto da Squarespace. Squarespace
aiuta a creare siti web, blog o negozi in linea per voi e le vostre idee. I siti web sembrano
progettati professionalmente indipendentemente dal livello di abilità, senza bisogno di programmare. Prova Squarespace
a squarespace.com/crashcourse per un'offerta speciale.
Crash Course Philosophy è prodotto in associazione con PBS Digital Studios. Puoi dirigerti
verso il loro canale per dare un'occhiata a spettacoli sorprendenti come Game/Show, The Chatterbox, e Physics Girl
Questo episodio di Crash Course è stato girato nel Doctor Cheryl C. Kinney Crash Course Studio
Portuguese:
Na próxima nós veremos algumas respostas possíveis.
Nesse meio tempo, você aprendeu sobre alguns conceitos chave que usamos quando discutimos crenças
e conhecimento. Aprendeu o que define uma assertiva e uma proposição, e que crença
é um tipo de atitude proposicional. Também aprendemos sobre formas de justificativa e
a definição tradicional de conhecimento, o que Edmund Gettier bagunçou bastante com seus Casos Gettier.
E o gato não fez xixi na minha mesa! Porque o gato não ficou tempo suficiente
na minha mesa. Então a assertiva que eu fiz era falsa.
Mas é uma assertiva verdadeira que este episódio é oferecido a você por Squarespace.
Squarespace ajuda a criar websites, blogs e lojas online para você e suas ideias. Os sites são
desenvolvidos profissionalmente, independente do nível de habilidade, não é necessário saber encodar.
Experimente Squarespace em squarespace.com/crashcourse para uma oferta especial.
Crash Course Philosophy é produzido em associação com PBS Digital Studios. Você pode dar uma
olhada nos canais e ver outros programas incríveis como Game/Show, The Chatterbox and Physics Girl.
Este episódio de Crash Course foi filmado no Estúdio Crash Course Dra Cheryl C. Kinney
Vietnamese:
Lần tới chúng ta sẽ xem xét một đáp án nữa.
Vừa rồi, bạn được tìm hiểu về một số khái niệm chính mà chúng ta dùng khi bàn về niềm tin
và tri thức. Bạn tìm hiểu về định nghĩa của sự khẳng định và mệnh đề, và niềm tin
là một loại thái độ mệnh đề. Chúng ta cũng tìm hiểu về dạng biện hộ và
định nghĩa truyền thống của tri thức, cái mà Edmund Gettier hoàn toàn không tán thành bằng cách sử dụng trường hợp Gettier.
Và con mèo không tè lên bàn của tôi. Bởi vì con mèo không hề có thời gian
nằm trên bàn của tôi nữa. Thế hóa ra khẳng định của tôi là sai.
Nhưng khẳng định tập này được tài trợ bởi Squarespace là đúng. Squarespace
giúp bạn tạo trang web, blog hoặc của hàng online cho bạn và cho ý tưởng của bạn. Những trang web chuyên nghiệp được tạo ra
bất kể trình độ nào, không bắt buộc mã. Hãy ghé thăm Squarespace tại
squarespace.com/crashcouse để nhận được những ưu đãi đặc biệt.
Crash Course Philosophy được hợp tác sản xuất với PBS Digital Studio. Bạn có thể đến với
kênh của họ để xem những chương trình tuyệt vời như Game/Show, The Chatterbox, and Physics Girl
Tập này được quay phim ở Doctor Cheryl C. Kinney Crash Course Studio
Estonian:
Järgmisel korral me vaatame ühte võimalikku vastust.
Aga vahepeal, sa õppisid mõned võtme-terminid mida kasutada, kui arutad uskumusi
ja teadmisi. Sa õppisid kuidas defineerida väidet ja propositsiooni ja et uskumus
on propositsiooniline hoiak. Samuti me õppisime erinevate õigustamise vormide kohta ja
traditsioonilist teadmise definitsiooni, mille Edmund Gettier täielikult lõhkus, kasutades selleks Gettieri juhtumit.
Ja kass ei urineerinud mu lauale! Sest kass oi olnud võimeline veetma minu laual
märkimisväärset aega. Ja seega tuleb välja ei minu väide on väär.
Aga selle episoodi tõesed väited tõi sinuni Squarespace. Scuarespace
aitab luua veebilehti, blogisid ja veebi poode sulle ja sinu ideedele. Veebilehed näevad välja
professionaalsed, sõltumata sinu oskustest ja programmeerimist ei ole vaja. Proovi Squarespace'i
aadressil squarespace.com/crashcourse
et sada osa eripakkumisest.
Crash Course Filosoofia on todetud koostöös PBS Digital Studios. Sa võid külastada nende kanalit
ja vaadata mõnda suurepärast esitlust nagu Game/Show, The Chatterbox ja Physics Girl.
See Crash course'i episood filmiti
Doctor Cheryl C. Kinney Crash Course Studio's
Dutch:
Volgende keer zullen we een mogelijk antwoord bekijken.
In de tussentijd heb je enkele van de sleutelconcepten geleerd die we gebruiken wanneer we geloof
en kennis bespreken. Je leerde wat een bewering en een propositie definiëren, en dat geloof
een soort propositionele attitude is. We hebben ook geleerd over vormen van rechtvaardiging en de
traditionele definitie van kennis, die Edmund Gettier totaal aan het wankelen bracht met behulp van zjn Gettier gevallen.
En de kat heeft niet op m'n bureau geplast! Want de kat was niet in staat om enige tijd
op mijn bureau door te brengen. Blijkt dat de bewering die ik maakte vals was.
Het is echter wel een ware bewering dat deze aflevering je aangeboden werd door Squarespace. Squarespace
helpt je om websites, blogs of webwinkels te creëren voor jou en je ideeën. Websites zien er
professioneel ontworpen uit ongeacht je vaardigheden, geen programmeren vereist. Probeer Squarespace
via squarespace.com/crashcourse voor een speciale aanbieding.
Crash Course Filosofie wordt geproduceerd in samenwerking met PBS Digital Studios. Je kan een kijkje nemen
op hun kanaal voor geweldige shows als Game/Show, The Chatterbox, en Physics Girl.
Deze aflevering van Crash Course werd gefilmd in de Doctor Cheryl C. Kinney Crash Course Studio
Russian:
В следующем эпизоде мы рассмотрим один из возможных ответов.
Между тем, вы узнали несколько концептов, которые мы используем для обсуждения веры
и знания. Вы изучили, что такое утверждение и предположение, и, что вера
- это всего-лишь вид субъективного суждения. Мы также изучили формы обоснований и
традиционное определение знания, которое Эдмун Геттьер полностью разрушил, используя свои примеры.
И да, кот не написал на мой стол! Потому что кот не мог провести столько времени
на моём столе. Значит моё утверждение насчёт этого оказалось неверным.
Но это абсолютно верное утверждение, что этот эпизод был подготовлен для вас при поддержке Squarespace.
Squarespace помогает создавать сайты, блоги или онлайн магазины для вас и ваших идей. Веб-сайты выглядят
профессионально, в независимости от ваших знаний в программировании. Заходите на
https://www.squarespace.com/crashcourse за специальным предложением.
"Краткий Курс Философии" произведён совместно с PBS Digital Studios. Вы можете зайти
на их канал, чтобы оценить невероятные шоу, такие как Game/Show, The Chatterbox, and Physics Girl.
Этот эпизод "Краткого Курса" был отснят в Doctor Cheryl C. Kinney Crash Course студии
Turkish:
Bir sonraki sefer, olası bir cevaba bakacağız.
Ve bu sırada, inanç ve bilgi hakkında tartışırken bazı ana kavramları öğrendiniz.
Bir iddiayı ve önermeyi neyin tanımladığını, ve inancın
bir çeşit önermesel tutum olduğunu öğrendiniz. Aynı zamanda gerekçenin biçimlerini ve
bilginin geleneksel tanımını öğrendik, ki Edmund Gettier kendi Gettier durumlarını kullanarak alt üst etmişti.
Ve kedi masama işemedi! Çünkü tüm bu zaman boyunca masamda zaman geçirmek
elinden gelmiyordu. Yani yaptığım iddianın yanlış olduğu ortaya çıktı.
Ancak bu bölümün size Squarespace tarafından sağlandığı doğru bir iddia.
Squarespace, web sitesi, blog veya çevrimiçi mağaza ve fikirlerinizi üretmek için bir yoldur. Programlama
ya da yetenek seviyesi gerektirmeksizin profesyönelce tasarlanmış siteler.
squarespace.com/crashcourse sitesinden özel bir teklile deneyebilirsiniz.
Crash Course felsefe PBS Digital studios ortaklığıyla üretilir. Onların kanalına
gidip Game/Show, The Chatterbox ve Physics Girl. gibi muhteşem şovları inceleyebilirsiniz.
Crash Course"un bu bölümü Doktor Cheryl C. Kinney Crash Course Studio'da çekilmiştir.
Spanish:
La próxima vez, veremos a una posible respuesta.
Mientras tanto aprendiste sobre los conceptos clave que usamos cuando discutimos creencia
y conocimiento. Aprendiste que define a una afirmación y a un conocimiento y que la creencia
es un tipo de actitud proposicional. También aprendimos sobre formas de justificación y la
tradicional definición de conocimiento con la que Gattier totalmente jugó usando los casos de Gettier.
¡Y el gato no meó en mi escritorio! Porque el gato era incapaz de estar más tiempo
en mi escritorio. Así que resulta que la afirmación que hice era falsa.
Peor es una afirmación falsa que este episodio fue traído a ti por Squarespace. Squarespace
te ayuda a crear sitios web, blogs, o tiendas online para ti y tus ideas. Los sitios web se ver
diseñados profesionalmente sin importar el nivel de habilidad, no se requiere codificación. Prueba Squarespace
en squarespace.com/crashcouse para una oferta especial.
Crash Course Filosofía es producido en asociación con PBS Digital Studios. Puedes ir a su
canal y ver show increíbles como Game/Show, The Chatterbox, y Physics Girl
Este episodio de Crash Couse fue filmado en el Doctor Cheryl C. Kinney Crash Course Studio
iw:
בפעם הבאה, נבחן תשובה אפשרית אחת.
בינתיים, למדת חלק
ממושגי המפתח שאנו משתמשים כאשר דנים על אמונה
וידע. למדת מה מגדיר
ביטוי טענה והצעה, ואמונה
זה סוג של יחס היגדים. אנחנו גם
למדנו על צורות של הצדקה ואת
ההגדרה המסורתית של ידע, אשר אדמונד גייטר התעסק ושינה לחלוטין, באמצעות מקרי גייטר שלו.
והחתול לא השתין על שולחני! כי
החתול לא היה מסוגל לבלות זמן
על השולחן שלי בכלל. אז מתברר שהקביעה
שעשיתי הייתה שקר.
אבל קביעה נכונה לפרק זה
שהפרק הזה הובא לכם על ידי Squarespace.
Squarespace עוזר ליצירת אתרי אינטרנט, בלוגים חנויות באינטרנט בשבילך והרעיונות שלך. אתרים
מעוצבים בצורה מקצועית ללא צורך בידע קודם, לא נדרש תכנות. נסה Squarespace
ב squarespace {דוט} {קו נטוי} קראש
קורס הצעה מיוחדת.
קראש קורס פילוסופיה מופקת בשיתוף פעולה
עם האולפנים הדיגיטליים של PBS. אתה יכול להיכנס
לערוץ שלהם ולבדוק הופעות מדהימות
כמו משחק/ הצגה, הפטפטנית, ואת ילדת הפיזיקה
פרק זה של קראש קורס צולמה
בסטודיו קראש קורס: דוקטור שריל ג קיני
English:
Next time, we will look at one possible answer.
In the meantime, you learned about some of
the key concepts we use when discussing belief
and knowledge. You learned what defines an
assertion and a proposition, and that belief
is a kind of propositional attitude. We also
learned about forms of justification and the
traditional definition of knowledge, which Edmund Gettier just totally messed with, using his Gettier cases.
And the cat did not pee on my desk! Because
the cat was unable to spend any time at all
on my desk. So it turns out the assertion
that I made was false.
But it is a true assertion that this episode
was brought to you by Squarespace. Squarespace
helps to create websites, blogs or online
stores for you and your ideas. Websites look
professionally designed regardless of skill
level, no coding required. Try Squarespace
at squarespace {dot com} {forward slash} crash
course for a special offer.
Crash Course Philosophy is produced in association
with PBS Digital Studios. You can head over
to their channel to check out amazing shows
like Game/Show, The Chatterbox, and Physics Girl
This episode of Crash Course was filmed in
the Doctor Cheryl C. Kinney Crash Course Studio
Romanian:
Data viitoare vom vedea un posibil răspuns.
Între timp, ai învățat despre câteva concepte cheie pe care le vom folosi pentru a vorbi despre convingere
și cunoaștere. Ai învățat definiția unei declarații și a unei propoziții logice, și că o convingere
este un tip de atitudine propozițională. De asemenea, am învățat despre formele justificării și despre
definiția tradițională a cunoașterii, pe care Edmund Gettier a schimbat-o folosind problemele de tip Gottier.
Și că pisica nu a făcut pipi pe birou! Asta pentru că pisica nu a putut să stea prea mult timp
pe birou, deci declarația pe care am făcut-o a fost falsă.
Dar este o declarație adevărată că acest episod ți-a fost oferit de Squarespace. Squarespace
te ajută să creezi website-uri, bloguri și magazine online pentru tine și ideile tale. Site-urile arată
profesional, indiferent de nivelul abilităților, și fără a fi nevoie de codare. Încearcă Squarespace
pe squarespace.com/crashcourse pentru oferte speciale.
Crash Course Philosophy este produs prin asociere cu PBS Digital Studios. Poți să arunci un ochi
pe canalul lor pentru a vedea show-uri ca Game/Show, The Chatterbox și Physics Girl.
Acest episod Crash Course a fost filmat în studioul Crash Course - Doctor Cheryl C. Kinney
Arabic:
في المرة القادمة، سنستعرض أحد الإجابات المحتملة
في هذه الأثناء، تعلمت أحد المفاهيم الأساسية التي نستعملها لنناقش الاعتقاد
و المعرفة، تعلمت ما يحدد التوكيد و الافتراض، وأن ذلك الاعتقاد
هو نوع من السلوك الفرضي، أيضا تعلمنا عن أشكال التبرير
و التعريف التقليدي للمعرفة، والذي عبث به إدموند جيتر كليا، باستخدام حالات جيتر الخاصة به
والقط لم يتبول على مكتبي، لأنه لم يستطع أن يمضي أي وقت على مكتبي
إذن اتضح أن التوكيد الذي قلته كان خاطئًا
لكنه توكيد صحيح، هذه الحلقة قدمت لكم من Squarespace
سكوير سبيس طريقة لإنشاء المواقع أو مدونة أو متجر إلكتروني لك وأفكارك.
مواقع إلكترونية مصممة باحتراف, بغض النظر عن مسوى المهارة, ولا تحتاج للبرمجة.
جرب Squarespace
تم إنتاج Crash Course Philosophy بالتعاون مع PBS Digital Studios
يمكنك التوجه لقناتهم لاستكشاف عروض مدهشة مثل الألعاب والعروض, The Chatterbox و Physics Girl
تم تصوير هذه الحلقة في استوديو الدكتور Cheryl C. Kinney
French:
La prochaine fois, nous verrons une possible réponse.
Entretemps, vous avez vu certains des concepts clé qu’on utilise quand on discute des croyances
et de la connaissance. Vous avez appris ce qui définit une assertion et une proposition, et que la croyance
est un genre d’attitude propositionnelle. On a aussi vu des formes de justification et la
définition traditionnelle de la connaissance, ce qu’Edmund Gettier a foutu en l’air, en utilisant ses cas de Gettier.
Et le chat n’a pas fait pipi sur mon bureau ! Parce que le chat ne pouvait pas passé de temps
sur mon bureau. Il s’avère donc que l’assertion que j’ai faite était fausse.
Mais c’est une vraie assertion que cet épisode vous a été présenté par Squarespace. Squarespace
aide à créer des sites, des blogs ou des magasins en ligne pour vous et vos idées. Les sites ont
un design professionnel quels que soient vos compétences, pas de codage requis. Essayez Squarespace
sur squarespace.com/crashcourse pour une offre spéciale.
Crash Course Philosophy est produit en association avec les Studios PBS Digital. Vous pouvez aller voir
leur chaine pour regarder de fantastiques émissions comme Game/Show, The Chatterbox et Physics Girl.
Cet épisode de Crash Course a été filmé dans le studio Crash Course Dr Cheryl C. Kinney
Arabic:
مع مساعدة كل هؤلاء الأشخاص المذهلين, وفريق التصوير Thought Cafe.
Estonian:
ning meid aitasid kõik need lahedad inimesed ning meie fantastiline graafika meeskond Thought Cafe.
iw:
בעזרת האנשים המדהימים וצוות הגרפיקה הפנטסטי שלנו לא פחות הוא טוג' קפה.
French:
avec l’aide de ces gens fantastiques et notre tout aussi fantastique équipe graphique est Thought Café.
Modern Greek (1453-):
με την βοήθεια αυτών των καταπληκτικών ανθρώπων και η ισάξια φανταστική ομάδα γραφικών είναι το Thought Cafe.
Italian:
con l'aiuto di queste persone fantastiche ed il nostro altrettanto fantastico team grafico è Thought Café.
Turkish:
Bu videoya bu harika insanlar yardımcı olmuşlardır ve grafik ekibimiz Thought Cafe.
Portuguese:
com ajuda dessas pessoas incríveis e nossos igualmente fantástico time gráfico é Thought Café.
Spanish:
con la ayuda de esta gente asombrosa y nuestro igualmente fantástico equipo gráfico es Thought Cafe.
Dutch:
met de hulp van deze geweldige mensen en ons evenzeer fantastisch grafisch team is Thought Cafe.
English:
with the help of these awesome people and our equally fantastic graphics team is Thought Cafe.
Russian:
с помощью этих замечательных людей и не менее фантастической графической команды Thought Cafe.
Vietnamese:
với sự giúp đỡ của những người tuyệt vời và đội đồ họa Thought Cafe của chúng tôi.
Romanian:
cu ajutorul acestor oameni minunați, iar echipa fantastică de grafică este Thought Cafe.
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Hey Meta Junkies.
Before we get into this video, I wanted to
remind you to like this video, and to subscribe.
We are a new channel dedicated to spreading
the gaming news in a short, concise format,
and it would help us out alot.
Thanks.
Onto the news:
Naughty Dog has officially given a release
date to their next outing, Uncharted The Lost
Legacy.
It features two characters that players of
other Uncharted titles should be aware of,
and a whole new story and new treasures to
find.
Not only was a cinematic released as well,
but they also dropped over 10 minutes of gameplay
footage to boot.
The demo opens with our two heroes navigating
some treacherous terrain in an Indian jungle.
The tools of the trade are all familiar, from
swinging on a grappling hook to parkour-style
wall-climbing.
It the quieter moments, the pair examine their
striking surroundings with a keen eye, sleuthing
out the best path forward.
But it doesn’t take long for the duo to
find themselves in a firefight and staring
down a tank.
The footage was shown at E3, at 60fps for
the PS4 Pro, but it can still be played by
the normal PS4.
It is confirmed to have a runtime of around
3-5 hours.
This game was originally meant as a DLC, but
as they worked on it they decided to make
it feature length.
Uncharted The Lost Legacy drops on August
22nd, 2017, at a reasonable price of $40 US
or 30 GBP If you purchased the Uncharted 4
Digital Deluxe Edition or the Explorer’s
Pack before December 13 will get Lost Legacy
as a free download.
My thoughts:
I have never played an Uncharted game, and
this one seems like a good place to start.
I watched the trailer, and the gameplay, and
it looked like I was watching a movie in game
form.
I'd love to give it a shot, and at 40 bucks,
it's cheap enought to take the risk.
What are your thoughts?
As usual, please leave them in the comments!
And don't forget to like and subscribe to
this channel!
If you want to play better, watch Juste Meta,
thanks for watching!
Source - http://www.gamesradar.com/uncharted-4-the-lost-legacy-release-date-trailer-gameplay/
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Okay, so this is kind of really hard for me
to say because I'm a bit upset about it, but
The whole thing with Stephen Hawking's death…
Um, Rest In Peace.
Brilliant man, obviously.
No one is disputing that.
But with his death, I am seeing images and
comments that are just so extremely ableist
and upsetting.
I'll show you one here, for example:
This image upsets me because it's basically
saying "Now that Stephen Hawking is dead,
he's free.
He's free from his wheelchair, he's free from
his disability, he's free from suffering."
That is a damaging and dangerous idea, to
put it as simply as I can.
It wasn't Stephen Hawking's wheelchair that
limited him.
He was limited physically by his degenerative
disability, no one can dispute that, of course.
But he was more limited by what people thought
he couldn't do now that he was a wheelchair
user.
He was limited by the universities he went
to not being wheelchair accessible, he was
limited by people thinking that he couldn't
achieve anything now that he was a disabled
man.
Steven Hawking, first and foremost, was a
brilliant mind.
He was a genius.
He discovered things about black holes, about
time and space that most of us still can't
fully comprehend.
I know I can't!
Like, I still don't really understand what
it is that he actually discovered…
And that's on me, but…
To say that now now he's died, to go "Now
he's finally free…"
It was his wheelchair that set him free!
My wheelchair…
Sorry…
My wheelchair is what gives me freedom.
It's how I get through the world.
It's…
It's what gives me the capacity to have a
good quality of life.
And…
And by seeing images like that, really hurt
me.
Because it says…
Because it says that my life isn't valuable
until I die, which…
(I'm shaking!
I'm shaking because this makes me so emotional,
but…)
The thing with Stephen Hawking was he achieved
so much, and he was a disabled man.
He achieved what he did, and he was disabled.
It wasn't his disability that stopped him
from achieving.
It's thoughts about our assistive devices
like wheelchairs, like canes, like breathing
apparatuses…
It's people seeing them as a weakness, as
a hindrance that stops society from helping
us.
That makes people think that "Awh, they're
just in pain.
That's their problem.
I'm gonna ignore it."
Rather than going "Oh!
These are the things people need to live good
lives."
If people had more of these things, if people
had things like this that worked better, their
lives could be even better!
And it's this idea of assistive devices as
restrictive that stops us from making devices
better, that stops us from truly including
people with disabilities in our society.
Sorry I got so emotional just there, but it's
so incredibly, like,
a part of who I am.
Like, I can't imagine not having my wheelchair.
It's my wheelchair that gives me the abilities
that I have, essentially.
Like, I couldn't go out and get groceries
without my wheelchair.
I couldn't see my friends, I couldn't exercise.
I couldn't do so much…
And to think that, when I died, people would
try and take that away from me would be awful…
I am a wheelchair user.
If that makes you sad, if that makes you uncomfortable,
I can't help that.
Like, be sad.
Be uncomfortable.
But don't put that on me.
Don't think that my life is less than yours,
because I use a wheelchair.
I'm just using what I got, you know what I
mean?
I'm just doing the best I can, with what I
have.
Stephen Hawking had even less than me, physically
speaking.
But he's done even more, so much more!
His achievements are a testament to…
The hypocrisy that physical limitation has
to limit your life in any way.
It doesn't.
It's your limited mentality that restricts
people!
It honestly, honestly is.
And I think that if we can get passed this
idea that devices are what limits people,
I think we could do so much better.
For people like me, for ourselves, we can
do so much better.
We can understand each other so much better
if we stop reducing disabled people down to
their devices, down to what they can't do,
and start accepting that we can achieve.
We can do.
We can do whatever we want to.
But we need help.
We need help from our devices, we need help
from the people around us.
And we need you to understand that that's
okay.
It's okay!
So, I went away to emotionally distance myself
and I've come back.
Just because I had more to say and I wanted
to say it properly…
So basically, my point in this video, to sum
up, is that Stephen Hawking was not limited
by his wheelchair.
It was his wheelchair that set him free.
That is my point.
Assistive devices are what help us, not what
hinder us.
Please, please, do not keep this rhetoric
of Stephen Hawking being set free from his
wheelchair going.
Because it is severely hurtful and damaging
for people like me, who use assistive devices.
And consider those when you share things to
do with Stephen Hawking's death.
Thanks so much for listening, have a great
day.
Bye!
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welcome to another anarchism research
group video. in this episode historian
Mike Finn talks to us about anarchist influences on education policy and
studying history with an anarchist squint. Don't forget to click subscribe and like
and share this video.
My name is Mike
Finn I'm an historian of post-war
Britain, contemporary Britain as well.
I've worked on a range of different
things but probably most recently the
stuff that I've been most focused on is
looking at the ways in which education
policy, the British state and British
socialism of all kind of interacted with
each other and the ways in which
actually increasingly I've been looking
at anarchist influences at those
intersections and I've got a book coming
out in the course of the next year which
is called Socialism, Education and Equal
Opportunity which focuses on those
questions in the context of Anthony
Crosland, socialist theorist and
politician, and the ways in which he was
influenced by anarchist and libertarian ideas
and the ways in which that played into
some of the policy decisions that he
made in relation to education
so I think one of the interesting things
about when we think about Anarchism and
education in Britain is the ways in
which it's usually a story that's told
at the margins. So it's usually a story
that's told about small-scale endeavors
often the case with anarchist initiatives,
at the margins society free schools,
anarchist communist Sunday schools before the
First World War
drawing on Francisco Ferrer and that
sort of thing. What we don't see really
in the story about anarchist education in
Britain is an investigation about the
ways in which libertarian socialist
anarchist ideas still played a role in
broader educational questions and have
more of an impact so what I've looked at
what I've tried to look into in two
different areas of my work is firstly,
the way in which the state relates to
higher education and the ways in which
that kind of you know can be looked at through an anarchist lens if you like and
then this more substantive project
that's now coming out as a book looking
at the ways in which socialist ideas of
a libertarian tinge if you like, of
anarchist variety, made an impact on the
ways in which people and particularly
politicians thought about how to
implement secondary education and where
the role of the state should be in that:
should it be directive should it be
coercive who should it be organized around local authorities as it generally
was in England and Wales and what the
character of that education should look
like and I've done that in this
particular case through looking Anthony
Crosland, the revisionist theorist and the
Labour politician who was also the
education secretary between '65 and '67. So I've looked at Anthony Crosland in the
connection with with these issues
because he's somebody we think we know
or he's somebody you that the left
thinks it knows and the different
fractions on the left think they know
well. You know he's often discussed as a
kind of proto-Blairite figure. The left of the
labor movement feel that way about him
but also the right of the labor movement
who want to appropriate him for that
cause and what that's really done is
it's really taken away from a real
understanding of what his motivations
we're and what his influences were and
David Goodway in an essay published a
couple of years ago made a provocative
claim that some of GDH Cole the
socialist intellectuals ideas permeated
down to Anthony Crosland do them took them on in his political career. So I was
already working on Crosland at that point
but I was sparked to look at his kind of if you
like anarchist lineage through that to
try and understand to what extent were
his actions and his political thought
influenced by by libertarian socialism
perhaps more explicitly and I do that in
the work that I do through looking at
his writing, which was extensive in terms
of his book the future of socialism and
his wider literature, but also in terms
of looking at why it was that he was so
interested in comprehensive education
right through his career. What was it
about that the had libertarian socialist
emphases? And I think a clear answer to
that in some ways is his attack on
hierarchy, his belief that fundamentally
hierarchy was antithetical to a
socialist society and his egalitarianism
was very much one that was
focused on essentially a critique of the
state and that also plays out ironically
in comprehensive education in the ways
in which he saw education being organised
Well I think, when people think about anarchist approaches to education, generally they think about
pedagogy, they think about the way in
which anarchist schools are organized. It's
not the case the Crosland appropriates
those. Crosland is still in favor of
classrooms and hierarchical organization
as far as that goes he's even in favor
of some things that contemporary
educationists of a non anarchist variety
will be against you know he's generally
quite supportive streaming for instance
but what he is interested in is the idea,
and this comes through in his wider work,
he's interested in workers control, which
he's consistently interested in, so there's
some syndicalist overtones there, and he
extends that to teachers and the
teaching profession and the idea they
should teach in the way they see fit and
they should be free from state directive
in that regard. So he's in some ways
inimical to the ideas of centralization
that we see later emerge within the
state education sector but his real
focus in terms of his libertarian
socialist emphases is that he wants to
build a community that is able to be
free in order to be free and egalitarian
he argues that community has to know
each other and the big scar on British
education or certainly English education
after the Second World War is the 11
plus it's the idea that people are
segregated at the age of 11 according to
supposes intellectual aptitude and he is
vehemently against this because he sees
this as creating hierarchies a naturalising
hierarchies and the two if you like the
two biggest emphases I would see is a
sort of libertarian socialist frame for him, are his critique of the state which
means that he wants to ensure that
schools have as much local autonomy as
they can and then secondly he he also
has this broader critique of hierarchy
which we see correspond with a lot of
anarchist and libertarian socialist
thinkers after the war, which he sees
being most liable to attack through the
spaces that you can create within the
comprehensive school. So in terms of
where it actually plays out, the
comprehensive school clearly is a state
initiative, in that sense it's obviously
not an anarchist one, but in Crosland's
mind it creates space for libertarianism,
it creates space for pupils together to
build a new community that's organized
on libertarian lines which is not
possible in a space where they are
segregated. In terms of how anarchists
can relate to the state I think
actually one of the interesting things
here is the extent to which what Crosland does and some of the ideas
that Crosland has actually correspond with
people like Colin Ward. So if you think
about Colin Ward, Colin Ward and
education is thinking more in terms of
pedagogy and he's thinking more radical
interventions in that way, but if you
look at Colin Ward's career, Colin Ward's career does acknowledge the existence the state,
does interact with it, you know in his
career as a town planner, in terms of the
discursive interventions he makes to try
and shape the agenda in terms of town
planning, you know the fact that he
writes for New Statesman and New Society
on self-help socialism and so on. That
parallels Crosland quite closely,
recognizing the existence of the state
and being prepared to try and if you
like make spaces for anarchy, which is
very much the Ward project, you know that
is something that sometimes has to
happen in a context where a state will
infringe on them if you don't engage
with it in some way shape or form. So I
think it does offer us some insights in
terms of the ways in which states can
be kind of evaluated on the crude
materialist criteria of better and worse, you
know the state is the enemy but at the
end of the day there are better and
worse states to live under and Crosland's vision of the much more
decentralized state might be one that
an anarchist will be relatively more
able to sleep at night under. I think it's
in the context of Crosland's
relationship with the state and his
sense of trying to preserve autonomy I
think there are lessons to be drawn from
that obviously for governments and
interestingly one of those lessons
which typically has been used by the
right as an excuse to not do things in
terms of social welfare but actually can
be interpreted very differently is to be
cautious when using the state machine. So
Crosland has sometimes been criticized
on the left for not being forthright
enough in pushing through the
comprehensive education program in 1965
to 1967 but part of the reason he was
reticent if you like to use the state
machine was his view that actually local
government was a good thing, the
government close to the people was in
general a good thing, that he was a
municipalist, which he was, and on that
basis he was a reluctant to use the kind
of office of the minister that just
closed down communities' abilities to
make their own decisions. That's
something we don't see very often now in
central government you know if we take
for example if we look at the ways in
which central government has operated in
relation to fracking for instance, that
it's just pretty much ridden
roughshod over a lot of communities'
objections that there's now,
notwithstanding recent discussions of a
ban, there's now conversations about the
idea that it might be worthwhile introducing
legislation to override local
authorities' ability to prevent fracking.
We can see there's a very different
ethos operating in government now so I
think that caution about using the state, and blithely using the state, and also
Crosland's fear that in doing so you
irrevocably change the relationships
within people, I think that it does an
important lesson which is very much been
forgotten both by the left and the right.
So I think in terms of an anarchist
approach to history one of the things we
have to think about is actually this
very little history that's been written
by anarchists, in terms of academic or
professional history at least. And one of
the reasons that is fairly obvious and
one of the things an academic an
anarchist approach can give us I think
is an attention to the way in which
history is biased in favor of power.
So if you go to James Scott's work for
instance, if you think about reading the
past with an anarchist squint, what it
does very clearly I think is show up
the state. It shows the state for what it
is, in a particular way, because history
is a state-centric discipline, you know
if you go back to the 19th century the
modern historical discipline
very much evolved as a way of
legitimizing state forms you know it's
not a controversial assessment you know
in 1724 the British crown established
professorships of history Oxford and
Cambridge in the 1880s the Regis
Professor of history at Cambridge JR
Seeley produced a book called The Expansion
of England which was very much about
trying to glorify here they kind of
English state project. So the state and
history have always been intertwined with
each other, you know in terms of an
object and also a discipline of study
and I think what anarchist historiography can do or an anarchist approach to
history is it can correct for that. Now
actually Marxism has done a great deal
in bringing into historiography
the literature if those that have been driven
out the historical record, you know we've
seen that with the developments in
gender history since the 60s the you
know the issues around including race
and ethnic minority issues within
history you know strong analyses of
imperialism as well that have come from
Marxism. So we've seen that but I think
what anarchism can also give us which is
slightly different is when we look at
topics that are covered by mainstream
history, for example the education system,
we can see ways in which the state
operates which otherwise lack
explanation, or lack plausible explanation.
So my first major historical work as
a historian was my PhD which looked at
the expansion of higher education in
Britain in the post-war period and I
didn't start that as an anarchist, but was
part of the reason I ended up one is
because of the ways in which the state
on the one hand
try to legitimize what I was doing in
terms of the language of welfare and the
benevolence of the state towards the
public, wider population but actually
what it was doing in the context of what
David Edgerton the historian talks about, who is not an anarchist, it was expanding
the warfare states and what it was doing
was it was remodeling population for a
global economic war, and if you look at
that with an anarchist squint what it also
does is it problematizes the periods we
look at. So when we're activists as well,
when we're thinking about trying to
resist neoliberalism what if the problem
actually trying to resist is more
deep-seated than that? So an anarchist
reading for example of the development
the university since 1945 wouldn't see a
Golden Age between 1945 and 1998. What it would says is that the state has always been
aggrandizing and has always been expanding
its power within universities and that
has always at serious consequences to
the people within them even as it has at
face-value diminished privilege. So I
think what anarchism offers us as
historians - that's just a case study - what
it really does offer us it offers us a
much more nuanced reading of power and
state power than either Marxism or
liberal historiographies. We can both
bring into the records directly the
histories of the marginalized that have
been obscured but what we can also do is we
can take a very critical lens to
historiographical topics they've already
been well investigated and see the state
in a way that we you know, that hadn't
been available to us previously. So I
think the consequences for activism
of adopting an anarchist approach to
historiography are obviously first and
foremost that it does bring in more
marginalized voices, provides an ethics
of how to relate to people's concerns
and a way to behave in radical circles,
that's first off, but second off in terms
of the actual things we're trying to
solve, the actual problems we're trying to
address, it contextualizes them more
deeply which I think is helpful but
also it makes us look and think hard
about whether we're aiming at the wrong
targets. One of the things that the
radical left has done consistently,
forever, is make demands on the state. Now
anarchists necessarily are skeptical of
that, Now, I know that we have to make
demands of the state, the state is real
and it exists but the critical ways in
which we do so need to be evaluated
in history can help us to do that, you
know if for example you know we
want to take a policy, let's take
from the current labor policy suite if you like, the National Education
Service, on face value many on the Left
will find nothing to object to about the
idea of enshrining a commitment to
education philosophically, on the same
level as a commitment to health, but at
the same time an anarchist would look at
that and say part of the problems
that we have in education today are
actually because of the expansion of
state power not its withdrawal, so what
happens if you radically increase the
influence of the state within education
for supposedly benign reasons but then
you end up in a situation where a
government which takes a different view
than has access to that vehicle? Because
it is a natural enough thing
particularly for those who are
interested in the parliamentary left to
make demands on the state but equally
state expansion generally for an
anarchist is never a good thing, so we
need to think carefully about what we do
when we're making those sorts of claims and
I think history can help us with that
I think the first way in which you can start to
do a new kind of anarchist historiography
is you can involve different kinds of people
in it for starters, and that's not just
in terms of the stories you tell but
also the ways in which you break down
your own privilege as an historian so I think
as academics sometimes we're a bit shame-faced about the fact that were privileged people,
we are privileged people you know, we
occupy a particular situation that is
socially very privileged. At the same
time to do anarchist history
effectively, to be able to offer a squint
on a whole series of topics, to bring
things to life you haven't seen before,
you need to essentially facilitate the
ability of groups to make their own
history and so I think one of the things
that anarchist historiography can do is in an
accessible way it can write narratives
and stories that people can recognize
themselves in and can find useful but
equally it doesn't just do that from a
position of privilege, it goes out to the
society and asks you know people to be
involved, so co-creation history is an
obvious one. Particularly as anarchist
activists and academics we shouldn't be
seeing a division between ourselves and our
professional concerns and those of the
wider society, you know, ultimately an anarchist historiography
I think prefiguratively
should mirror what an anarchist
university should look like, which means
there should be no boundary between it
and a wider society, you know the two
should be synonymous with each other, the
anarchist university should be a
living presence amongst the society and
ditto the historiography. That's a long
way from where we are so in terms of
initial practical building blocks what
does that mean? Well it means actually
checking your privilege, getting out into
communities and getting involved in groups
that are developing histories of
communities and of marginalized
communities and not being privileged in
doing so, not not saying you're going out
there to tell people how to write
history, because you're not, you're going out
there to learn how to write history and
also use your privilege to facilitate
the entree of that history into the
broader academic historiography, that's
what you're there for. You're not a gate-keeper you're there to smash the gate down.
Anarchist history is a problem as much for
historians as the anarchist present is,
you know if you think about a
controversy over Rojava one of the
great challenges for anarchists is seeing
anarchism when it's actually happening. I
think that's a real issue, and if you
bear in mind there's no consensus
amongst the anarchist community if you
like on Rojava then take that back to
the past and multiply it because you have
anarchists who claim all sorts of
non-hierarchical, horizontal organizing
practice as anarchism in the past,
which can be seen as partisan, and in a
sense can then obscure as much as
illuminate the reality of the historical
past so I think that you know there's
not a straightforward division between
doing anarchist history and thinking
about the anarchist present, I think we
have to think about both at the same
time because history is a creature of
the present that's what it is but I
think also if we turn that lens on
ourselves and we think about the ways
you know as Matthew Adams has said the
anarchist canon is constructed and we
think about the ways in which actually
as anarchists were beholden to a
self-mythology
I think being critical about our own
histories is really important in terms of
any opportunity we might have to not
just be wedded to what might be seen as
dogmatic positions and being able to
adapt to events as anarchists in the
past, in the 1860s 1870s in the classic
period weren't able to do in their own
time.
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BECOME NXT CHAMPION.
HE'S GOT IT LOCKED IN.
>> GARGANO ESCAPE LOCKED IN.
AND AS TIME TICKS AWAY, CAN
JOHNNY GARGANO EARN HIS SECOND
DECISION IN THIS MATCHUP
COLE IS FIGHTING
LOOK AT THE TORQUE ON THE LEFT
SHOULDER, BETH.
>> ADAM COLE LOOKING TO REVERSE
IT, AND GARGANO ONCE AGAIN
CINCHES IT IN.
>> GARGANO REALIZING HE'S SO
CLOSE.
ADAM COLE FIGHTING THROUGH IT
FROM THE OUTSIDE
TOMMASO CIAMPA DRAGGING GARGANO
AND COLE TO THE FLOOR.
>> CIAMPA WAS DOWN AND OUT, BUT
SOMEHOW, SOME WAY BOUGHT HIMSELF
ENOUGH TIME TO COME AROUND
THAT KNEE CLEARLY STILL
BOTHERING HIM, THOUGH.
>> AND REMEMBER A PINFALL AND
SUBMISSION MUST TAKE PLACE,
BETH, INSIDE THE RING.
CIAMPA'S GOT TO GET ONE OF THESE
SUPERSTARS BACK INSIDE THE RING.
>> CIAMPA CONTINUING HIS
ONSLAUGHT, LOOKING TO LAY OUT
THE OTHER TWO COMPETITORS, TO
BUY ENOUGH TIME TO GET A PINFALL
OR SUBMISSION IN THE MIDDLE OF
THE RING.
>> IF YOU CAN SCORE ONE PINFALL
AT THIS POINT IN THE MATCHUP,
YOU HAVE TO THINK IT IS GOING TO
BE SUDDEN DEATH.
ONE FALL, I'M SURE, IS GOING TO
WIN THIS NOW.
>> CIAMPA NOT AT 100%.
TRYING TO SHAKE FEELING INTO HIS
KNEE
HOISTING UP, AND WHAT A SUPLEX
ON THE FLOOR
THIS, WADE, MIGHT BE SMART
STRATEGY BY CIAMPA
DECIMATING HIS OPPONENTS ON THE
FLOOR AND THEN TOSS ONE IN AND
TRY TO PIN HIM
I MEAN CIAMPA COULD BE CLOSING
DOWN THE VICTORY.
>> CIAMPA, AT THE COST OF HIS
OWN BODY
>> THE DAMAGE IS ALREADY DONE
FOR CIAMPA
WHY NOT AT THIS STAGE?
GIVE IT EVERYTHING YOU'VE GOT.
>> NOW CIAMPA AND GARGANO
SLUGGING IT OUT.
THEY'VE TRADED BLOWS IN THE
PAST
THE FORMER BEST FRIENDS TURNED
BITTER RIVALS.
>> I'M NOT EVEN SURE IF THEY ARE
AWARE OF THE TIME, HOW LONG IS
LEFT
WE'VE SEEN THIS BEFORE LAST
WEEK
>> CIAMPA, HE TRIED THIS EARLIER
IN THE MATCHUP
CIAMPA NOW
OH
>> THIS COULD BE FOR THE NXT
CHAMPIONSHIP
GET HIM IN THE RING, CIAMPA.
>> CIAMPA TRYING TO GET GARGANO
BACK INTO THE RING
GARGANO, THERE'S NO WAY GARGANO
HAS ANYTHING LEFT.
IS CIAMPA LOOKING FOR THE SECOND
DECISION FOR HIMSELF
HOOK OF THE LEG.
THE COVER.
OH
ADAM COLE.
>> AGONIZING
A GOLDEN OPPORTUNITY GONE THERE
FOR TOMMASO CIAMPA
>> THIS TIME FAINN BALOR WITH TH
WHEREWITHAL TO PULL OFF CIAMPA.
>> CIAMPA NOW LAYING WASTE AS
WE'RE UNDER TWO MINUTES.
CIAMPA REALIZING TIME IS
SLIPPING AWAY.
CIAMPA TRYING TO PUT AWAY JOHNNY
GARGANO.
CIAMPA
CIAMPA JUST, JUST KICKED OUT.
>> HOW ON EARTH IS JOHNNY
GARGANO ON HIS FEET AFTER THAT
CRUSHING COLLISION WITH THE
RING
REMEMBER, JAKE ATLAS GOT
STRETCHERED OUT OF THE ARENA ONE
WEEK AGO BECAUSE OF THAT.
>> 90 SECONDS IS ALL THAT IS
LEFT
TOMMASO CIAMPA IS IN THE
DRIVER'S SEAT AT THIS MOMENT
CIAMPA LOOKING DOWN AT JOHNNY
GARGANO AND THE MAN WHO NEVER
LOST THE NXT CHAMPIONSHIP COULD
BE CLOSING IN ON ONCE AGAIN
WINNING IT BACK.
>> WHOEVER WINS THE NEXT FALL
HAS GOT TO BE THE CHAMPION
IF I'M A BETTING MAN, I'M
PUTTING MY HOUSE ON TOMMASO
CIAMPA.
>> TIME IS SLIPPING AWAY
TIME IS TICKING OFF THE CLOCK.
ALL FOUR SUPERSTARS AT ONE FALL
APIECE
WE ARE ONE MINUTE LEFT IN THIS
60-MINUTE IRON MAN MATCH
DESPERATION STARTING TO SETTLE
IN FOR THESE FOUR SUPERSTARS
GARGANO IS LEGITIMATELY OUT ON
HIS FEET
50 SECONDS AND COUNTING.
CIAMPA'S GOT TO MOVE
THE CLOCK IS TICKING
>> NOT A SECOND TO WASTE HERE.
TIE IT UP AND GET THE JOB DONE.
>> CIAMPA TRYING TO PULL, TRYING
TO WILL HIMSELF TO THE ROPE, THE
MIDDLE ROPE.
NOW HOISTING UP GARGANO.
30 SECONDS
GARGANO DROPPED CENTER OF THE
RING
CLOCK IS TICKING
WAIT A MINUTE.
>> OUT OF NOWHERE!
>> CAN BALOR PICK UP THE
VICTORY?
>> WHOA!
>> HE'S THE NEW CHAMPION
>> 12 SECONDS.
IT'S DOWN TO 10.
HAS BALOR DONE IT?
WAIT A MINUTE.
CLOCK IS TICKING
FIVE SECONDS
COLE TRYING TO FALL OVER BALOR
COVER.
WAIT A MINUTE.
>> NO WAY!
>> WHAT JUST HAPPENED?
>> LET'S GO BACK TO THE ACTION
I MEAN NO DOUBT ABOUT IT, WADE,
HERE
TOMMASO CIAMPA, VICTIM OF THE
COUP DE GRACE.
SPINS BALOR.
PRESENCE OF MIND TO ROLL OVER.
THERE YOU SEE THE REFEREE.
NO DOUBT BIN FAFINN BALOR SCORED
SECOND FALL.
BUT AS TIME WAS TICKING AWAY,
UNDER 10 SECONDS, IT WAS ADAM
COLE WITH THE LAST SHOT,
CONNECTING TO THE BACK OF FINN
BALOR.
COLE DESPERATELY, DESPERATELY
TRYING TO ROLL BALOR OVER.
REFEREE THERE.
>> FINN BALOR THOUGHT HE HAD IT
IN THE BAG
MAYBE CELEBRATING TOO EARLY.
>> THE ARGUMENT PICKING UP
BETWEEN BALOR AND COLE
>> LEGAL IS OUT HERE TO CLEAR
THINGS UP.
>> WHO IS THE CHAMPION
>> ON THE NEXT SUPER TUESDAY,
YOU TWO WILL FACE EACH OTHER
IT WILL BE ONE FALL TO THE
FINISH
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A lot of expert makeup work goes into the
Guardians of the Galaxy.
Out of all of the characters, nobody's look
is more difficult to achieve than that of
Nebula, daughter of Thanos and villain turned
Avenger.
You may recognize actress Karen Gillan, but
she definitely looks a little different in
the MCU.
In order to design Nebula's prosthetics, Guardians
of the Galaxy's makeup team began with a full-size
sculpted bust of Gillan's head, which was
used to properly fit the prosthetics they'd
soon be applying to the actress herself.
Makeup effects artist David White called the
design the "most complex and interesting"
of any of the Guardians, and likened it to
putting together a 3-D puzzle.
Speaking with Business Insider, White said,
"The five-piece prosthetic was a puzzle of
butt joins and blend offs, all on the same
pieces, and the density of the prosthetic
changes to accommodate the need to control
the amount of prosthetic movement from one
piece to another."
In other words, the areas of her face where
Gillan's expressiveness would have to shine
through needed thinner prosthetic pieces than
areas for which this wasn't a consideration.
The makeup team applied the carefully designed
prosthetics to Gillan's head each and every
day, after first putting on a latex bald cap,
which, especially in the case of the first
Guardians movie, was really kind of a formality.
Guardians of the Galaxy's version of the Nebula
makeup required Gillan to shave her entire
head, which she understood would be necessary
before accepting the gig.
Speaking with Screen Rant shortly before the
film's release, Gillan said,
"I was told even before I auditioned that
the actress who got this would have to shave
her head, and I didn't think I was gonna get
it.
So I was like, 'absolutely, I will shave my
head!
Sure!'
Then, like three screen tests later, [I thought],
'oh God, this might actually happen.'"
Gillan famously demonstrated her dedication
at San Diego Comic Con in 2013, when the Guardians
cast was introduced.
She arrived at the event sporting shoulder-length
locks, but when an audience member pointed
out that Nebula was supposed to be bald, Gillan
removed what turned out to be a wig, revealing
her completely smooth dome and drawing a raucous
response from the crowd.
At the time, she called the look "liberating,"
but admitted later that being bald did take
some getting used to.
"I found the whole thing hilarious at the
time, I was like, 'Ha ha, I'm bald!'
And then I woke up in the morning and I was
like, 'Oh God, oh God!'"
By the time she reprised her role in Guardians
of the Galaxy Vol. 2, her makeup's design
had undergone a slight modification.
Speaking to The Wrap before the flick's release,
Gillan said,
"I shaved half of my head this time, but they
took away the butt, like, the underneath-half
of my hair, and then left the top part.
That was the best gift ever."
For the first Guardians film, Gillan's stint
in the makeup chair each morning was nothing
short of grueling.
Being Nebula's first appearance in the Marvel
Cinematic Universe, the flick was introducing
a character who had a very specific look in
the comics, one which the makeup team took
extra time to ensure came off looking perfect
onscreen.
"It takes about five hours to get ready in
the mornings, and it's all just kind of prosthetics
all over my face and then an intense amount
of paint."
The process involved delicately putting that
five-piece puzzle together on Gillan's face,
carefully matching the prosthetics' blue shade
with makeup wherever her skin was exposed.
Of course, every piece would have to be a
perfect fit, including the "cybernetic implant"
on the left side of her head.
Once the day's shooting was complete, it was
another 30 minutes in the makeup chair for
everything to be removed, during which Gillan
would often serenade her makeup artists.
And, the next morning, she'd have to endure
the process all over again.
By the time Guardians Vol. 2 was ramping up
production, the makeup team had gotten their
process down to the point where they could
essentially cut the amount of time in half,
requiring her to sit for only two-and-a-half
hours every morning.
Once all of the prosthetics are in place,
there are several minor touches needed to
finish off the look.
The parts of her face not covered in latex
need to be touched up with blue makeup, which
is carefully applied with special swabs.
To achieve a delicate shading in these areas,
more makeup is layered on with an airbrush.
Finally, some fine detail is provided all
around using fine brushes and stencils, which
are used to give a textured look.
A final once-over with the airbrush, some
black shading around the eyes, and a set of
false eyelashes finishes off Gillan's head
and neck.
While Gillan's face and head are being worked
on, additional artists tend to her hands,
which are also painted completely blue.
The same texturing stencil is applied to the
backs of her hands, and once this is complete,
there's the little matter of Nebula's cybernetic
arms to consider.
As Gillan is made up in blue all the way down
past her shoulders, she's fitted with a pair
of prosthetic sleeves, the right one featuring
Nebula's lovely blue skin tone and "seams"
around the shoulder, and the left made to
look completely metallic.
The right arm also receives the stencil treatment
and fine detailing.
Gillan is then given a final once-over by
the team, and then there's one last piece
to the puzzle.
As with the rest of Nebula's look, her jet
black eyes are also achieved through practical
means.
According to makeup artist David White, Gillan
was fitted with 22-millimeter black contact
lenses which cover her entire eye to finish
off her daily makeup ordeal.
Of course, all of the makeup on Earth wouldn't
make a difference if Gillan weren't capable
of nailing Nebula's physicality, and, like
most Marvel actors, she undergoes a training
regimen which requires an insane amount of
dedication.
"Ugh, this is horrible."
In addition to healthy doses of cardio exercises
like cycling and running, she took part in
martial arts training, and lots of it.
Speaking to the crowd at St. Louis Comic Con
in 2017, Gillan said,
"I had to do fight training every day that
I wasn't shooting.
They told me that you have to do something
six thousand times before it's second nature.
I didn't manage to do the routine six thousand
times, but we certainly tried."
Weightlifting is also a critical part of her
routine when preparing to step into Nebula's
shoes.
The actress told PopSugar:
"I had to transform myself, because prior
to playing the role, I didn't do any [strength
training]."
Her routine before and during a shoot consists
of three days per week of heavy weight training,
interspersed with two days of dedicated fighting
and mixed martial arts.
It takes a lot of time and expert makeup work
to transform a pleasant Scottish actress into
a menacing alien warrior, but it's hard to
deny that the results are anything short of
astounding.
Gillan as Nebula is virtually unrecognizable,
and according to the actress, that's largely
due to the extensive makeup process.
Without it, Gillan says, she has a hard time
even reading her lines.
In one interview, Gillan said,
"Essentially, I have the character's skin
glued to my face, which is really as close
as I could possibly get to her.
It's pretty cool.
And it's kind of intense and slightly claustrophobic.
It's definitely become like part of my ritual,
in terms of like getting into character.
One time I did a rehearsal without the makeup
and I did not feel like her at all.
It's become a vital part of the process for
me."
Check out one of our newest videos right here!
Plus, even more Looper videos about the Marvel
Cinematic Universe are coming soon.
Subscribe to our YouTube channel and hit the
bell so you don't miss a single one.
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mmm up
in widespread destruction
collateral damage financial loss and
ultimately
a threat to life all brought about by
profoundly strong environmental forces
earthquakes
floods fires in hurricanes environmental
disasters so intense they leave their
own devastating signature
and require clear stabilized airborne
Intel to support timely relief missions
Wescam's MX Series appeal
IR systems incorporate both a
multi-spectral large aperture optics
and long range sensing capabilities
required for multi-mission capability
in the wake of such disasters missions
could include
searching for survivors in very low
light conditions
see to Hayes fog smoke another visual
determines
calculating the perimeter and area the
devastation
map in the movement and the fires
chemical or oil spills
and overseeing the progress and the
surgeon cleanup efforts
when disaster strikes
to Wescam
see First. Act First
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Natto - Fermentación de granos de soja
300g de soja remojados durante la noche
Seco y Remojado
poner a hervir al vapor con la olla a presión durante 15 minutos
ó, hervir durante 60 minutos con una olla normal
utilizar la paja del arroz
Las levaduras de fermentación están de forma natural en la paja de arroz
Las levaduras de Natto son muy resistentes.
Yo utilizo siempre el mismpo recipiente para la fermentación exclusiva del Natto
No cierre el recipiente herméticamente ya que los bacterias de Natto necesitan respirar.
ponga un paño de tela para que no se sequen los granos
fermentar a 40ºC/1041F durante 24 horas
en 24 horas
hecho :)
Cuando la fermentación está terminada huele a amoníaco
Ponga en Natto en el frigorifico y el olor a amoníaco desaparecerá
Una vez se tenga la paja de arroz es muy fácil hacer el Natto
Gracias por visitarme!
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(gentle music)
- [Narrator] Lesson one:
you can't win an argument.
Dale has been involved in
and observed thousands of arguments.
He came to the conclusion
that to get the best
of an argument, avoid it altogether.
Nine times out of 10, an
argument ends with each person
being more convinced that
they're absolutely right.
Even if you win an argument, you lose.
Why?
Well, because you've made the
other person feel inferior
and hurt their sense of pride.
Ask yourself, is it really
worth your time and energy
trying to win an argument
when it will give you nothing
but a temporary sense
of victory in exchange
for making the other
person feel like crap?
Lesson two: never tell a man he is wrong.
Wayne is a woodchopper.
Carl is a builder.
Wayne specialises in oak
wood and Carl in pine wood.
One day, Carl ordered
some oak wood from Wayne.
Upon inspecting the oak
wood, Carl was frustrated
with its poor quality and
wasn't willing to pay for it.
But Wayne noticed his quality
inspection was too strict
and was misinterpreting how to asses
the quality of oak wood.
He knew Carl was wrong.
Now most people would be tempted to say,
Carl, mate, you're bloody wrong.
But not Wayne.
Instead, he began asking
questions as to why the oak wood
was not of high quality.
He emphasised that he was only
asking so that he could give
Carl exactly what he
wanted for future orders.
He approached the situation in a friendly
and cooperative manner.
Eventually, Carl's attitude changed.
He soon admitted he was not
experienced with oak wood
and began asking Wayne questions.
He finally understood that
it was his fault for making
poor judgements about
the quality of the wood.
Carl ended up happily paying for the wood.
Now that's the power of never
telling someone they're wrong.
Feel free to try this
out in your own life.
I'm confident you will
notice that people respond
much more positively to you
when you don't tell them they're wrong.
Lesson three: ask questions
instead of giving orders.
It makes people want
to cooperate with you.
If you want your roommate
to help you do the dishes,
you will likely get a more
positive response if you say:
hey Clarence, could you
please give me a hand
with the dishes?
Instead of: hey Clarence,
do the dishes with me now.
Framing your request as a
question rather than a demand
makes Clarence feel like he
has a choice and therefore
will be more responsive to your requests.
Lesson four: remember names.
Andrew Carnegie, one of
the richest men in history
understood the importance of names.
As a child, he had a nest of pet rabbits
but no food to feed them.
He told the boys in the neighbourhood
that if they would go out
and get enough dandelions
to feed the rabbits,
he would name the bunnies in their honour.
The plan worked.
He used the same principle in business.
A man named Pullman and
himself were fighting
against each other trying to get
the sleeping car business to work.
During a meeting one
evening, Andrew suggested
that they merge companies
and work together.
Pullman listened intently and then asked,
what would you call the new company?
Andrew responded:
why, the Pullman Palace
Car Company, of course.
Pullman's face brightened and
he said: come into my room,
let's talk it over.
When I first met Amy, she told me her name
but I didn't hear her properly.
I asked her to say it again.
And even a third time during class.
The longer you leave it,
the more awkward it becomes.
You might feel embarassed
about asking more than once
but realise that people appreciate
it when you take the time
to learn their name.
I remember randomly talking to
a man in my class named Tom.
Next week I came in and I said:
hey Tom, how are you doing?
And he said: wow, I'm surprised
you remembered my name.
And now for the final lesson:
talk in terms of others' interests.
If there was just one
lesson you could take away
from this book this would be it.
I really struggle to talk to new people.
It doesn't matter if we
have nothing in common
because I talk about their interest.
In one of my first conversations with Amy,
I asked her a simple question:
what do you like to do in your spare time?
She said: I listen to music,
randomly sing and dance,
draw, do artsy stuff, try to keep fit,
watch movies and funny
TV shows, I read, I cook,
I play with my pets
and spend time with my family and friends.
I followed her up with
another simple question.
Okay, so what do you read
and what do you draw?
Amy got excited.
After a long outburst of
sharing her interests,
she said: I'm getting way too
excited talking about this.
No one ever gets to know me this way
so I have this all bottled up.
It's so awesome talking about my passions
so thanks for listening to me.
We get along so well now and
have been great friends since.
It doesn't matter whether
you're talking to your boss,
work mates, teachers,
friends, family, or strangers.
Talk in terms of other people's interests
and they'll love you for it.
Okay, now let's summarise
what we've learned today.
You can win an argument.
Never tell a man he is wrong.
Ask questions instead of giving orders.
Remember names.
And most importantly, talk in
terms of other's interests.
Feel free to drop a
comment below and subscribe
to this channel for more
weekly videos like this one.
(gentle music)
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COLTON OGDEN: Hello world.
This is CS50 on Twitch.
My name is Colton Ogden, and today
I am joined for the first time by--
ANDY CHEN: Andy Chen.
Nice to meet y'all.
COLTON OGDEN: So Andy here--
tell us a little about
what would you do here
on campus, which you're involved in.
ANDY CHEN: Sure.
So I am a master student
studying bioinformatics.
I'm also a special student
in computer science,
and I actually work at
HarvardX, so if you guys
are familiar with the online
learning platforms of Harvard, that's
one of the offices that
has really good resources.
COLTON OGDEN: I feel like you--
didn't I-- I met you
in the spring, I think.
You came to the fair
for the Supreme Court.
ANDY CHEN: That's right, yeah.
COLTON OGDEN: And I
think you were talking
about something like that, yeah.
Pretty exciting.
And what are you going
to talk about today?
ANDY CHEN: Well today we're
going to talk about a programming
language called R, and
one of the things you
can do in it which
includes biostatistics.
COLTON OGDEN: Oh yeah.
ANDY CHEN: Cole, you might
ask me what is biostatistics?
COLTON OGDEN: What is biostatistics?
I actually--
ANDY CHEN: So it's really statistics
in the field of like biological data.
But a lot of people use it in
the context of epidemiology,
as opposed to more like
molecular biology kind of things.
And that's actually what we're
going to be dealing with today.
COLTON OGDEN: That's
diagnosing diseases, right?
Epidemiology.
ANDY CHEN: Epidemiology
is sort of the study
and the practice of response
to the spread of diseases.
COLTON OGDEN: Got it, OK.
Makes sense.
ANDY CHEN: Right.
COLTON OGDEN: I clearly don't--
I'm not an expert on
biology or biostats.
ANDY CHEN: But you will be soon.
COLTON OGDEN: Yeah, I'm very excited.
We have a lot of people in
the chat that have joined us,
and were talking before we
started a little bit in advance.
Thank you very much to
everybody who's joined.
Regulars of ISO TV.
There's a new regular, Asley,
Newanda33333, belacures,
m.kloppenburg, thank you for joining.
Let me make sure I didn't
miss anybody up above that.
Techytack, hello.
[INAUDIBLE] and fatma,
thank you for joining
the regulars and everyone she's saying.
Really curious about about
this one says m.kloppenburg.
This is the first time we've
had anything kind of statistics
related onstream.
ANDY CHEN: Oh, exciting.
COLTON OGDEN: Python's
obviously a language
that's very often used in bio
or in stats, generally speaking.
But R kind of like the language that
people I think, maybe most people
associate-- or at least they associate
starts with R, and then R also
sort of with stats that
end with Python, too.
I don't know anything
about R, so I'm actually
very curious to see what it looks
like, what the environment looks,
what we can do in it.
I think we've caught
up on all the comments.
Everybody's saying hey Andy, nice
to meet you Andy, everybody saying,
so you got a lot of
friends in the chat there.
Yeah, so thanks so much everybody.
Let's go to your screen here,
so we have your screen set up.
And why don't you get us started here.
ANDY CHEN: Sure, awesome.
Thank you very much Colton.
Hello everyone, hello friends
from all over the world.
So R, like Colton was saying,
is one of probably two languages
that are very popular for statistics
or data science kind of things,
Python being the other one.
Today we're going to be looking at
R, which let's go to the website.
So bring up a browser if you will.
The first thing we're going to be doing
is installing the language itself.
Now notice that we
actually are not going
to be working in R, which on Mac OS 10--
well actually I don't
know what I'm running,
but whatever-- on Mac you have
to install R the language itself,
which actually I think does
have a command line interface.
But we're going to be
working in R Studio, which
is an integrated developing--
developing environment?
COLTON OGDEN: Integrated
development environment.
ANDY CHEN: Development
environment, thank you.
COLTON OGDEN: It's a mouthful.
ANDY CHEN: It's a mouthful.
I'll just keep calling ID.
COLTON OGDEN: ID.
That's why we call it an ID.
No one wants to say all those words.
ANDY CHEN: But yeah, so
we're going to be installing
R, which is the language itself,
as well as R Studio, which
is the IDE in which we'll be working.
COLTON OGDEN: What are the
links that we can go to,
and I can toss them in the chat as well.
ANDY CHEN: Great So the first one
is going to be www.r-project.org.
COLTON OGDEN: OK.
ANDY CHEN: The second one
is going to be rstudio.com.
And the last one--
COLTON OGDEN: The former
being the language
itself, the latter being the IDE,
the R IDE that you're alluding to?
ANDY CHEN: Exactly.
COLTON OGDEN: OK.
And babicnight also in the chat,
and Andre Jacob Johnson, and Irenae,
thank you very much for
joining us, everybody.
Well, some more regulars.
And babic, to answer your
question, not late at all.
We just started.
We're now tossing in some links into
the chat for downloading R and RStudio.
So r-project.org and rstudio.com.
ANDY CHEN: Thank you.
So what we're going to
be doing today is working
with the M Heinz data set, which
is actually kind of difficult to--
it's freely available.
It's a US governmental data, but it's
actually hard to parse its raw format,
so what we have provided
today is a .text file,
which I've uploaded to this link.
I don't--
COLTON OGDEN: We can
make a bitly for it.
So what is the--
do you want to email me the link, and
then I'll toss a bitly into the chat.
People can click on it, and then
get access to it later on YouTube.
ANDY CHEN: Absolutely, yep.
And then so while I'm
doing that, let's see.
Let's get to email.
Oh, man [INAUDIBLE] piling up.
COLTON OGDEN: If you want
I can go and go here,
so people can see your personal email.
ANDY CHEN: Oh, yeah.
Some people like that.
COLTON OGDEN: Lots of
juicy tidbits in there.
Everybody just go ahead and
look through Andy's email.
Yeah, we'll get to it we'll get a
bitly for everybody in the chat,
if you want to email that to me.
ANDY CHEN: I think it should be sent.
COLTON OGDEN: OK, and we refresh.
Just one sec, everybody.
Sorry for the delay, but this
will be a lot better than typing
a super long mega upload link.
OK, so here I go I got the link.
I'm making the link.
I'm going to copy it to bitly.
If it wants to cooperate.
Copy it over to bitly,
paste it in there.
Get rid of these stupid messages.
ANDY CHEN: They're just
try to show you love, Cole.
COLTON OGDEN: A little bit.
Aw, crap.
OK.
Here, we're good.
We got this.
And edit bitly, get a a copy.
Can customize it?
I can't.
So we're going to call this
bit.ly/biostats_stream.
And so that will be how it works.
Clear all these messages, save that.
It's going to-- I'm going to copy that.
I'm going to go to the chat,
and I'm going to paste that in.
So now if you go to this bitly url.
So it's a bit.ly/biostats_stream.
And let me-- and Asly says, Andy is
such a Hufflepuff with a heart emoji.
ANDY CHEN: Thank you.
COLTON OGDEN: So bit.ly-- let
me make sure this is working--
/biostats_stream.
Yep, it works perfectly.
ANDY CHEN: Good.
And if anybody is curious, go to bit.ly
if you want to have a really long url,
and you want to shorten it
down, you can do that at bit.ly.
Bitly, as it's called.
COLTON OGDEN: Indeed.
OK.
ANDY CHEN: I think we
have a few comments.
Nuwanda333, I am a Hufflepuff.
Thank you, I think.
I think it's a good thing, right?
COLTON OGDEN: I think so.
I think the Hufflepuffs are--
I actually don't know what the--
ANDY CHEN: I think
they're the catch all.
COLTON OGDEN: I think
they're the friendly--
like I actually honestly
don't know too much about it.
ANDY CHEN: OK, well I'll take it.
COLTON OGDEN: All I know
is that they're friendly.
ANDY CHEN: Sure.
And then in response
to TwitchHelloWorld.
So I am doing my masters
in bioinformatics.
COLTON OGDEN: And did you
say you're doing with NCS?
ANDY CHEN: I'm a special
student in the graduate school
of Arts and Sciences, which
means I am sort of a visiting
student within the university.
COLTON OGDEN: Mm.
OK got it, got it.
Makes sense.
Only three megabytes, says faceless
voice [INAUDIBLE] surprised.
The data set is roughly small.
ANDY CHEN: Yay.
It's just text.
COLTON OGDEN: No big data today.
This is small data.
Sort of.
ANDY CHEN: It's approximately
10,000 entries, if I recall.
COLTON OGDEN: That's
actually pretty sizable.
ANDY CHEN: Actually I think
it's exactly 10,000 entries.
COLTON OGDEN: Oh, wow.
Next we'll find the number.
ANDY CHEN: We'll find out.
COLTON OGDEN: Forces me to
install a stupid Chrome add on.
ANDY CHEN: Oh, don't do that.
It's so-- actually let me see if I
can show what it should look like.
Do not install the Chrome add on.
It's-- here.
So can we--
OK great.
So if you hit it once, and
it should, da, da, da--
I don't know what's going on.
No, no, you don't want this.
Do not do this.
This is-- OK.
I think-- there we go.
So you want it actually--
COLTON OGDEN: I guess you
got to click on it twice.
Just don't install the add on.
The upload is a little bit shady.
ANDY CHEN: It's a little--
I wouldn't trust it.
Those kiwis-- no, I'm just kidding.
COLTON OGDEN: Trying to get some
ransomware on everyone's computer
today.
Make a little extra money on the side.
ANDY CHEN: That's actually
what they pay me for.
It's my real job.
But all right, let's get back to R.
The first link on r-project.org is
downloading the language itself.
All right, so what we're going to do
is under the Getting Started section
we're going to go to Download
R, this link right here.
We're going to click it.
And then, so these are--
COLTON OGDEN: We maybe we want to
command plus a couple of times,
just so we can see a little bit.
It's a little small.
ANDY CHEN: Let me see if I can-- yeah.
Is that better?
COLTON OGDEN: Yeah, this
should be pretty good I think.
ANDY CHEN: Cool.
So CRAN is the Comprehensive
R Archive Network,
which is a bunch of mirrors for where
are different distributions of R
are stored.
And so I'm going to go to
one that is closest to me.
It doesn't really matter,
but what, Massachusetts.
Probably CMU.
Pennsylvania, I think
that's the closest one.
Well, if we go back.
CMU Pittsburgh.
Pennsylvania is pretty closest.
COLTON OGDEN: It's
probably, it's pretty close.
ANDY CHEN: I mean doesn't really matter.
COLTON OGDEN: It
doesn't matter too much.
If you're-- maybe if you're abroad
it might make a little bit more
of a difference, a
download speed difference.
But yeah, I choose the mirror most
appropriate to you, to your country.
We do have a lot of people tuning
in from all over the world,
which is always super
awesome. [? RobertSpiri ?]
thank you for joining me.
We are doing some biostats
in R with Andy Chen.
ANDY CHEN: Hello.
A newcomer to the stream.
And we just got everybody sort
of situated with the data set.
So if you're not equipped with
it yet, you can go to this URL.
bit.ly/biostat_stream.
ANDY CHEN: That's a great title.
COLTON OGDEN: It works.
It wasn't taken, thankfully.
No one's done a biostat stream.
ANDY CHEN: This the first ever.
COLTON OGDEN: First ever in history.
ANDY CHEN: Wow, I'm into it.
I feel like I should like frame
this moment, put it over my bed.
COLTON OGDEN: I think you should.
But let's get back to the R
before I get too distracted.
So once we've clicked on an
appropriate mirror for you,
I am going to download R
for Mac OS, because that
is the operating system I'm running.
And then it's-- we are
I think 351 should work,
but we'll go with an older
version, just to be safe.
I'm going to do 333.
To download that.
So on the Mac OS that download at .pkg,
which I think actually is like sort
of a custom installer.
So it's currently downloading, and
then once that's done downloading,
I'm going to click it.
I'm going to double click it.
There we go.
COLTON OGDEN: Go through all the steps.
ANDY CHEN: And then just--
if you want to be particular about
it you should feel welcome to.
It-- oh, so one thing that is actually
very attractive about R in the industry
is it is a commercially-- it's
a free open source software.
So unlike a lot of
commercial statistics,
some industries that do allow
statistics will prefer certain languages
like Stata or SaaS, but R is popular
in certain industries, and in academia
because it's free.
COLTON OGDEN: Makes sense.
And hence maybe why it's becomes so
popular as of the last few years.
ANDY CHEN: Absolutely.
COLTON OGDEN: Facelessvoice in the
chat is saying, what is biostats?
ANDY CHEN: Yeah, that's
a really good question.
So the way that using the term today
is referring to applied statistics
with biological data.
And we talked about this earlier in
the stream, that could technically
be used in the context of
molecular biological data,
but today we're actually going to
be looking at epidemiological data.
Which to reiterate, is
the study and the practice
of response to disease
and its transmission.
COLTON OGDEN: OK.
Makes sense.
Aren't the majority of languages
free, says facelessvoice?
ANDY CHEN: So Stata and Saas
are not free, I don't think.
COLTON OGDEN: Like Matlab I
think has an expensive license.
ANDY CHEN: I think so, yeah.
COLTON OGDEN: Most languages
are free, I would probably say.
I think it's also the environment
is usually a big part of it, too.
ANDY CHEN: That's true.
The environment.
COLTON OGDEN: But in the context
of bio stats it sounds like--
in the context of statistics
it sounds like there
are relative to maybe the
rest of CS, some languages
are environments that are not free.
ANDY CHEN: That's-- yeah.
COLTON OGDEN: That's kind of why
making the case here is important.
ANDY CHEN: I think
that's absolutely true.
And as we'll see and a little bit, I--
this is still installing.
Great.
We have time to talk.
Ooh, no we don't.
Statistics is sort of--
the way that you can use R is
almost like a giant calculator.
Which is different from certain
programming languages, which
is why it's very popular in certain--
in industry and statistics, because
you can just plug it in and plug it out
without having to think about like
scripts or scary CSE kind of things.
COLTON OGDEN: Makes sense.
[? Ahmet Osman ?] says,
this is an awesome stream
by chance of participating
in an MIT hacking medal.
Do giving you advice or recommendations?
ANDY CHEN: I actually I think I
was thinking it apply to that,
but I missed the deadline.
The last MIT hackathon I went
to was a VR/AR AR/VR hackathon?
Advice.
Are you local?
It would be helpful to know if--
do you have any specific questions on
what kind of advice you would like?
Because if not my first thing
is just have a lot of fun
and make a lot of friends.
And get swag.
COLTON OGDEN: Also shout out to
the invisible can of seltzer.
ANDY CHEN: It's the color of my face.
COLTON OGDEN: You can put it in
front of your-- actually [INAUDIBLE]
because all it does, it shows
the background of the grass.
Because you're already
looking at a green background,
but if that was for example
like a red background,
it would probably be a little bit
easier to see that it's invisible.
[? Twitch Hello World, ?] is it also
applicable to epidemiology in terms
of treatment and not just spread?
ANDY CHEN: To epidemiology in terms
of treatment and not just spread.
Hm.
I suppose you could probably get
some interesting data out of--
well, actually I'll say it this way.
I think a lot of epidemiologists
will say that the treatment requires
understanding the situation,
understanding the context,
and the only way to do that, or one
of the best tools we have to do that,
is through statistical analysis.
And so treatment-- in the
real world epidemiologists
have to face sort of issues of,
this might be the best medicine,
but is it cost effective?
Can we get it there in time?
There's a lot of logistics involved.
And if you have statistical data
about how the disease is spreading,
where it's spreading, and what actual
demographics are being affected,
you can make really good
logistical and business decisions
that will maximize the medical
impact that you do have.
And so in terms of treatment, not
in the development of treatment,
but absolutely in the execution and
the decision making of what treatment
is probably best.
COLTON OGDEN: Makes sense.
Biostats is equal to
epidemiology plus statistics,
definition from [? Vert ?]
[? Lu's ?] school.
ANDY CHEN: I-- you know what?
I like that definition, yeah.
I think all definitions need to be a
little fluid, because people use them
in different ways in different
contexts, and they evolve over time.
But I like that definition.
COLTON OGDEN: Andre, what would you
say are the biggest advantages of R
over Python?
ANDY CHEN: Hmm.
I actually am much, much more
into Python than I am into R.
But the biggest advantage
of R over Python?
Oh, piping.
You can do lots of really
cool things with piping, which
is like sort of feeding processes.
It's kind of hard to explain, but
I think we'll talk about it later.
And the other thing is, I
think R is a little more
approachable to people who are--
Python is a little more--
it's actually less abstract,
but it's a little more similar
to traditional computer science--
like programming language
and environments--
to the point where I think a lot people
are uncomfortable getting into it.
It's like, oh, computer science.
Whereas R is very-- the GUI
is very much as we'll see--
the GUI for R studio is a pretty
familiar environment to at work in.
You can just use it like a calculator.
COLTON OGDEN: That makes sense.
Great.
ANDY CHEN: So lets--
I downloaded.
Oh, R is installed.
So if I check R, it's installed.
Great.
So, well actually let's open that.
So R itself does have a
command line environment
if you want to work in it by itself.
But I don't know where it went.
COLTON OGDEN: I think it
came up and then instantly--
ANDY CHEN: It died.
COLTON OGDEN: Yeah.
ANDY CHEN: Uh-oh.
I hope that's not--
that's not even working.
OK well, we'll get to
that when we get to that.
Let's go to RStudio.
All right, so again this is the
integrated development environment
in which we'll be working with the
R language, and to install RStudio
we're going to go to this link,
which is again rstudio.com,
going to choose Download under RStudio.
So this is RStudio right here, and
we're going to choose this link here,
which is Download.
All right, and we're going to choose the
RStudio that's top open source license,
and as Colton was saying earlier,
some of the IDE insert languages
do cost money to use,
and RStudio is a common--
is a popular one because
it's also free, sort of.
Depending on your usages,
as you'll see here.
COLTON OGDEN: Yeah,
it looks like they do
have different licenses, different
commercial licenses and whatnot.
They get pretty expensive.
ANDY CHEN: Yeah, $30,000 a year.
COLTON OGDEN: That is expensive.
ANDY CHEN: That's about how much
I dropped my boats every month.
I wish.
COLTON OGDEN: Making
that sweet stats money.
ANDY CHEN: Although if you call it data
science, slap data science on there,
you make a lot of money that way.
COLTON OGDEN: Yeah, pretty much.
ANDY CHEN: All right, so
it brings you down to here,
and so again I'm running Mac OS.
So I'm going to download that.
And then this is more of
a traditional-- at least
I don't know how the distribution
is for the other operating systems,
but this is more of a
traditional Mac type installer.
So it's just like, it comes
up, and then you drag and drop
into your applications folder, and
then it bounces an image I think.
Once it's done downloading.
Great.
COLTON OGDEN: Yeah, looks good.
The DMG?
ANDY CHEN: Yeah, DMG, exactly.
COLTON OGDEN: If you're
on the Windows, there
would probably be something
somewhere that-- they'll probably
have an installer, an MSI that as
an application of some Program Files
folder.
ANDY CHEN: So that's in there.
COLTON OGDEN: But then they make
it easy, is what it looks like.
ANDY CHEN: Right, yes.
COLTON OGDEN: Relatively.
ANDY CHEN: Oh, I guess
I'll check some other way.
Ooh, my secrets.
COLTON OGDEN: Well your text messages.
ANDY CHEN: Uh-oh.
COLTON OGDEN: A deep dive
in your text history here.
ANDY CHEN: Ruh-ro.
COLTON OGDEN: OK, [? Ahmet Osman ?]
says I'm Egyptian living in Saudi,
and they're coming here and
I just got the invitation.
Actually today after 12
hours going to start.
The advice I'd be interested in
is, how could the stream benefit me
in the context of health care buisness.
I'm also an MIT Enterprise
forum competitor for 2014,
and hell yeah I was a lot of fun.
ANDY CHEN: Nice.
OK, let's see.
[INAUDIBLE] I got the
invitation [INAUDIBLE] 12 hours.
Oh OK, so it's coming soon.
What would be [INAUDIBLE] how this
[INAUDIBLE] in context of health
care business.
This is hacking medicine, right?
I think unless you have a very specific
niche in mind, a topic or a field
that you want to go into in
health business, probably
the single best thing that
you can get out of a hackathon
like this is just the network.
Right?
Spend as much time as you
can-- well obviously focus
on your project, whatever your hack is.
But meet cool people.
People come there because they're smart,
they're passionate, they're driven.
And so there are very
few opportunities in life
where you can kind of have
in like what, 24 hours,
meet potentially a hundred people who
are really interesting, really smart.
And if they don't have specifically
what you need, they might later on,
or maybe they know someone who can.
But unless you-- the
other thing is, if you
have something you are
very specific in, I
would look up at the list of
sponsors, list of speakers,
and try to be very strategic about
the resources that are available
and the people there
are there that you can
talk to try to get into whatever
in health care business.
Or health care business you get into.
COLTON OGDEN: Great.
Good response.
Jack [INAUDIBLE] saying it's
inexecutable for Windows,
but it download froze at 100 percent.
That is unfortunate.
I would maybe just try
it again, probably.
I've had that happen to me
on Windows a couple of times.
And Chrome.
Chrome will say that
the download is going,
and then when you gets 100 percent it
will just kind of chill for a while.
But yeah.
That would-- for me as well.
Let it be.
Sometimes you have to
wait it out a little bit,
and then it'll save the larger
files and Chrome into a--
yeah exactly.
[? Babbick Night ?] just said it will
complete, and then you can install.
ANDY CHEN: (SINGING)
Let it be, let it be.
COLTON OGDEN: Just don't divorce too
many ex-wives, that gets expensive
says [? Twitch Hello World. ?]
ANDY CHEN: Oh, nice.
That's good advice, keep it in mind.
All right, so speaking of [INAUDIBLE]
a few minutes while people catch up,
I think.
It's-- so I can open this up.
So this is what RStudio looks like.
COLTON OGDEN: Does it
get any bigger by chance?
It is a little small.
Might be small on the screen.
ANDY CHEN: Yeah, I can do that.
COLTON OGDEN: Beautiful.
ANDY CHEN: Well actually
that's real nice.
COLTON OGDEN: That's great.
ANDY CHEN: Yeah.
So RStudio has-- let me actually
I don't like this full screen.
COLTON OGDEN: You need option
plus it'll expand without actually
going to full screen mode.
Or option, click the plus.
ANDY CHEN: Way out here?
COLTON OGDEN: The green plus, yeah.
Hold Option and click that green plus.
ANDY CHEN: Oh.
COLTON OGDEN: No, this
green one up here.
No, yeah, that one.
ANDY CHEN: Thank you, that's a
good-- that's a good hack to know.
COLTON OGDEN: I had the same
issue with another application.
I forgot what it was, and I wasn't
having any of the full screen.
Oh, and I forgot to shout out to all
of the people to that followed now
and before the streams.
Let's do that really fast.
So we have Notice, and actually it
looks like [? Digleen, ?] [INAUDIBLE]
[? Conciliated, ?]
[? Stadium'91 ?] you [INAUDIBLE]..
We have Alaska Ukraine,
Newtown kings, savage X factor.
Tono A 30, and Kate@00.
Thank all of you for following today.
ANDY CHEN: Yeah, thanks for coming out.
COLTON OGDEN: Quite a
good number of people.
ANDY CHEN: If I had Thanksgiving
leftovers, I would share it,
but I ate them all.
COLTON OGDEN: Oh, yeah.
ANDY CHEN: In my tummy.
COLTON OGDEN: You did the right thing.
What do we see, we have a
blackjack counting card.
ANDY CHEN: I don't know what that is.
COLTON OGDEN: Steve [INAUDIBLE] sent a
blackjack counting cards link and see
it looks like high-low.
High-low be like the classic phrase.
Yeah.
Cool.
ANDY CHEN: Nice.
By Robert Springer.
COLTON OGDEN: Oh, Robert Springer.
Gotta run.
Keep up the good work.
Thanks Rob for tuning in.
Hopefully catch it on YouTube.
We'll see you next time.
And good, it sounds like Jack Welch
got the download working after all.
Yeah, sometimes chrome is weird like
that or whatever browser on Windows.
It just takes a couple seconds.
ANDY CHEN: To finish up.
COLTON OGDEN: Not sure
why, but, you know.
Such is life.
ANDY CHEN: Great.
OK, so now we've opened up RStudio,
which is our integrated development
environment in which we'll
be working with R. Great, so
let's familiarize ourself a little
bit with how the actually works.
So you actually have your
console here, terminal if you
want to do some command line stuff.
LS, CD.
COLTON OGDEN: That's
like your actual terminal
for Mac versus the console
being like within RStudio.
ANDY CHEN: Correct, yeah.
I think it's-- yeah.
It's wait.
I forget how command line works.
Well anyways, it's there
if you want to use it.
COLTON OGDEN: Beautiful.
ANDY CHEN: And then, so over
here this is a sort of--
and I don't know how to
describe this little panel here,
but this is where all of your values,
all your variables will be stored.
Not stored, it will be displayed.
So you can actually look at them.
I'm going to get rid of
that, because you're not
supposed to be able to see that yet.
The environment is empty.
And so there's a little
broom brushes right here,
and we'll let you clear stuff.
If for example I had some variables
in here that I just cleared,
which I just did.
Let's say--
COLTON OGDEN: They've
abstracted it into a brush?
ANDY CHEN: Yeah, it's very--
COLTON OGDEN: Scoop all
the garbage out there.
ANDY CHEN: It's very high level.
It's not machine code, it's human code.
COLTON OGDEN: Yeah.
ANDY CHEN: So let's say that I
have a very messy console, right?
It's messy, and I clean it.
Oh look, it's clean.
For those of you who like clean
consoles, that's a very nifty--
COLTON OGDEN: Clear consols are nice.
ANDY CHEN: Clean consoles are very nice.
COLTON OGDEN: Clear and terminal
as well, shout out to Clear.
ANDY CHEN: Oh, really?
Just clear.
Oh, dude, I'm getting
all the tips, Colton.
COLTON OGDEN: We had we
had a Linux command stream.
Nick?
ANDY CHEN: Yeah, Nick.
COLTON OGDEN: Right, yeah we had
a lot of juicy tidbits in there.
I don't know if Clear was
one of the things that--
does Python have something similar
for the environment window?
ANDY CHEN: It depends
on what your IDE is.
I usually work in Jupiter and
notebook, which I think does actually.
I just don't know what
command is in Jupiter.
COLTON OGDEN: I don't
work too much in those.
I know PyCharm is--
people love PyCharm.
I'm not if that has
something similar as well?
ANDY CHEN: Mm, I'm not sure.
COLTON OGDEN: That's getting a lot of
popularity in the Python community,
if it hasn't already for a long time.
ANDY CHEN: Right it's--
I mean that seems like it's a pretty
useful thing to be able to do.
So I imagine a lot of popular
IDE's have that available.
Windows defender scanner-- oh.
COLTON OGDEN: Oh, yeah.
Yeah, good point [? Jacob ?] about the--
or [INAUDIBLE] about
the Windows Defender.
That would make sense.
It just wants to make sure you're
not giving everybody viruses.
ANDY CHEN: They got me.
COLTON OGDEN: Step by step by
step, every step of the way.
[INAUDIBLE] I'm guessing PyCharm
are the ones you talked about.
ANDY CHEN: OK.
Well actually I think
there's a faceless-- no.
There's an health interest in patients
with learning disabilities and autism.
Mm-hmm.
That's not my field, but the fact that
you have something narrow and specific,
that means that you should
definitely-- if that's
something you want to
be working in, look up
the list of guests, the list of
speakers, list of companies who
are supporting, and also maybe
if there's a list of other people
who are joining, and then try to
reach out to them as much as possible.
And then brainstorm some ideas.
COLTON OGDEN: And [INAUDIBLE],,
thank you very much for following.
ANDY CHEN: Hi.
All right so, this is our studio, and
the first thing we're going to be doing
is importing the data set.
So actually I should probably give a few
words on the data set we're working on.
COLTON OGDEN: Oh, yeah
definitely describe what
it is, and the full name of it too.
ANDY CHEN: Absolutely.
So NHANES, is the National
Health and Nutrition Examination
Survey, which is a
very long running and I
think it's an annual survey that covers
actually a lot of different things.
But it's a CDC study that
happens pretty much every year.
There's NHANES one two and three,
which cover different things,
but if you explore the website--
let's see.
About NHANES, blah,
blah, blah, blah, blah.
You can have access to
what the questions are
the way that the
interviewers actually got
this information from their patients,
but so there are a lot of things
that you can learn about.
So anemia, cardiovascular disease,
diabetes, environmental exposures,
eye diseases, et cetera, et cetera.
And yeah.
So it's readily available
on the CDC website,
however the way to
actually use the data--
so it's readily available, but the
way to actually get into the data is
a little bit confusing, which is why
we're using a pre-rendered .text,
nhanes.text file, because in R--
so the reason it's difficult to parse
is, a lot of these data, these files,
come out in Sas, which is the
language you talked about earlier,
in Sas format which we cannot use in R.
So that's why we're using this dot text
that we have in the mega upload link.
COLTON OGDEN: Cool.
Makes sense.
ANDY CHEN: Sure so--
COLTON OGDEN: Do you have a specific
field you're interested in applying to,
Andy, says [? Twitch Hello World. ?]
ANDY CHEN: Oh, hm.
Yeah, that's a really good question.
I think-- so the work that I
support in the lab that I work in
is regenerative biology.
And so I suppose I would be interested
in going into regenerative medicine
as a field.
COLTON OGDEN: Like stem cells?
ANDY CHEN: Yeah.
Exactly.
It's part of the Harvard Stem
Cell Initiative, or Institute.
HSCI.
A lot of I's.
COLTON OGDEN: Get
those limbs grown back.
ANDY CHEN: It's absolutely.
If you guys are interested, you should
look up axolotls, A-X-O-L-O-T-L.
These are tiger salamanders and
anbystoma salamanders that if you cut
their arms off, they go right back.
And I think parts of their hearts and
their tails and parts of the brain.
COLTON OGDEN: Soon to be human DNA.
ANDY CHEN: You heard it here.
You heard it here first, folks.
COLTON OGDEN: That would be pretty cool.
ANDY CHEN: All right, so I think.
Nice, bro, thanks.
I'd definitely like to friend you.
How could I get your contacts?
I think if you email one of
us, or email Cole later on, he
can probably put you in touch.
Cool.
And then [INAUDIBLE] says
I opened it, now what.
If you tell me--
I'm not sure what you opened, but if
you give us a little more information we
can probably try to help troubleshoot.
COLTON OGDEN: Maybe the R Studio.
Maybe they're thinking--
ANDY CHEN: Oh, now what we do.
Oh, sorry we got
distracted by the comments.
Let's finish up some
of the comments, then
we can get into R. Soon
to be on wolverines.
True.
COLTON OGDEN: Yeah, that's true.
Then we will-- that's the whole
goal, the whole motivation.
ANDY CHEN: That's the
only reason I'm doing it.
Let's be honest.
Do you do brain regeneration?
I've been helping stroke rehab.
Oh, that's really awesome.
So I don't personally study
any brain regeneration,
and actually most of the
stuff I do is computational.
But there is a lot happening in
the field of brain regeneration
in zebrafish and axolotls,
so there are definitely
a lot of faculty professors out
there who are studying that.
There was a [INAUDIBLE].
OK, cool.
[? Heard ?] something on edX
and I should have instead ted--
Oh, TED.
Well, I got rep edX because
they're right above us.
OK, so back to the IDE.
So this is what the IDE
looks like when you open it.
So now what we're going to do is we're
going to open the NHANES data set,
and the way-- there's actually
two or three ways to do that,
but in terms of the actual
interacting with the GUI
there's two ways to do that.
So the first one is, under
this environment pane
right here there is the import
data set drop down menu.
And so we're going to
click that and then
we're going to import
a data set from text,
and then base is the
second part of that.
And so we're going to navigate
to where our NHANES is,
and so it should come up with an import
data set window that looks like this.
And then what we're going to do
is we're going to do heading,
we're going to check yes
just to make it pretty.
So if you notice this is what
it looks like if heading is yes.
The actual heading's in the file itself,
and here's what looks like if it's no.
In which case V1 is not
nearly as apt as ID.
So we're going to do that.
And then we're going to import.
COLTON OGDEN: Makes sense.
ANDY CHEN: Yeah.
So there you have it.
We actually-- in this window that popped
up above our console and terminal,
we actually have the data
itself visualized in the IDE.
COLTON OGDEN: It's effectively
sort of turned into Excel.
ANDY CHEN: Essentially, yeah.
It's a spreadsheet
inside of your IDE, which
is one of the reasons why
R-- well RStudio's popular is
you can work your statistics and
have access to the spreadsheet
that you're working with.
Which I think you can probably
do in certain R-- or Python IDEs,
but most are not I don't
think designed to do that.
COLTON OGDEN: Makes sense.
ANDY CHEN: So let's actually take
a walk through the NHANES data set,
and just check out what's inside.
So IDE is the idea of the patient.
That's not super
interesting to us, but--
so we have a survey year.
So I think all of these
might be 2009, 2010.
Yeah, because these are-- it's NHANES
is an annual survey, or roughly
an annual survey.
I think it's to us and
time that I might be wrong.
We also have gender.
Well probably a more apt term
in usage common parlance today
would be sex, the physical
sex of an individual.
Age and then bracketed
into age decade, which
we'll talk about why they did that.
We're going to talk about a little
bit about the kinds of variables
that people use in statistics,
because that determines what kind
of statistical tests you will run those
on when you're trying to figure things
out from the analysis.
Age months, race, education
level, whether or not they're
married, their income.
So there's a lot of
socioeconomics in it, too.
Even like the number
of rooms in your house.
It's kind of an interesting
data point to have.
Whether they're working, their weights.
So socioeconomics, physical
characteristics, BMI.
So we're getting a little
bit more towards some health
characteristics, some disease statuses.
Sati?
Statuses?
COLTON OGDEN: I think statuses is--
ANDY CHEN: Statuses?
COLTON OGDEN: I think if we're doing
official Latin it would be statiae,
but I think that statuses.
ANDY CHEN: Oh, is this
supposed to be in Latin?
I think I didn't get the memo.
COLTON OGDEN: Yeah, the rest of
it's going to have to be in Latin.
Sorry.
ANDY CHEN: Pulse, et cetera.
There's actually a lot.
So there are-- we'll see
exactly-- well actually right here
there are 10,000 entries, it says.
But I'll also be showing you a line that
will tell you how many rows there are.
Blood pressure, systolic, diastolic.
Testosterone levels, direct
cholesterol, the volume of your urine,
something I always
want to know of course.
Diabetes, the days
with bad mental health,
depression, number of pregnancies,
babies, alcohol consumption.
There's a lot.
So the what I'm trying to say is,
NHANES is a not comprehensive,
but is a very, very wide
breath data set that you
can actually-- if you're
interested in learning
about parsing this data to look
if there are any trends that you
want to learn about, it's a really
good data set to start with.
COLTON OGDEN: Yeah.
Looks like there's a
lot of fields in there.
ANDY CHEN: A lot of fields--
marijuana, age of first marijuana.
COLTON OGDEN: Definitely,
the more information
you have is more useful obviously,
than having less information.
ANDY CHEN: Absolutely.
That's what all data
scientists will tell you.
Hard drugs?
Yes please!
That's for the consumption of have you
ever consumed hard drugs, I imagine.
And then some sexual activity.
And yeah.
So that's all the different
things we have here.
So this is the enhanced data set.
So that's one of the ways to import it.
Let's clean this out right let's
say that we're starting over.
COLTON OGDEN: Asa had a good question.
She said the first
three IDs are the same.
Was the same patient tested
thrice on different occasions?
ANDY CHEN: Ooh, that's
a really good question.
Well, let's open it again first.
The other way to do it is File,
Import Data Set from Text Base.
Great.
And again, we want to check heading.
All right.
That's a really good question.
It looks like it's repeated.
So if you look at actually all the
other data, it is exactly the same.
So like for example, the
number of rooms is 6, 6, and 6.
9, not working.
I think this-- yeah.
So the first individual--
COLTON OGDEN: It's the same ID too.
So maybe you would put this-- like, you
would sort of make a set of the data
where every idea is different.
ANDY CHEN: Right.
So that's probably really good idea.
There appears to have been
a replication error here.
COLTON OGDEN: And asking it's
actual people's data, right?
L-o-l.
ANDY CHEN: Yeah, no, this
is publicly available.
It's off the CDC website.
COLTON OGDEN: I heard that China created
genetically modified babies recently.
ANDY CHEN: Yeah, like yesterday.
They talked about like, two
days ago, one of the scientists
had someone CRISPR, which
is a gene editing technique.
One of the, I think, probably like,
T cell receptors for an HIV virus
out of a--
they CRISPRed it out of a baby's
genome so that they don't have there--
So the way that HIV works is it--
the immunologists might
get on me, but it's
a virus that attacks one of the
cells that's critical for it
to the human immune system.
My understanding of what happened
with that China baby case
is the father had HIV or AIDS.
And then so the
scientist CRISPRed, which
is a gene editing [? talent, ?]
CRISPRed the gene for one of the cell
receptors out of the genome so
that the baby's immune system
cells can actually-- the HIV has
no way of getting inside the cell.
COLTON OGDEN: Interesting.
They have to do that when
the baby is like practically
like, just after being a zygote.
Because otherwise you'd have edit--
ANDY CHEN: A trillion,
like, a billion cells.
COLTON OGDEN: So they do it
when it's just impregnate--
or the woman is just
impregnated probably.
ANDY CHEN: That's probably
very, very early on.
Actually, I have no idea
how they did it in humans.
I don't if it was in the woman herself,
or if it was more like a test tube baby
situation.
COLTON OGDEN: Yeah,
that would make sense.
That would make sense.
That would be easier.
In vitro probably would
be really difficult.
ANDY CHEN: Yeah, it probably would be.
Well, I don't know.
I don't [INAUDIBLE].
COLTON OGDEN: Like,
for the woman, I feel
like it could be difficult
to be constant operated on.
If there was like, repeated follow up.
ANDY CHEN: Right.
Plus like, there was like, sort
of health questions about--
I don't know how you would isolate
the baby specifically inside of--
COLTON OGDEN: It would be rough.
ANDY CHEN: That actually
brings up a good point.
That's one of the reasons
why gene therapies are
sort of questionable, is
because like, they generally
work on the scale of single cells.
And so if you're trying to do
provide gene therapy for an adult,
that's a lot of cells that
the retrovirus [INAUDIBLE]..
COLTON OGDEN: If I were a
scientist working in that,
I have no obviously, information
about that or context.
But I would imagine it'd be easier
just to start from the very beginning
and get just the sperm and the egg,
and then manipulate those cells.
And then those cells
would then replicate.
And then the therapy that we've
provided to the original cell
would then propagate to the other cells.
ANDY CHEN: Exactly, yeah.
COLTON OGDEN: But I'm no expert.
ANDY CHEN: Yeah.
That's how that would work.
It's much easier if
you start earlier on.
Anyways, I think we have some question.
Gattaca becoming real?
Gattaca is becoming real.
It's true.
COLTON OGDEN: I actually
don't know what that is.
ANDY CHEN: It's a Battlestar Galactica.
It's a SyFy series.
I think there's like very similar to
human robots that are-- or something.
The gattacas I think, are the--
I mean, I might be getting this wrong.
I've never seen it.
Enhance is a dot text.
COLTON OGDEN: Do we need to hook
you up with a power supply probably?
ANDY CHEN: 58%?
I think I'm OK for now.
But I do have one in my pack in
case I need to get it at some point.
COLTON OGDEN: OK.
If you want to continue, we're
probably running low on battery.
You can keep going and then
just give me your power supply,
and I'll plug it in for you right now.
ANDY CHEN: Sure.
It's in my blue bag in the
main folded under the jacket.
Cool.
So now that we have
opened [INAUDIBLE] and we
can sort of look through the data
here, let's just use R as a calculator.
Because that is one of
the reasons it's popular,
RStudio is popular is
because it's easy to use.
It doesn't look exactly like
you're coding hard core.
It's easy for-- ooh--
COLTON OGDEN: What happened?
ANDY CHEN: It's a black screen.
COLTON OGDEN: Did your
computer go to sleep?
ANDY CHEN: No, I don't think so.
Well, there we go.
Thank you so much.
COLTON OGDEN: [INAUDIBLE] I believe.
ANDY CHEN: Teamwork
makes the dream work.
Very nice.
COLTON OGDEN: I'm not sure
why your screen went black.
ANDY CHEN: Yeah, I'm not sure.
Maybe it just hate me.
COLTON OGDEN: That's probably it.
I think you figured it out.
ANDY CHEN: You can use
like, a giant calculator.
For instance, Colton,
off the top of your head,
what is the product of 933 times 186?
COLTON OGDEN: If I got that
right, that would be amazing.
ANDY CHEN: Yeah.
Do it, do it, do it.
COLTON OGDEN: 900 times 100
would be-- what would that--
That would be 90,000.
So I'm guessing like, 126,000 something.
ANDY CHEN: Give me some
random digits in there.
COLTON OGDEN: 1, 2, 6--
1, 2, 6, 1, 4, 4?
ANDY CHEN: 1, 2, 6, 1, 4, 4.
I mean, in the same order
of magnitude, 170,538.
COLTON OGDEN: I'm terrible
at that kind of math.
ANDY CHEN: So I actually sometimes I
use R for my homework for my problem
sets because if I don't have a pen
or paper, I can like, put it in here.
I can remember it.
So we're doing this in console.
Should I do this in a script?
What do you think?
COLTON OGDEN: You do what--
you multiply 16 by 16.
[INTERPOSING VOICES]
ANDY CHEN: Can you do it Colton?
Hold on.
Block the screen.
Block the screen.
COLTON OGDEN: Is at 100 and-- wait.
No, no it's not 196.
What is it?
Because what's 16 times 6?
What's 10 times 6?
[INAUDIBLE] So what?
60 plus 96?
Would it be 254?
ANDY CHEN: 256, dog.
You're close.
You're close.
I did it off the top of my head.
COLTON OGDEN: I got--
clearly.
Yeah.
So in the console, we can
actually run R commands here.
But we can also actually--
New Script-- we can run it as
a script in the folder up here.
So as you notice on the screen,
we just open up a new thing right
here, a new R script.
And so if you want to do 16 times 16--
and we so we wrote it.
And then we run it, it'll print 16
times 16 down here in your console.
COLTON OGDEN: So it's
kind of like Python
in that you can execute
line by line exact script.
ANDY CHEN: And I think that's
because it's interpreted,
not because it gets compiled.
COLTON OGDEN: Yeah, that makes sense.
ANDY CHEN: So for instance, I
do my homework here sometimes.
So let's say like, a
product is 82 times 93.
Later on, I'll be like, oh I want to
actually know 40 times the product.
So I'll be like, oh I don't know,
but I can do 40 times product
and then run it.
I'll have to run from the top.
So one thing that you
should know about the script
is you have to write it from the top.
It is not stored in local memory.
It needs to run before it happens.
If you are used to using Jupyter
Notebook, it's really similar to that.
So we run.
We stored 8,293 into a
variable called product.
And so product is now in memory, which
is we talked about it before here where
our local variables are.
Or I guess-- in the context
of this, [INAUDIBLE]..
COLTON OGDEN: Yeah,
just your environment.
So whatever your current--
ANDY CHEN: Things.
I don't know if you would call
it a global local variable.
COLTON OGDEN: There's like, a frame.
I think it's called a frame.
And it basically just whatever all the--
it's global environment.
So I imagine it's got its own
global variables in this context?
ANDY CHEN: I think so.
Yeah, that would make sense.
Let's go with that.
So let's say that later
on my homework, like, oh!
Now I need to take 40 times product.
I don't remember what product
was, but hey, it's stored here.
So I can get one product.
It's 305,040.
Who knew?
R did.
COLTON OGDEN: Yeah.
R has got the hookup.
ANDY CHEN: I got the hookup.
COLTON OGDEN: And thanks to
Twitch Hello World saying I'm
a good sport, [INAUDIBLE] for saying
Colton is super smart, though.
He just can't multiply.
And I'm actually
disappointed, because now I
realize that we did ask,
though, 16 by 16 in the chat.
I feel like it's something a programmer
should know, just off of their head
now.
16 times 16, because 256, right?
I feel like that's something that
I have to have that memorized.
ANDY CHEN: I definitely would
not be able to do that yet.
COLTON OGDEN: Corrugated Drop,
thank you very much for following.
We're doing live mental
multiplication on stream.
It's great.
ANDY CHEN: Yeah.
All right.
So let's see.
So let's oh actually-- so the third
way to load data set is as follows.
In your script or in your
console-- because they
are sort of functionally
a [INAUDIBLE] in the sense
that what other commands you write in
console you can also do in scripts.
The difference is scripts,
you can run over and over.
It's being stored as like,
as a program, as a script.
So the other way that
we can load a data set
is I'm just going to make
a variable called NHANES.
And I'm going to store it as read.dlim.
And then whenever the
location of my data set, which
is as follows, if I do that, then
what has actually been done is I've
stored NHANES in a
variable called NHANES.
So let's try that again.
Let's say that my look
environment is empty.
If I run this command--
whoops.
It does not like that.
That should work.
I wonder why it's not working.
It's a period here.
That should be a--
COLTON OGDEN: And it
should be Downloads, right?
ANDY CHEN: Ooh, good catch.
Maybe?
Yeah, there we go!
And so it pops up.
Thank you, Colton.
COLTON OGDEN: I try, you know.
That's what friends are for.
ANDY CHEN: Teamwork.
Teamwork brought to you by teamwork,
the official drink of teamwork.
COLTON OGDEN: Yeah, exactly.
ANDY CHEN: So as you'll notice, the
NHANES data site pops up on your right,
right here.
So that's the third way
to import a data set.
So now that we have our
data set here, let's--
and so earlier, I was
mentioning on how it
might be useful to know
how big your data set is.
And so one of the really easy ways to do
that is there's a command called NRow.
If we call NRow, and then pass
in NHANES as its argument,
when the return's done--
so I've saved it.
I keep forgetting.
Now we have to actually run it.
In our console it
returns NRow is called.
NHANES is passed in as the argument.
And it returns 10,000.
COLTON OGDEN: So it just
basically show for number of rows?
ANDY CHEN: Number of rows.
Yeah.
So it's a very good--
if you forget like,
how big your thing is,
it's a very useful command for that.
COLTON OGDEN: Cool.
Great
ANDY CHEN: All right,
so Colton, you were
talking earlier about making a subset
of data that would be interesting.
So I suggest that today.
And not a suggestion.
This is the only way
we're going to do it,
because it's the only
thing I have notes for.
Let's make a subset of the data
for just pediatric patients.
So conceivably, can you
think of a situation
where I would like to know a certain
data from the NHANES population,
but I only care about
knowing it and in children?
COLTON OGDEN: Check for age?
So check for age is less than 18?
ANDY CHEN: Yeah, exactly.
So the way we do that-- whoops.
We're going to go back into our script.
We're going to take a new
variable called NHANES pediatric.
And then say we're going to call
a subset, which is a function that
subsets a data set into a new data set.
And then it's going to take in the
original NHANES as an argument.
And then we're going to give it
these parameters where the age--
so what this line is
doing is we're making
a new variable called NHANES pediatric.
We're going to call subset and
passed in NHANES original data set
as the n argument with
the caveat that we only
want entries rows individuals whose
age, which let me open NHANES here--
it's actually a column
here-- and age were here--
the value of it is equal
to or less than 18.
And so that makes someone a pediatric.
COLTON OGDEN: OK, makes sense.
ANDY CHEN: So let's run it.
And oh look!
Right here popped up a new data
set in our global environment.
And so we have successfully
substituted the NHANES data
set to the point where we're only
looking at pediatric individuals.
COLTON OGDEN: And then
Faceless Voice is saying
could you remove the duplicate IDs?
Do you know off hand how to do that?
Is there a set [INAUDIBLE] off of a key?
ANDY CHEN: You know, there's
a way to do it, but I--
let's think about it.
OK, so.
We could run that again.
So where ID is 5, 1 is not equal to--
I wonder of that'll work.
It'll get rid of the original.
COLTON OGDEN: It'll get rid of all
of just the 5, 1, 6, 2, 4's, but that
won't actually make it a set.
I'm curious if there's
like, an R set function.
That would be pretty handy.
Sets.
Make set with order.
There's a lot of documentation.
Let me see.
R set on key.
I feel like that would be--
there's so many function
called like, set key.
What's the purpose of
setting a key in data.table?
ANDY CHEN: Every time I do a deep dive
into the docs, I die a little bit.
COLTON OGDEN: How to perform a
cumulative sum of the unique IDs only.
ANDY CHEN: So Twitch Hello
World, is this similar to Excel?
There are a lot of things that you
could do in Excel that you can do in R.
But there are arguably more things you
can do in R than you can do an Excel.
R is a-- some people call
it a statistical language,
because it's very useful to perform--
it's very easy and useful
for statistical analysis.
But a lot of things you can do in Excel,
but R is more powerful in the sense
that it's more low level, and you
can implement your own functions.
Although you can do that
with macros in Excel.
But I think it's more
powerful, it's more low level.
COLTON OGDEN: Yeah they
wanted to figure out how
to get rid of all the duplicate ideas.
Yeah, if you don't know
the function offhand,
we can maybe forge ahead and then--
it looks like it's somewhat hard to--
oh, maybe the unique functions
[INAUDIBLE] is saying?
R unique function.
Oh, OK.
So what Unique will do
is it will actually just
get rid of all duplicate rows, which
I think will work for R use case.
ANDY CHEN: Yeah, I think it does.
Yeah.
COLTON OGDEN: So just call
yeah, I guess, unique first.
You'd be like, NHANES unique, because
you probably want to do it after the--
or I guess you want to on that.
Yeah, that works.
ANDY CHEN: Yeah, either way, I
think it's would probably be OK.
OK admitted [INAUDIBLE].
Let's look at how many rows there are.
COLTON OGDEN: Oh, but you probably want
to assign it to a variable too, right?
ANDY CHEN: Yes.
Into itself, you think?
COLTON OGDEN: Sure, yeah.
ANDY CHEN: So let's run that.
Cool.
OK.
So let's actually--
COLTON OGDEN: So then you can print
n rows on NHANES pediatric and then
before you do the function, yeah.
ANDY CHEN: And then that will
tell us how many individuals.
So we should see at least three fewer.
COLTON OGDEN: So thanks Bella,
for tossing that in the chat.
Magus 503 says it also duplicated.
So I guess that will give
us how many are the same?
ANDY CHEN: Are the same?
That's a good one to know.
Thank you.
COLTON OGDEN: It looks like it's
printing out for some reason.
ANDY CHEN: Yeah.
But that's because I haven't
saved it to a variable.
COLTON OGDEN: Oh, I see.
Gotcha.
ANDY CHEN: So if we did not
call unique, then what happens
is we have 2,628 entries.
And if we do end up calling
it, we have 2,246 entries.
COLTON OGDEN: OK, nice.
So there's 400 duplicates.
ANDY CHEN: That's quite a lot.
COLTON OGDEN: Duplicates.
ANDY CHEN: Duplicitous.
What does duplicitous mean?
COLTON OGDEN: Good question.
I actually don't know.
ANDY CHEN: Like serendipitous?
COLTON OGDEN: We can--
we can use the good old dictionary app.
Duplicitous, deceitful.
ANDY CHEN: Oh really?
Oh!
Oh, that makes sense.
COLTON OGDEN: Treacherous, duplicitous.
ANDY CHEN: Treacherous!
COLTON OGDEN: The
Vocabulary stream as well.
ANDY CHEN: Yeah, we're
learning lots of things today.
Great.
So now we have made a subset
with unique individuals.
Very nice.
OK.
COLTON OGDEN: And we did it live.
We figured it out live, even better.
Even better.
Thanks to the Twitch stream
for shouting it out for us.
They got our back.
They always got our back.
ANDY CHEN: We always got your back.
Oh actually, so this is interesting.
In statistics in general,
if you have a data set
and you have information that
is what you think erroneous,
or it's absent-- like,
for instance, let's
say you have an individual who didn't
give an age or a gender or a BMI et
cetera, you have to consider is there
a reason for why that data was omitted.
Because there might be
an underlying factor
there and that is actually
causing that data to be admitted.
That's just something that you have
to be considerate of when you're
performing biostatistical analysis.
So for instance, let's say that--
so the sum function is interesting.
It's going to count how many
times the argument occurs.
And I'm going to say is .na, which
is saying the thing is not a thing.
It's confusing, but I'll
explain it in a minute.
Let's look at NHANES pediatric.
And then we use a dollar sign,
which is to parse into and say hey,
which variable are we looking at?
I think most of these are
going to be not empty.
So blood pressure systolic av.
That's some kind of
blood pressure thing.
So my guess is that there's going to
be some empties here, but let's run it.
Yep.
So sum is it counts how many things
happen of the thing that's inside.
And what we put inside is, is .na.
And what this is saying
is like, the thing itself,
if it is absent, na,
like not applicable.
And then what is not applicable?
In the data set NHANES pediatric,
specifically for BP sys av.
So what that means if we're
going to visualize it,
is it goes into this NHANES data set.
It goes into the variable
called-- what do we do?
Is this [? b sys av ?] or something?
COLTON OGDEN: Yeah, it's one of those
ones that's kind of abbreviated.
[INTERPOSING VOICES]
Oh, no, you had BP sys av.
ANDY CHEN: BP sys av.
Oh, thank you.
This one.
So some of these have entries in them.
But you'll notice that, for
instance this one has an na in it.
It doesn't have anything.
So what I was alluding to earlier
is in statistics in general,
you should consider why your data
set might have an empty there.
Just because it's empty doesn't
mean that you should admit it,
because there might be a very
interesting reason and underlying
factor for why it's being admitted.
We're not going to consider
that too much today.
But if you go further on into doing
biostatistics or statistics in general,
you definitely need to put
thought into why you're
omitting data if you decide to omit.
COLTON OGDEN: Makes sense.
Osire18 says I'm a biochemist
out sick from work.
Thank you cssatv for some [INAUDIBLE].
ANDY CHEN: Welcome back to
the-- so the world of bio stuff.
You can't escape it.
I hope you feel better.
So this line in line 11 is it's
counting up each of these rows.
So one, two, each of these individuals,
this person, this person, this person,
this person.
And it's saying in its data
set for the variable BP sys av,
does it say na in it?
If so, add to sum.
And then so when we've
called it, it returns 1,022.
So in our particular
data set, our subset
of data set for pediatric patients
or individuals, 1,022 of them
have an empty in them.
Interesting.
I don't know why, but the reason
why might actually be important.
So something to think about.
COLTON OGDEN: And it look like they used
the dollars sign kind of Excel syntax
there too.
ANDY CHEN: Oh, is that Excel syntax?
COLTON OGDEN: They have like
dollar sign for like, the row.
ANDY CHEN: Oh, that's right.
Yeah, that's right.
COLTON OGDEN: And so that
kind of reminds me of.
It's nice that you can index
into this the sheet like that.
ANDY CHEN: That's the word to use.
Index, yeah.
COLTON OGDEN: Fancy CS
words here, you know.
Indexing.
ANDY CHEN: My life is zero indexed.
COLTON OGDEN: There you go.
ANDY CHEN: How many
people are in this room?
COLTON OGDEN: Uh, yeah, one.
ANDY CHEN: Very nice.
OK.
So let's actually do
some interesting things.
So I suggest that we
not look at BPS sys av,
because as enthralling
as BPS sys av might
be, I think it might be easier to
look at some more tangible data,
some more tangible variables.
So let's look at age, because it's
easy to understand what age is.
Let's also look at gender,
or as it's saved in gender.
But what we would probably
call sex in common parlance--
and BMI.
So let's run all of those.
OK.
So none of the patients
have age missing.
Great.
Zero patients here.
And then gender, none of the--
I should say individuals,
not patients necessarily.
None of the individuals
are missing gender.
So each of the individuals
in the study have an assigned
or provided or were assigned a gender.
COLTON OGDEN: Because it's
like, a mandatory field probably
for the survey.
ANDY CHEN: Exactly.
Right.
Yeah, that makes a lot of sense.
Because I could I could see
how blood pressure might not be
the easiest thing to get from a baby.
And so that is probably
would be easy to leave
blank, which is what we
were talking about before.
Is there a reason that this is blank?
Maybe it's because it's a baby.
Maybe most babies are difficult to get
blood pressures from, in which case
that's an interesting fact of itself.
But gender and age are pretty
straightforward to get.
And the last thing we're going to look
at is BMI, which, is everyone familiar?
Should I talk about BMI do you think?
COLTON OGDEN: Does it pertain to the--
ANDY CHEN: What we're going to do.
COLTON OGDEN: If it does, then sure.
ANDY CHEN: It's body
mass index, I think.
It's just it's a measure of someone's
health in terms of if they're
obese or skinny or overweight.
It's not super accurate, but
it's been historically used.
And so that's what we're
going to be looking at.
It ranges from a scale I think,
0 to like, 60 or something.
But just think about it
as a continuous range.
That's the most important
thing to think about.
COLTON OGDEN: It's the
percentage of adipose tissue
to non-adipose tissue in the body.
ANDY CHEN: Oh, is that what it is?
COLTON OGDEN: Is it?
Body mass index.
ANDY CHEN: So I think it's actually
more accurate than what it is.
I think it's just a proportion.
You take the ratio of your
height to your weight,
and then assigns you some index value.
COLTON OGDEN: Oh, you're right.
It's the ratio mass versus height.
I thought it was a ratio
of adipose to non-adipose.
ANDY CHEN: That's really specific.
COLTON OGDEN: That would be very
hard to calculate super easily.
So yeah.
I guess weight to
height makes more sense.
So that's easier to calculate.
And [INAUDIBLE] saying 38
plus 2 is that we're referring
to the people in the chat room.
No, it was a joke Andy was making about
in this physical room, there is one--
because get it?
Because zero and then one
is two in zero indexed.
ANDY CHEN: In computer
science, most languages
are zero indexed, which means
they start counting at zero.
So you wouldn't say one two people.
There's zero one persons.
Let's see, what else?
It's giving me error in unique NHAMES.
So, it's not NHAMES--
NHANES with an N. Maybe
that's your error.
But not sure.
COLTON OGDEN: Yeah,
that would makes sense.
ANDY CHEN: I think that's
probably what that is.
Should we assign the data to
NHANES [INAUDIBLE] line first?
I don't know which line
they're talking about.
COLTON OGDEN: I think [INAUDIBLE]
is responding to [? Babbick. ?]
ANDY CHEN: Oh.
Ah!
COLTON OGDEN: And [INAUDIBLE]
is also responding to them.
I think [? Babbick ?] may have missed
the line where you load the data set.
Do you want to bring that back up?
Just [INAUDIBLE] that line?
ANDY CHEN: This one?
COLTON OGDEN: The very first line
where the very first data set gets
loaded using the read.delim function.
ANDY CHEN: Right here, yeah.
COLTON OGDEN: And then we're assigning
that into a variable called NHANES.
ANDY CHEN: Correct.
That's right.
COLTON OGDEN: And then Steve is
asking what R packages are you using?
ANDY CHEN: So we've
actually loaded none so far.
But we will be using ggplot2 in a
little bit to visualize some data.
That's probably the most common
data visualization package in R.
COLTON OGDEN: Are you able to check
if there are other columns that
have the same sum as BPS have?
ANDY CHEN: I can conceive we think
of writing a script that can do that.
If you are interested in that,
I might not be very efficient,
but the thing that comes off the
top of my head is to have a for loop
to run that for each of
the variables there are,
and then to store in some
kind of data structure,
and then see if there are similar.
If you do it in the
equivalent of a dictionary,
then you would just take
the ones that are the same,
and then you would take the key
and do whatever the key is in it.
What's the delim thing?
The delim thing is actually just
the syntax for loading a data set.
So if I were to actually import
data set and do this whole step
from the beginning.
It would do the same
thing here but I've just
manually done it through a command.
Great.
So the interesting thing here is some of
our pediatric individuals, 275 of them
actually don't have a BMI.
So that's interesting.
But again, we're just sort
of going to ignore that
for the purposes of this demonstration.
But in real life, you
should think about is there
a reason for why these BMIs are
empty, because that could actually
be an interesting underlying reason.
COLTON OGDEN: Makes sense.
ANDY CHEN: Before we go
too much further into R,
we should have a conversation about
the kinds of variables in statistics.
So what is different between a
variable called gender and BMI in terms
of what the possible answers could be?
COLTON OGDEN: Gender,
in this model where
we're going based on biological
sex, and it's basically zero or one,
it's almost like a
Boolean, but in this case,
it's just a very limited set of options.
ANDY CHEN: That's exactly right.
COLTON OGDEN: And then whereas the BMI
would be a floating point value that
could range between 0 and
some-- basically, they
handle different ranges
of potential values.
ANDY CHEN: Of potential value.
That's exactly right.
COLTON OGDEN: In this case actually,
one is a different type of data.
One's a floating point value
versus the other one is an enum.
ANDY CHEN: Very nice.
The answer I was looking for, which is
more of the statistical approach to it,
is male versus female are the
possible answers for gender,
as it's used in this data set.
Male and female are the
only two possible answers,
which means that it, like a
Boolean, which can be true or false,
it's either this or that.
There's a name for this kind
of variable in statistics.
And it's called a dichotomous
variable or a binary variable.
COLTON OGDEN: Makes sense.
ANDY CHEN: And so that's
related to something else called
a categorical variable, which is sort
of like, what color is this chair?
COLTON OGDEN: So that would be
an enum, categorical variable.
In programming.
Like red, blue, yellow, green
from a limited set of options.
ANDY CHEN: Enum--
So those are categorical variables.
These are things that don't
have numbers in them per se.
But BMI, because it is a range of any
possible value between 0 and whatever
infinity--
actually, I don't think BMIs go up
that well, but it's a range of BMIs--
[INTERPOSING VOICES]
Yeah, go get on the
treadmill or something.
I'm approaching that after Thanksgiving.
And so the contrast there is right.
These are two very distinct
kinds of variables.
One of them is number based, and
one of them is sort of categorical.
And so the way that you perform
statistical analysis on these variables
depends on what kind
of variables they are.
And so today if we have time, we'll
talk about a few different kinds
of situations where the dependent
and independent variables
are categorical or numerical.
And then we'll talk about
the different techniques
that we can use to analyze
that if we have time.
COLTON OGDEN: What's the Dlim thing?
ANDY CHEN: Theoretically
and practically,
does R handle and unlimited
amount of info in a data set?
I think it's a lot lower usage, like,
processor intensive than Excel is.
So it's probably exponentially
better at handling data than Excel.
But unlimited, no,
because you'll overflow.
--two versus a lot.
OK.
BMI of space objects.
I like it.
Very nice.
So the first thing we're going to
look at in our particular essence
is gender is a binary
or dichotomous variable.
And we want to compare that against a
continuous numerical variable like BMI.
And so the right tool to use
in this particular instance,
the resonance of a tool is probably two
separate populations, male and female,
and then suddenly medical quantity.
The first test that comes
to my mind in statistics
is probably a T test, which
is a comparison of means.
And so there are certain requirements,
sort of assumptions that using a T test
requires.
We're not going to
talk about them today,
but if you're interested
in statistics, it's
important to think about
whether to use a parametric test
or a non-parametric test,
parametric being usually stronger,
but having stronger requirements.
At the basis of the law of
statistics is the assumption
that data lies on some kind of
naturally occurring distribution.
A lot of times it's a double
or a Gaussian distribution,
like a bell curve.
Statistics is really looking at what
is the likelihood of good data I'm
seeing being true,
like, occurring, given
that the background
distribution in reality
is probably something like this.
And so-- I lost track of where we are.
Oh, T tests!
So we're going to use a T test
to compare gender and BMI.
And so the next step here
is let's check to see
if there are any non-answers in
our pediatric data set for BMI.
So we actually did check that.
So if you want check on the
opposite direction, this is--
remember that is.na is saying it
doesn't exist but exclamation point
is.na is it does exist.
So let's put these two
together, run that and run that.
So we have 275 individuals
that don't have BMI
and 1,971 individuals that do have BMI.
So if we sum those together--
25 plus 1,971.
What it returns to 2,246.
And as we saw earlier above, that is
exactly how many individuals we have.
So we're just double checking to
make sure that everything is good.
COLTON OGDEN: Makes sense.
ANDY CHEN: And so the next
thing we want to do is--
let's make a table.
So R is more useful than
Excel arguably, because it's
very easy to make
visualizations, although they're
a little bit more confusing to make.
So like in Excel, let's
say you want to make
a table comparing what
is the average for males
and what's the average for females?
You can do it, but you
have to go insert plot,
and you have to choose
the data et cetera.
And in R it can be very powerful,
because it's just one line to do that.
And so the way you
would do that is Table.
And then you would pass
in as an argument the data
that you're looking at, which is, yeah--
and then we're going to look
at on the basis of gender,
exclude equals false
here is a parameter that
is saying if there are any empties,
then show that there empties that exist.
And so it turns out there are 1,087
females and 1,159 males in your data
set.
There's nothing here to the right
because there are no empties.
But if we choose BMI--
which there are empties--
and we have this
exclude equals false argument,
what it's going to show-- ooh.
That's not what you want.
Oh.
The reason this is happening is
because BMI is not a binary variable.
Table, you should probably
only use with binaries.
Anyways, h?
No, h definitely is full too.
COLTON OGDEN: Well, you're doing
it off of pediatric data though.
So you do have at least 1 to 18.
So it's visible on one line.
ANDY CHEN: Yeah, that's true.
So this is actually interesting too.
So the way to interpret
this graph here is how many
entries are for an individual at least
1-year-old, 2-years-old, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
up to 18.
Because it's again, it's pediatric data.
There are 121 individuals who
are less than one year of age
and 93 who are exactly 18 years old.
And so table is a very
strong command that it
lets you do that in just one
line, whereas to do that in Excel
would be a few more steps.
COLTON OGDEN: I like how easy it is
to sort of lay the data out that way.
ANDY CHEN: Absolutely.
And so I think some people were
asking earlier is this Excel or like,
what are the advantage
of this over Excel?
Is it can be very powerful.
It can be very fast.
Just one line like this, and this would
take you probably at least 10 times
as long I think, in Excel.
Maybe if you were really
good, like, a little faster.
COLTON OGDEN: Yeah I'm not that great.
So it would probably take me long.
ANDY CHEN: Yeah, me neither.
COLTON OGDEN: Steve [INAUDIBLE],, is
there a way to handle such data in C?
Theoretically unlimited data sets?
The way that I would imagine
would be just stream the data,
and then replace the same
memory with that data.
Because you really have
a finite amount of memory
where you can store information.
So if your goal is to
parse information--
the same sort of
information-- you're going
to want to basically have a chunk
of memory that you write to,
do some zero operation on that, and
then replenish it with new information.
And it's similar to what you see in
games with object pools and stuff
where you use the same
objects over and over again.
Because if you spawn an infinite
object, you'd run out of memory.
So that's kind of the same idea.
You would keep a limited chunk of
memory that you populate with the data
that you want.
And then you just overwrite that data
as you get new input from your stream,
basically.
We're going to do a stream next
week on C, lower C with Nick.
So maybe we can cover
something similar to that.
And Bounty Hunter Ridley, thank
you very much for following.
ANDY CHEN: So this is
the syntax for doing
the subset from the regular
NHANES into the NHANES pediatric.
All right.
So the next step is let's actually
do some interesting stuff.
So you're going to
load our first package.
And so we call library function.
And ggplots2 is the package
we want to run actually,
we have to install that first.
So install that packages ggplot2.
[INTERPOSING VOICES]
COLTON OGDEN: -with
the actual script too?
Like, you're not doing anything
necessarily in advance.
You can just call and
install the packages?
ANDY CHEN: Exactly.
COLTON OGDEN: There's probably a
way to do that in Python as well.
ANDY CHEN: Yeah, I think you can.
COLTON OGDEN: --had
an occasion to do it.
And Osire, thank you for following.
You posted the chat earlier.
ANDY CHEN: So we're just installing
the ggplot2 package, which is--
COLTON OGDEN: It's a lot of stuff.
ANDY CHEN: It's a lot of stuff.
COLTON OGDEN: It's always fun.
It's always fun going
through like, if you've
ever installed a node
package or whatever, NPM,
and go through like,
all the same packages.
Because they all have like,
a million subpackages.
But to go through and see what all the
different individuals subpackages are.
Sometimes you have to do that if you
have to debug an old NPM project that
has a deprecated function or something,
you'll have to do that sometimes.
And it can be kind of a pain.
ANDY CHEN: That sounds like a lot.
COLTON OGDEN: It's fascinating going
through and sort of digging your way--
sort of following the
trail of crumbs back
like, as low as you can get in node,
which admittedly, is high level.
ANDY CHEN: No, it's cool.
It's cool, to quote David, looking under
the hood to see what's happening there.
It's still installing n.
It's a lot.
COLTON OGDEN: It would be so cool
if we deduced the cure for a disease
in the streams [INAUDIBLE].
ANDY CHEN: Yeah, Colton, you got that?
[INAUDIBLE]
COLTON OGDEN: So no.
I don't even know how we
would begin to do that.
We might have to call in
the chat for that one.
ANDY CHEN: I think that's on you guys.
COLTON OGDEN: Call in the ringers.
ANDY CHEN: And girls.
COLTON OGDEN: Hello Colton.
Welcome to the new [INAUDIBLE].
Actually our souls are synchronized
working on data set, but on C# project.
What are you doing, guys?
Just [INAUDIBLE] just genius.
Thanks, Goson, for popping in.
Welcome to the new-- welcome
to Andy, the new friend
ANDY CHEN: Hang low, hang loose.
COLTON OGDEN: Yeah, that's cool.
That's cool that you're doing
data stuff in C# as well.
Data is just popular in so
many environments right now.
R and Python are the environments that
you typically associate with stats,
I feel like.
At least the ones that I hear about.
But I'm sure that people do
it everyday in everything.
ANDY CHEN: Yeah, like assembly.
COLTON OGDEN: That would be terrible.
ANDY CHEN: That would be disgusting.
[INTERPOSING VOICES]
COLTON OGDEN: I would not
want to mess with that.
It would be fast, but I would
not want to mess with that.
ANDY CHEN: It will be very fast.
I mean, C's probably fast.
COLTON OGDEN: Yeah, C is fast.
Could you talk more about
variables while we wait?
ANDY CHEN: Yeah, absolutely.
So there are many, many, many
subcategories and categories
of variables.
But in my mind, I distinguish
between categorical,
which are things that
don't have numbers,
and continuous variables, which
are things that do have numbers.
Although you can
sometimes have categorical
with numbers, in which case--
a common example of that is
what's called a dummy variable,
which is like, sometimes
statistics languages aren't
super smart in that you can't just
tell it hey, compare this and this.
It needs to know, hey, you
need to compare one and two.
And so people will sometimes plug in
like male is one and female is two.
And so you make "dummy
variables" like that.
But really, the distinction
between variables
is, is this a thing that like, exists
in like, a natural number line,
or is it really categories?
And are you comparing
categories to categories?
Are you comparing numbers to numbers?
Are you comparing numbers to categories?
And depending on what
you're actually doing,
that dictates what kind of
statistical test you want to use.
And so what I was going to
say, right now what we're--
I'm a little concerned.
This doesn't usually take this long.
COLTON OGDEN: You're
downloading the entire--
ANDY CHEN: Oh God.
COLTON OGDEN: --R database.
ANDY CHEN: Uh!
Anyways, well we'll see where that goes.
In this particular instance we want to
compare gender, which is a category,
it's a binary category actually.
So it's a it's a dichotomous variable
of two populations, males and females,
and a quantitative, a
numerical variable of each.
So BMI is a number.
the average might be like, 15.
The average for males might be 15.
The average for females might be 16.
And then what you're doing in a T
test is a comparison of two means.
And what it's doing is it's sort of like
it's consulting the normal distribution
and seeing how likely is the
difference between these two numbers?
How likely is that difference
to actually exist along
that normal distribution
and so in statistics
commonly, we will use
things called alphas, which are sort
of correlated with statistical power.
But these are numbers arbitrarily chosen
that we use as cutoffs for like hey,
this is likely to happen.
So we'll say it's
statistically significant.
And this is something
that has to be done first.
You have to state your alpha
before yes, you do your test.
Let's say my alpha is 0.05--
is a very common alpha, 0.05.
What that actually means is in a normal
distribution, the area of the curve--
so it looks like this-- the area of
the curve that a value actually exists
is 5% of the total area of the curve.
In other words, that's approximately
two standard deviations from a mean.
And so we're using a T test, which is a
specific instance of a statistical test
that has the specific function--
at least the way I'm using it--
of comparing means
between two populations.
And let's say you have more than two
populations, you would use something
called an ANOVA, analysis of variance.
Is that right?
I think that's right.
So you use something
called an ANOVA, which
is analysis of variance, which is
another statistical test that compares
the averages of multiple populations.
So let's say I wasn't
comparing males and females.
I was comparing elderly,
infants, and children.
That's three categories.
What is the average for elderly.
What is the average for children?
What is the average for
infants and I'm looking
at the statistical
significance, seeing if there
is a statistical significance between
the means for each of these three
categories, these three populations.
COLTON OGDEN: Makes sense.
ANDY CHEN: And so depending
on what your actual data
that you're looking at, what the
variables you're looking at are,
that dictates which
tests you should use.
COLTON OGDEN: [INAUDIBLE],, thank
you very much for following.
Elias in the chat,
thank you for joining.
He says hello.
Andy are just practices
10x future speech.
I was thinking FedEx, kappa.
ANDY CHEN: Hey, FedEx.
I like it.
COLTON OGDEN: I like the table.
Do you save it?
Especially helpful tables, do
you have it set aside somewhere?
ANDY CHEN: Which table?
COLTON OGDEN: I think just in
general, just as a principle,
do you ever save tables that you--
ANDY CHEN: Oh!
That was a question.
So I think you actually can do that.
So right here in this
environment panel--
you can't see it-- but right
here where I'm circling,
you'll select your data set.
So I'm in NHANES now.
And I think you can
actually save it and export.
So we'll save it as nhanes.text.
Save.
Ooh.
COLTON OGDEN: Required.table.
ANDY CHEN: Yeah.
OK.
Well I guess it saves it in R format.
But if you open a desktop, yeah, I
guess there's an R data set of n hanes.
once I don't open that here.
Save.
Let's open.
[INAUDIBLE]
In my desktop.
NHANES R.data, yes.
I don't know where that loaded.
[INTERPOSING VOICES]
COLTON OGDEN: [INAUDIBLE]
talking about like, the table
function that you called as well?
ANDY CHEN: Oh!
You can absolutely save
that as a variable.
So I apologize.
I think I misunderstood.
COLTON OGDEN: That's all right.
ANDY CHEN: Thank you.
So table, if I run it like this,
is just going to provide it here.
But let's say I want to save that later.
Table saved is a variable
name that we will run that as.
And then now it's saved as tables saved.
And if you want to see
it, you just run it again.
[INTERPOSING VOICES]
COLTON OGDEN: Shout out.
David's actually in the chat saying hey,
thanks for tuning in with Colton, Andy.
Looks like everybody beat us to it.
But shout outs the David.
Thanks for joining us, for popping in.
Did we miss other comments up there?
Beverly's asking are we going
to do confidence intervals?
ANDY CHEN: Ah, confidence intervals.
So that's actually very closely
related to some of the summary
statistics we'll talk
about a little bit.
I think for the purposes of this
stream, confidence intervals,
the way I think about it
in the context of a T test
is it's your mean plus or minus if
it's a 95% percent confidence interval.
It's the sample mean plus
or minus two of the sample
standard deviations
in your sort of curve.
And what it is, is it's a measure
of how likely the sample mean
that you got from your data is
actually your population mean.
And so one of the whole
point of statistics
is it's virtually impossible
for most scenarios
to know the actual summary statistic,
for example, a mean of a population.
And so the way that we try to
approximate that is by taking samples,
which is what NHANES is an example of.
I don't know what the average age of
all individuals in the United States is.
I think that would be
330 million surveys.
COLTON OGDEN: People to measure, yeah.
That would be tough.
I'm not sure--
ANDY CHEN: That would be very tough.
COLTON OGDEN: I mean, I think the
census may have that information.
ANDY CHEN: That's true.
The census might.
But well, let's say for all of this,
seven billion humans on the planet.
COLTON OGDEN: That would be tough.
ANDY CHEN: That would be very
difficult. And so what statisticians do
is they take a sample, which is
like, a representative sample,
which is to say that it
actually sample sufficiently
from all the different demographics
that you're trying to actually analyze.
And in probability in
statistics, we have
this idea of distributions, which is to
say that whenever we perform samples--
or this is actually true
for any events that happen--
we kind of assume that the likelihood
of seeing a particular outcome,
whether that's an average
age of 15 or 16 or 17 or 69,
you sort of assume that that
number occurs on a distribution.
And the one that we normally
think of is a normal distribution
or a Gaussian distribution.
And it's a bell curve, which
is to say that in general,
most of your real events,
your real samples are
going to occur somewhere close to
the middle where it actually is.
And so that's sort of like the
backbone of this kind of statistics.
And I think earlier we were
talking about probability,
or the 95% confidence interval.
The idea of a 95%
confidence interval is it's
trying to say what is the likelihood
that the sample you got the,
summary statistics you
got from your sample,
is actually capturing the actual
summary statistic of your population.
COLTON OGDEN: More data
probably helps in that regard.
ANDY CHEN: More data does help.
Although depending on what kind
of which statistician you ask--
COLTON OGDEN: And you have to make sure
that you're sampling correctly too.
ANDY CHEN: Absolutely.
It needs to be representative.
There are many
assumptions in statistics.
And so today I was going to
talk about all the assumptions,
just how to do it in R. But most
of the tests I'm talking about
are parametric test, which means
they have a lot of requirements.
A lot of assumptions that have to be met
before you can actually use these tests
so remember, we said we assumed that
data follow some kind of distribution.
That's not always a safe assumption.
And there's something
called the central limit
theorem, which is this idea that in
general, if your sample size is like,
30 or more, it's very likely to follow.
You can assume that it
follows a normal distribution.
COLTON OGDEN: Enrique 8923,
thank you very much for joining.
Looks like I think it
did finish installing.
ANDY CHEN: I think it did, yes.
COLTON OGDEN: GGplot2?
ANDY CHEN: Ggplot2.
[INTERPOSING VOICES]
COLTON OGDEN: I think it
installed more than two.
ANDY CHEN: Ggplot3, am I right?
Am I right?
All right.
So let's see if we can actually
do some visualization stuff.
COLTON OGDEN: The ggplot2, it's meant
to make graphs, those sort of things?
ANDY CHEN: Correct.
COLTON OGDEN: Is gg short
for graphing something?
ANDY CHEN: I think one of the g's is
grammar, graphing grammar, I think,
plot?
And the two is it's the second
iteration of the package.
COLTON OGDEN: Makes sense.
Makes sense.
Sample of data should be diverse says
[? Babbick Night. ?] Big data does not
equal good data, says [INAUDIBLE].
ANDY CHEN: That's true.
It needs to be
representative, absolutely.
For instance, let's say I take a sample
that's only in the city of Pittsburgh.
I cannot say that
whatever my findings are,
are applicable to the
United States in general.
But if it were representative,
if it were diverse--
if I took 30 people from Seattle, Los
Angeles, Pittsburgh, Denver, Houston,
then you could make the argument
that it is representative,
and whatever your findings
are can be extrapolated too.
COLTON OGDEN: That
would be representative
of urban environments, but not
necessarily more rural environments.
That's like, outskirted
or remote cities or towns.
So that would be something even
more to take into consideration.
ANDY CHEN: Absolutely true, yeah.
COLTON OGDEN: I have seen lots
of errors and inaccurate info
in health care files and hardships in
those patients getting these corrected,
though they should be able to.
This is an issue that comes up
as awareness among biostaticians.
I think it's unfortunate
[INAUDIBLE] might come
to conclusive results based on such.
ANDY CHEN: That's a
really good question.
I actually don't work in industry.
But from what I hear
from colleagues who do
or who have themselves
heard about it, EMR, EHR,
which are Electronic Medical
Records, Electronic Health Records,
one of the issues with them in their
implementation in the United States
health care system is that
they're relatively new.
We're in a state of transition from
written to electronic health records.
And part of the difficulties
of that transition
are getting health care providers
to actually use the system correctly
in that manner.
And that it responds to is
an issue and something that
comes amongst biostaticians?
I think that a good biostatitican
is absolutely aware of those things.
And he or she tries his or her
best to ameliorate and work
with the data as much as they can.
Or if they come up with
some kind of conclusion
that they put the caveat, given
the limited data, or like,
this data can only be extrapolated to
whatever that limited representation
happens to be.
COLTON OGDEN: Makes sense.
JL97 finally caught the stream.
Thank you for joining us today.
Very nice.
ANDY CHEN: OK.
So ggplot loaded.
So an example of a plot that
ggplot can make is a histogram.
This is actually going to
take me a while to type
out, because ggplot2 is very
powerful, but it's not my favorite.
It requires a lot of typing.
COLTON OGDEN: A verbose library?
ANDY CHEN: It's very,
very verbose, correct.
COLTON OGDEN: So I get that sense
from like, map plot lib as well.
ANDY CHEN: Map plot
lib is like that too.
Although map plot lib is
more understandable to me.
Like, for example, geom, like geometry?
But you know, it could
be so many things.
COLTON OGDEN: Geometric
something or other.
ANDY CHEN: But it could
be so many things.
And this, in a sense is telling me
what I should want, a histogram.
COLTON OGDEN: Yeah, that is interesting.
I'm not sure.
You would think it'd be
something like style.
ANDY CHEN: You would think, yeah.
But I don't know.
Maybe I'm just not used to it.
But--
COLTON OGDEN: [? Babbick ?] said,
"This reminded me of 6,002x."
I'm not sure what that is.
Do you know that is?
ANDY CHEN: 6,002x?
Uh-uh.
COLTON OGDEN: I'm not sure
what that is, [? Babbick. ?]
ANDY CHEN: Oh, 6002.
Is that an MIT class?
COLTON OGDEN: Oh, 6002x?
Yeah, that might be.
ANDY CHEN: The online version of it.
COLTON OGDEN: Yeah.
ANDY CHEN: That's, course, 6 is
electrical and electrical engineering,
computer science.
I don't know 6002 though.
COLTON OGDEN: That would make sense.
We can we can use the Google machine.
6002x course, maybe?
Circuits and electronics?
Is what it is?
MIT 6 point-- yeah, it's
circuits and electronics.
ANDY CHEN: Cool.
COLTON OGDEN: Interesting.
ANDY CHEN: 2 plot.
Oh, OK.
So once you get started we
have to call the library.
COLTON OGDEN: Ah, interesting.
ANDY CHEN: There we go.
COLTON OGDEN: OK.
Oh, it's like requiring it.
ANDY CHEN: Yeah.
COLTON OGDEN: Got it.
Makes sense.
ANDY CHEN: Let's run it.
OK.
COLTON OGDEN: Oh, nice.
ANDY CHEN: We have a graph.
COLTON OGDEN: And you have like
a dedicated browser to see--
ANDY CHEN: This little guy right here.
COLTON OGDEN: --on the right
side there, we're a little bit--
I can hide us briefly.
It's going to break
everyone's heart but--
we don't have a fancy
transition off of that either.
ANDY CHEN: Oh, are we gone?
That's OK.
The world doesn't need
to see our pretty faces.
COLTON OGDEN: What would we do
with out Google says [INAUDIBLE]??
ANDY CHEN: Yahoo?
Although, I would hate to see the world
where we have to use Yahoo, or Bing,
god forbid.
COLTON OGDEN: "The results being
significant is dependent on your alpha.
If you're setting your
own alpha wouldn't that
make it very easy to manipulate
the results into being
significant, or not significant?"
ANDY CHEN: Great question.
So, yes.
In a lot of scientific fields,
psychology, especially I think,
is pretty susceptible to this.
From what I've been told.
I'm not-- I don't have--
just from my friends
who are in that field.
Yes.
Essentially, the way
the statistics works
is it assumes that
there is an underlying
distribution for sampling events.
That like if you flip a coin 1,000 times
there is some distribution that it's
going to show up in.
Like there will be 500 heads, 500 tails.
That's a binomial distribution.
I forget, that might be
a Bernoulli distribution.
But the assumption is
that in nature there
are some kinds of distributions
that actually exist.
If you perform some kind
of event so many times
it will follow a general pattern.
The more you perform, the
smoother the pattern will be.
And so a lot of the kind of
statistics that we're doing today
is we're assuming they follow a
normal, or a Gaussian distribution.
And so, yes, you're absolutely right.
The alpha that we set is arbitrary.
So if you think about it
in that terms, let's say,
simplistically, one
journal only publishes
articles that are very just only
t-tests, like a single t-test.
If our alpha is .05, that means that
5% of the time, or 1 in every 20
of these articles, one of your
answers is going to be incorrect.
It's going to be-- you think
it's statistically significant,
but it's actually happening
1 out of every 20 times.
So yes, statistics is like that.
It's we're assuming a lot
about the natural world
that it follow certain rules,
certain distributions of events.
And we're applying statistics
to them to sort of quantify
the likelihood of something
being true, or not true.
But that's statistics.
COLTON OGDEN: [INAUDIBLE] is saying, "I
was promoting the stream to a Columbia
professor, and he said,
R was for statistics,
and Python for DNA comparison."
ANDY CHEN: Yeah, actually, I would
agree with that to some degree.
I do most of my
bioinformatics work in Python.
Although, Professor Rafael
Irizarry, who is a Bion for Mass
professor at the T.H. Chan School,
the Harvard School of Public Health.
He does a lot of his
work, I think, in R.
So you can conceivably
do either in either.
COLTON OGDEN: The saying is, different
strokes for different folks Right?
ANDY CHEN: That's true.
Different strokes for different folks.
COLTON OGDEN: I just realized
that this chat is a little small.
Because I had to shrink
it down yesterday.
Let's make it a little bit bigger.
There we go.
ANDY CHEN: Cool.
Cool.
COLTON OGDEN: That looks nicer.
ANDY CHEN: It does look nice.
And so do you.
COLTON OGDEN: Thank you.
I appreciate that.
You look amazing.
Look at you.
ANDY CHEN: Ah.
OK.
So we've made a plot.
And so, the one thing that's
interesting about-- so we're assuming--
this is actually an
interesting plot because we
were talking about Gaussian plots
earlier, very normal distributed.
This is not a very normal plot.
That might be OK, depending on
what we want to do with this data.
But I want to talk about
some characteristics.
It's very piqued, in
a term in statistics
to use plots that are-- so let's
say a normal plot looks like this.
If it looks like this, like a very
large peak, we call that leptokurtic.
And if it's very flat--
if it looks like--
so let's say this is a normal curve, if
it looks like, boop, just like that--
we call that platikurtic.
And this also is--
it gets like sort of
narrow on the right side.
Let me see if you can't see my head.
Oh, dude.
What are these?
We call that right skew.
COLTON OGDEN: What I
should do is just, whoop.
ANDY CHEN: Oh, look at that.
COLTON OGDEN: And then just
gives us a little shrink.
We did this on the
first stream, actually.
ANDY CHEN: Shrinking boys.
COLTON OGDEN: Use a little shrink down.
ANDY CHEN: A little shrinking shrink.
COLTON OGDEN: I gave it
a little shrink down.
ANDY CHEN: I'm into it.
COLTON OGDEN: Something like that.
ANDY CHEN: I just got really small.
Yeah.
So this is a right
skewed curve, excuse me.
And if the tail were on the other
side, it would be a left skew.
And so these are just terms to
describe the shape of a distribution.
COLTON OGDEN: OK.
Makes sense.
ANDY CHEN: Oh, a histogram.
We should definitely explain that.
I apologize.
A histogram is a certain kind of
chart, a certain kind of diagram,
that shows exactly like--
is that [? Babbick? ?]
[? Babbick ?] is saying--
COLTON OGDEN: [INAUDIBLE].
ANDY CHEN: Is it the frequency?
Yeah. [? Babbick ?] is
saying, it's showing
the frequency for a certain thing.
So it's actually-- it's
sort of uni-dimensional.
It's not like a regular plot
that has a x and y-axis,
where an x is an independent variable,
and a y is a dependent variable.
A histogram only has an x, in
the sense that, the only thing
that's like data is the x--
it's the BMI.
And then the y-axis
is showing frequency--
the number of times that
this particular value occurs.
So for instance, a BMI between 0
and, this looks like it might be 15,
occurs maybe 240 times.
Whereas a BMI between 16 and looks like
25 occurs probably like 1700 times.
So that's what a histogram is.
COLTON OGDEN: That would make sense.
[? Babbick, ?] is this
BMI histogram skewed left?
ANDY CHEN: It's skewed right.
COLTON OGDEN: Oh, OK.
ANDY CHEN: I'm pretty
sure it's skewed right.
The skew, like, the tail,
the part the slimmer,
I think that's the direction you use
to describe if it's left or right.
COLTON OGDEN: Interesting.
Then it's going to be
the right skew then.
Yeah.
Because nobody over 40, there's like
very few people over like 40 to 60 BMI.
Because at that point, that's vary--
ANDY CHEN: Right.
Because that's-- yeah, that might
not be humanely possible to be there,
to have that kind of BMI.
OK.
So now that we've visualized our data,
and this is generally good stuff.
There are more visualizations that you
should do to test your assumptions.
Let's actually try to
perform this little test.
We're trying to perform a t-test, which
is comparing the means and the mean BMI
values between two
populations, males and females,
in our pediatric subset of NHANES.
And so, the way that we do that--
oh, let's overwrite some.
So we noticed that there are some
data entries that have empty BMIs.
Wait.
This is not letting me get in here.
COLTON OGDEN: [? Magnus ?] is saying,
Is there somebody that's around 50?
It looks like there is in the data set.
It's just very small.
Right?
ANDY CHEN: It might be.
Yeah.
There might be a super--
COLTON OGDEN: Because it looks like
the red line goes all the way up
to 60 something, 65, 63?
ANDY CHEN: Yeah that's
really, really high.
Yeah, I think that's an
individual, and someone who's
under 18, a pediatric individual
who has a very high BMI.
There we go.
All right, let's make some space.
Great.
So we noticed earlier, probably
20 minutes ago I guess,
in the stream, some of our
BMI individuals were missing.
And again, I'm going to reiterate
this as very potent statistics,
be sure to consider and
at least explain why you
decided it's reasonable to omit data.
And I'm just going to
hand wave over that
for the express purposes
of demonstrating
how to perform a t-test in R. You
should, you know, explain to yourself,
be able to explain to anyone, who you're
showing your results to why you've
entered this data.
So the way that I'm
going to do that is I'm
going to overwrite NHANES pediatric.
Again, called the subset
function with NHANES itself.
This time with not is.na.
Remember, is.na means, that the
thing itself is missing, is na.
But not is.na is, it is
not missing the thing.
For gender as well as for BMI.
COLTON OGDEN: Andre is
asking, "If the data were not
grouped into batches of 10 would
it not fit a Gaussian curve?"
ANDY CHEN: Oh, that's
a very good question.
So this, I set the binwidth as 10.
I can-- so right here in line 24, I
can set that to be 1 if I would like.
It's an arbitrary binwidth.
And so that shows a
much clearer resolution.
But a better way to think about this
is, a Gaussian curve is actually not
discrete.
A word which means that is like
sort of individual numbers.
It's a continuous, it's a smooth curve.
So a Gaussian distribution does
not actually have individual rows.
It just has, choo, all of the
all the things in a single curve.
And so to demonstrate that, I chose--
I had arbitrarily chosen binwidth of 10.
But we can choose 1.
We can choose 0.5.
We can choose whatever we want.
So in line 26, what we've done
is we have resubsetted our data,
and this time we've removed
any individuals that
are missing entries for gender, or BMI.
And so now that we've done that,
let's perform some actual statistics.
We're getting there.
COLTON OGDEN: Here we go.
Here we go.
ANDY CHEN: All right.
Thank you so much for bearing with us.
COLTON OGDEN: Asymptotically
approaching, as David would say.
ANDY CHEN: Absolutely.
Oh, yeah.
OK.
So let's save-- so
tapply is a function that
lets us take in our
data set as a argument,
specifically looking
at the BMI variable.
And we will also compare
that to the same data set,
but this time with gender.
And then the last argument
in tapply is going
to be what actual
thing you want from it.
And the first thing we want to
do is, I want take it's minimum.
And then-- so I'm actually going to
do that a bunch but with max, mean--
oops, won't do that.
Whoops, there we go.
Mean-- mean-- standard deviations--
and then we'll just run all those.
Run.
Run.
Run.
Run.
So these are all saved.
We haven't seen them in our console
because we saved them to a variable.
But something that is
cool that I'm about to do
is, we can actually cbind all of
these things into a single table.
Which again, is a very
useful one line command in R
that might be difficult to do in Excel.
You can probably do it very
smartly in Python, though.
So we're going to make a
new summary table variable.
And we're going to data.frame
and save as a data frame.
cbind of min, max, mean, and SD,
which are the barriers we just made.
And then we're also going to do summary
table again, just to display it.
So line 33 is going to save all
those things as summary table.
And then line 34 is going
to run it and print it.
And there you go.
We have a very beautiful,
very easy to read, table.
For females, the minimum
value is 12.88 for BMI.
For males, the minimum value is 12.89.
The mean is 20.49 for females.
The means 20.05 for males.
And so we have our basic
summary statistics.
COLTON OGDEN: Interesting.
ANDY CHEN: Now, looking at
this Colton, and knowing
the sample size is approximately 1,000
individuals for males and females,
do you think there is a significant
difference between the average BMI
for males versus females
in this pediatric data set?
COLTON OGDEN: Substantial?
ANDY CHEN: Significant.
COLTON OGDEN: I don't know if I would
describe it as being significant.
Would you describe it
as being significant?
ANDY CHEN: Well, that's
exactly the answer I wanted.
You can't tell.
So these are summary statistics
which tell you a mean,
or median, as well as
a measure of center,
which is saying sort of like, what
is like, the middle kind of value.
Whereas, standard deviation is a
measure of dispersion, which tells you
how spread apart is your data.
But it doesn't actually tell
you anything about if these two
populations are similar, or dissimilar.
And so to do that we would
have to use a statistical test.
In this case, since we're
comparing a binary variable
with a continuous numerical
variable we have to use a t-test.
And so the syntax for that--
COLTON OGDEN: And also
Fatma, in the chats,
said, "Can R be added
to the [email protected].
And from what I see here, I went on
to [email protected] it is already--
we do have an R option.
Probably don't have RStudio available.
But the R command line
environment we do have.
It looks like we do have a
sandbox setup for that already.
ANDY CHEN: Great.
Nice.
So if you want to teach yourself
how to use the command line,
that's a great skill to have too.
"Are we going to regression?"
I don't think we will
hit regression today.
We are going to do a t-test.
If we have time, we'll do an ANOVA.
Actually, if we have time,
we'll do a linear regression.
But yeah, we'll see
how far we get today.
So t-test, let's see--
so again, when we look
at p values, right?
We determine if something a
significant, or insignificant.
In statistics, before we
actually do the analysis,
we have to come up with something
called h not which is a null hypothesis.
And something called h sub a
or an alternative hypothesis.
So in statistics, the default
is you assume that there
is no significant difference.
Right?
That is the default. So
the null hypothesis here
is there is no significant difference
between the mean BMI for female
versus males in this sample population.
That is the null hypothesis.
The alternative hypothesis is
there is a significant difference
between the average BMI for males
and females in this population.
And so those are sort of the underlying
statements that you're working with.
And that's what your p
value for your t-test
actually tells you to either accept,
or reject, the null hypothesis.
And so we'll get to that in one minute.
Let me actually perform the t-test.
The syntax for that is t.test BMI.
So the first thing that
goes into the function call
is the continuous variable
that you're comparing--
or the categorical variable
that you're comparing.
Sorry-- the continuous variable
that we're comparing-- the numbers,
the thing that actually
has a mean, or an average.
And we're going to compare
against the categorical.
In our case, the males versus female.
In this case, it's a
dichotomous variable,
which is an instance of a
[? categorical ?] variable.
Let me do gender.
We have to tell it that the data
we're using is our NHANES data set.
And we're going to assume that
variance is equal to true.
So we could talk about
that in a little bit,
but there are actually
a few different kinds
of t-tests where you can assume that
the variances are true, or not true.
And the reason that they're different
is the statistical power is--
the way it's implemented is
actually slightly different.
In this case, we're assuming
that for the most part,
male and female participants in
NHANES are, for the most part,
very similarly except for their sex.
I should probably put this in
my script so I don't lose it.
So let's run that.
And here's what happens.
We get this fees out--
two sample t-test.
So remember, that's another kind of--
there are different kinds of t-tests.
One of them is two
samples, which is you're
comparing two different populations.
You can also compare a
single, one sample t-tests,
in which it's something sort
of like a before and after.
Because otherwise, it's exactly the
same except for the one test condition
that you've tested.
We look at the p value here--
0.08402.
Now if we had chosen an alpha 0.05.
It is greater than our
alpha of 0.05, which
means we have to accept
the null hypothesis, which
Colton suggests that this data
is significant, or insignificant?
COLTON OGDEN: Well, repeat
the question one more time.
ANDY CHEN: The null
hypothesis is that there
is no significant difference between
the mean BMIs of males versus females.
COLTON OGDEN: And you're if
it's greater than the alpha 0.05
then that is the case?
ANDY CHEN: Well, you fail to reject.
COLTON OGDEN: Which means
then, that we have to say
that there is no big major significant.
Right?
Am I wrong?
ANDY CHEN: No.
You're correct in your intuition.
But I just want to be--
in statistics, people are very careful.
You don't really-- you fail
to reject the null hypothesis.
COLTON OGDEN: Right.
So we can't-- we're not
asserting either, or the other,
but we are rejecting
the null hypothesis--
ANDY CHEN: Absolutely.
COLTON OGDEN: --in this instance.
ANDY CHEN: Exactly.
COLTON OGDEN: OK.
We're not establishing the
hypothesis as being true,
the null hypothesis as being true.
Or the opposite the null
hypothesis as being true.
ANDY CHEN: Exactly.
COLTON OGDEN: Right.
OK.
ANDY CHEN: So let's actually assume that
instead of saying 0.08, it said 0.03.
Now what would happen?
COLTON OGDEN: 0.013?
ANDY CHEN: Just less than 0.05.
COLTON OGDEN: Then we
have to say that we can--
what is the opposite of--
ANDY CHEN: You reject
the null hypothesis.
COLTON OGDEN: Reject
the null hypothesis.
ANDY CHEN: So you don't really
accept the alternative hypothesis,
but-- because you can't really say
for certain, or most at statisticians
would hesitate to say for certain,
oh, there is a significant difference.
Well, I guess that is
what you would say.
But a sort of more
careful, more conservative,
way of saying that is like,
oh, we just can't reject--
we can't-- we fail to
reject the null hypothesis.
COLTON OGDEN: OK.
So we're basically avoiding
making any assertions either way.
ANDY CHEN: Pretty much.
Yeah.
COLTON OGDEN: OK.
At which point can we assert
either situation, either case?
ANDY CHEN: In scientific writing, when
people use statistical tests, if the p
value is less than your alpha
value, what you'll usually say is,
we found significant results.
COLTON OGDEN: OK.
ANDY CHEN: Although a statistician might
be a little more conservative about how
they would say that.
COLTON OGDEN: OK So this has to
kind of undergo repeated testing,
and repeated samples, and repeated sort
of accepting, or rejecting of a null
hypothesis over the course of
time before we can affirmatively
say one way or the other?
ANDY CHEN: Ideally.
COLTON OGDEN: And even then,
it's probably still not 100%.
ANDY CHEN: Ideally.
Yeah, that doesn't usually
happen, but yeah, you're
absolutely on the right track in your
intuition of how the statistics works.
COLTON OGDEN: OK.
That makes sense.
ANDY CHEN: But yeah.
Let's see if there's any--
COLTON OGDEN: Fatmo was saying that
they were having internal server error.
So the-- it looks like sandbox
is, at least in America,
we can see that it's up, but
it's experiencing updates
so it's off line, technically.
But the landing page is still up.
So I think we're updating it probably
for the hackathon, or whatnot.
It should be up at some
point in the near future.
Can you tell the difference between
one sample and two sample t-tests
again, [INAUDIBLE].
ANDY CHEN: Sure.
Let's actually look it up so I am not--
one sample, versus two sample t-test.
So a two sample t-test
has two populations
that are different in some sense.
So males and females are two separate
individuals in this NHANES t-set.
Whereas a one sample t-test is--
ah!
Sorry, I actually-- so I misunderstood--
I misexplained how--
I misexplained one simple
t-tests in the beginning.
A two sample t-test is comparing if two
populations, two sample populations,
have a significant difference in
their average for whatever variable
you're looking at.
A one sample t-test is comparing a
known true population mean, some value,
to the sample you're saying,
and seeing if there's
a statistical difference there.
So I'm trying to think off the
top of my head of there's a good--
let's say that we know that
the average graduation--
or let's say that we know that the
population of a city is 50o,000.
We just know this for a fact.
We would perform a one
sample t-test if we're
trying to compare if it's statistically
significant that one of our samples
gives us 455,000 instead of 5000,000.
And then in that particular instance
you would use a one sample t-test.
COLTON OGDEN: Cool.
Cool.
Makes sense?
ANDY CHEN: Yep.
Cool.
So I think, unless there are
a lot of questions on t-tests,
we can actually probably go on to ANOVA.
COLTON OGDEN: Sure.
Let's do it.
ANDY CHEN: Sure.
So we talked earlier about
different kinds of variables.
T-tests are useful for when you are
comparing the difference of means
between two populations.
But let's assume, for instance, that
you have a categorical variable that
has multiple categories--
young, old, medium aged,
young adult, et cetera.
And you still want to compare
an average of some kind
of continuous variable between them.
So what is the average height of a
child, average height of an infant,
average height of an adult, average
height of an elderly person,
and you're trying to
look to see if there's
a statistically significant
difference between those populations.
In that particular instance, you
would use a test called an ANOVA,
or an analysis of variance.
So there are actually a lot of
assumptions for each of these tests
that we're using, and I
just want to reiterate that.
There are-- you should look at your
data, see if there are outliers,
and see if they meet the parametric
assumptions of each of these tests
that you're using.
All these test we're using
here today are parametric.
If not, you can use something
called, non-parametric tests,
which are sort of similar in
what they do, but are probably
not as statistically powerful.
But everything we're
doing today is parametric.
So we're just going to
assume that we've met all
these assumptions to use these tests.
So ANOVA-- let's look at ANOVA.
Let's make a variable
called, ANOVA BMI with race.
And so the category of race
in our data set is called,
Race 1, is looking at if--
I guess the surveys have,
do the individuals identify
as white, or as black, or Mexican,
or other, or Hispanic, or et cetera.
And so, as we can tell, these are
not numbers, these are categories
and there's more than two of them.
And let's compare that to BMI again.
Just because that's
what we've been using.
So in this particular instance, the
statistics question we're asking
is, is there a statistically
significant difference
in the average BMI between these
ethnicities, or between these races?
I think is the term they
use in this data set.
And so the way that we would
do that is we would call aov,
is the syntax in R. aov of BMI,
which is your continuous variable.
And then, squiggly enyay
to race 1, which again,
is the name of our variable for race.
Oh, and the second argument
is the identify your data.
We're going to be looking at our
NHANES pediatric that we made.
And then we are going to call--
OK.
So let's actually do that.
We run this function and
it saves your ANOVA results
into a variable called ANOVA BMI race.
Now to actually access it, we do
summary of a ANOVA BMI race, right here.
And so if we run that, it prints
out our [INAUDIBLE] results.
Excuse me.
So if you are interested in
ANOVA a lot of these are--
some of this data is actually--
some of these numbers
are actually very important.
The f value, for instance,
is a very useful thing.
But we're just going to be looking at
the statistical significance for right
now.
Our p value is 0.00781 star, star,
which means its alpha is 0.005.
That value is less than 0.005.
No.
That's not true.
Well, regardless.
If we had set our alpha as 0.05,
this value is less than that.
Which means we would say, we fail
to reject the null hypothesis.
And so in this particular
instance, we would
have set the null
hypothesis before, and it
would be the null
hypothesis is that there
is no significant difference in the
mean BMIs between categories of race--
white, Mexican, other
whatever the categories had.
And so because our p
value is less than 0.05,
we would fail to reach
our null hypothesis,
which means that we would probably
say something along the lines of,
we find that there is a
significant difference in the BMI
means across these categories.
So Colton, can you see why this might
be more ambiguous than a t-test, which
only has two categories?
COLTON OGDEN: Well, I mean,
there's just so many races.
I don't know if that's
part of the issue.
ANDY CHEN: Right.
Absolutely.
If I find--
COLTON OGDEN: And also
people can subjectively
identify as multiple different
races a lot of the time.
Because people can have
parents of different races.
ANDY CHEN: Absolutely true.
Yeah.
From a statistical standpoint,
I think the first note is now
that I know it's significant,
where is the significance?
Is it between white and black?
Is it between Mexican and white?
Is it between other and white?
It's ambiguous.
COLTON OGDEN: And you have to
take probably smaller samples,
separate samples, and see how
they compare against each other.
Many different sort of permutations.
ANDY CHEN: Actually, yeah, that's
absolutely right, actually.
So that actually goes a little more
low level into what I'm about to show.
But so in ANOVA, because your p
value is ambiguous, because your--
I was just reading one of the comments.
COLTON OGDEN: The last one?
ANDY CHEN: Yeah.
COLTON OGDEN: Would you have
just a general statistics
review approaching AP testing time?
So informative.
Maybe.
I don't know when AP testing time is.
ANDY CHEN: I don't know when that is.
But yeah, perhaps we
could maybe do that.
We're talking about-- oh, right.
It's ambiguous.
We don't know where the statistically
significant differences is.
We don't know between which categories,
or between all categories is.
So we do something called, post hoc,
Latin for, after the fact tests.
One of which we'll show.
There are different kinds of tests
that you use in different circumstances
but we're going to use one
called the tukey's post hoc test.
So the way we do that is, tukey HSD of
ANOVA, or of the variable we just made.
And so if we run that, we find the
printouts of p values of the categories
compared to each other.
So you were actually
saying you run subsets of--
basically what this is doing, is
it's very similar to running t-tests
within all the possible categories.
COLTON OGDEN: Right.
OK.
That makes sense.
ANDY CHEN: And so the
reason it's p adjusted,
is because when you do that
the degrees of freedom changes.
And so you actually sort
of inflate or your power.
And so the tukey's t-test
is one implementation
of this kind of sequential
sub partitioning.
And so this what this gives us
is, we look at the differences--
is the average BMI of Hispanic versus
black individuals significantly
different?
The p value here is 0.60.
It's not significant at all.
And so most of these are not.
But if we look at, other with
black, then what this is saying is,
the null hypothesis here, like the
special sub null hypothesis here,
is that is there a
significant difference
between the average BMI for
individuals who are other
compared to individuals who are black?
In this case, our p value is 0.03,
which is less than our alpha of 0.05.
In which case we would say, we
failed to reject our null hypothesis,
that there is not a
significant difference.
And so you would say, we
find a significant difference
between the mean BMI for individuals
who identify as other compared
to those who identify as black.
And so it shows you all the
possible category differences.
So it looks like there
is five categories?
1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
Yeah, Hispanic, black,
Mexican, other, and white,
and so it's looking at all the
possible permutations between,
and looking at if those
specific two categories are
significantly different enough.
And so that's how you
would analyze a ANOVA.
COLTON OGDEN: Get a
little bit more granular.
ANDY CHEN: Getting a little bit more
low level under the hood as David
might say.
OK.
I think we actually have
time for a linear regression.
I think that will probably be the
last thing we talked about though.
COLTON OGDEN: OK.
Sounds good.
Let's look at it.
ANDY CHEN: All right.
Oh, this is a lot of code to type.
OK.
So again, a very, very good
statistical habit to get into
is visualizing your data
before you make analysis, just
to understand what's going on if you
have a lot of outliers, et cetera.
And so what we're going
to do, is we're going
to visualize the NHANES pediatric
data set that we made of course.
X equals age, y equals height,
plus [? giam, ?] point.
Let's run that.
All right so what this
did, is it's printing out,
in it's lower right corner here.
All of the individuals of various
heights in our pediatric data.
So from 0 to eight-- or sorry, ages
from 0 to 18, and their heights.
And so you'll notice that it has a weird
distribution where it's very, you know,
blocked.
And the reason for that
is because we don't
think about age in terms of continuous.
I'm not 24 and 3/4 years old.
Right?
I identify as 24.
And so that's why each of
these only is the height
for one-year-old, 2-year-old,
3-year-old, four-year-old, not 2.4856
six-year-old.
And that's why it has that
distribution like that.
COLTON OGDEN: Right that's
supposed to be a continuous graph.
ANDY CHEN: Exactly.
That's exactly right.
And so now that we
see this, Colton, if I
were if I were to give this
data to you, do you see--
do you think that there
is a general trend,
the correlation between age and height?
COLTON OGDEN: It looks like a small one.
As you get older, you
tend to get taller.
ANDY CHEN: Yeah.
Right.
And so intuitively
that makes sense to us.
I chose this example because it
makes sense that the older you get,
the taller you taller you get.
COLTON OGDEN: And also range in
height tends to grow as well.
ANDY CHEN: That's true.
That's actually, really, yeah.
That's really interesting.
I hadn't noticed that.
I mean that makes a lot of sense.
Right?
Because like we all start about
the same size, give or take.
COLTON OGDEN: Yeah.
People grow at different
rates, different sizes.
ANDY CHEN: Absolutely.
Oh, one thing I forgot to mention is--
COLTON OGDEN: Oh, sorry, [? Babbick, ?]
let me let me go ahead and move it.
Move it right over--
I'll make it smaller again, how's that?
Let's go up to here.
Very tiny chat so we can see the graph
just while we're talking about it.
ANDY CHEN: So linear regression
is an instance of what--
is a specific instance
when we're comparing
continuous quantitative variable
with another quantity variable.
Age is a number from 0 to 18.
In theory, you could actually
have this like-- well,
I have them as discrete numbers
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 but you
can have it as like 1.5, 2.8, whatever.
And height is also a discrete
number, from 0 to 175 centimeters.
And so when you're trying to compare
two continuous variables, two
quantitative variables,
you use linear regression.
It's actually really similar to an ANOVA
except for the independent variable
in an ANOVA is categorical
instead of continuous.
Right.
OK.
So, so the way that we would
perform linear regression-- oh,
so I think there tends to be--
it looks like there might
be a linear regression here.
And there might be a better
model that actually describes it.
But for our purposes let's
perform a linear regression.
Because I think someone was
suggesting we do a regression.
So ggplot.
It's the same exact thing,
but we'll add some lines.
It's starting to get
really unwieldy, which
is one of the reasons I don't
like ggplot, is I have to--
look at what I'm about to write here.
Smooth method = lm.
lm is linear model.
S = true.
I don't know what that is.
Full range = false.
COLTON OGDEN: And also, [? Fatma ?]
thank you for the kind words.
ANDY CHEN: 0 +--
COLTON OGDEN: And [? Babbick ?] as well.
ANDY CHEN: 0.95.
There we go.
Run.
Cool.
So we have the graph we had before, and
we've actually fitted a model to it.
A linear regression.
A line model.
So recall that in
linear regression makes
sense, in terms of, these
are all models, statistics
is all about modeling.
If you have a categorical variable,
how can you make a line with that?
Right?
There's no axes to make lines on.
But if you have two
continuous variables,
you absolutely can make a line.
Which is why a linear
regression makes sense
if you're comparing a continuous
with another continuous variable.
So I just wanted to plot
out what it actually
looks like in this
particular-- for when you're
comparing a continuous variable exchange
variable and it's a linear regression.
But to actually perform it in
R, you perform the following.
We're going to make a variable
called, linear regression.
And the syntax is lm, which
stands for linear model.
We're going to do our--
Oh, did I do weight?
Ah, that's fine.
Our independent variable, and then
squiggly enyay thing, with our--
sorry, dependent variable.
And then our independent
variable on the right.
Data is again NHANES pediatric.
And, yeah.
So we'll run that.
And then we'll call summary,
which is a function that gives you
the summary for certain kinds of data.
Call that and look.
We get our linear regression summary.
So there are multiple p values here but
I could go into depth in a little bit
more perhaps next time, but
essentially what's happening,
is there are actually two things
that come out of a linear regression.
Remember it's y equals mx
+ b because it's a line.
There are two variables here--
or there two things that
we could potentially plot.
m, which is the intercept.
Oh, sorry! b which is the intercept.
And m, which is the slope.
So linear regressions are
very useful, because you
want to say, hey, as age goes
up by x, how much does y go up?
Or in this case, if age
increases by 4.25 years--
as age increases by 1, height
increases by 4.25 centimeters.
And that has a p value of less than--
a tiny, tiny p value of 2
times 10 to the negative 16.
So that's way below
pretty much any alpha
which tells you that there is 100--
there is almost-- it's statistically
almost impossible for there
not to be an actual significance here.
COLTON OGDEN: Right.
That makes sense.
ANDY CHEN: So there's
also the intercepts,
which is sort of like remember it's a
lie, and it doesn't make a lot of sense
in the real world, but it's
saying, if your age is 0,
your height is going
to be 1.43 centimeters.
Doesn't make a lot of sense in
terms of being an actual baby.
Right?
But that's just how
it a regression works,
so you're fitting a lie to real data.
So cool.
I think that I think
that kind of finishes
off our conversation for today.
COLTON OGDEN: Yeah.
That was pretty cool.
Getting to see the fact that you get
all these nice graphical tools as well.
Not only just being
able to model the data
see the variables that matter to
you but also model them visually.
I like seeing things visually.
I think that's important.
[? Fatmo's ?] saying, "I think all
of CS50 is awesome, they train well.
Andy being a star among them.
ANDY CHEN: Ah, thank you so much.
COLTON OGDEN: "Colton's [INAUDIBLE]
virtual office hours is unique."
It's a fun time.
I'm glad everybody's
joining in and having fun.
This is my first exposure
to R. So thank you very
much for coming on to the show and--
ANDY CHEN: Yeah.
Absolutely.
COLTON OGDEN: --educating
us on R and RStudio.
This is pretty cool.
ANDY CHEN: Yeah.
I needed to refresh myself.
It's been a while.
COLTON OGDEN: Yeah.
Yeah.
I know I can imagine.
Some of the function calls
get pretty bulky there.
ANDY CHEN: Yeah I don't think I
could've done this without notes.
COLTON OGDEN: Oh, yeah.
It'd be tough.
I can imagine it being tough.
Yeah, this is great.
Thank you so much.
And then everybody who wants
to follow along, or join
after the fact, R and RStudio are free.
So as we talked about earlier in the
chat, definitely-- early in the stream,
and in the chat, definitely
grab those, and mess around.
Hopefully the sandbox is up
and running with R function,
as well, in the near future.
This is back to the firewall screen.
If anybody has any last questions
before we wrap up the stream,
definitely let us know.
We'll stick around for
just a couple more minutes.
This week is the CS50 hackathon.
So tomorrow is the hackathon,
Andy and I will be there.
Going into Friday, because
it's an all nighter.
So we start at night and then it goes
until, I would say 5:00 in the morning,
or 6:00 in the morning.
ANDY CHEN: 5:00 In the morning.
COLTON OGDEN: We go to IHOP.
Yeah.
That'll be great.
Is it your first or second hackathon?
ANDY CHEN: This is my first hackathon.
COLTON OGDEN: OK.
Nice.
ANDY CHEN: When I took this
class, I took it in Kenya.
COLTON OGDEN: Oh, OK.
Yeah, you could have had to vicariously
sort of be a part of the hackathon.
ANDY CHEN: I saw the--
I liked the videos.
COLTON OGDEN: Yeah, no,
we have the hackathon.
So we won't be streaming this week.
We will stream next week.
So we have a stream
with Nick on Tuesday.
And then I'll probably do a stream on
Wednesday, is probably actually the day
that I'll do a stream.
We'll finish up Space Invaders.
And I think Monday, we have
another stream lined up.
I need to check my calendar
just to 100% verify
the stream schedule for next week.
But I do believe that, that
is what we have set up.
ANDY CHEN: Nice.
COLTON OGDEN: Ba,ba, ba, ba, ba.
ANDY CHEN: Ba, ba, ba, ba.
COLTON OGDEN: Yeah.
So next week we have David and
I on Monday for the surprise.
So I'm not going to spoil that.
And then on Tuesday, Nick will be
joining us for a C basics tutorial.
And then Wednesday, I will be--
we'll finish up Space Invaders.
So yeah, that will be a great time.
[INAUDIBLE] saying,
"This is really cool.
Hope to catch more of these.
Stats can be boring,
but you make it fun."
ANDY CHEN: Ah, thank you so much.
If you call it--
here's a trick.
If you call it, data science,
people think it's really awesome.
COLTON OGDEN: Yeah.
There you go.
And they pay more right?
ANDY CHEN: They pay you way more.
But it's sort of the same thing.
COLTON OGDEN: says, "Thank you Andy,
and Colton, very interesting stream."
Yeah, thanks for tuning in.
Thanks so much.
"I was going to opt out today, but
[? Babbick Night ?] efforts to make it
made me stay tuned."
Yeah, so thanks everybody,
helping each other stay tuned in.
"Love the surprises," says
[? Azley. ?] Yeah, me too.
This will be a great stream.
So yeah, thanks again, Andy.
ANDY CHEN: Yeah, of course.
COLTON OGDEN: We'll have you again,
probably in the spring at some point,
or [? J term ?] time--
ANDY CHEN: Sure.
Yeah.
I'll be around.
COLTON OGDEN: --to follow
up stream on something,
whether it's stats related or otherwise.
Cybersecurity and data
science, let's catch followers.
Says [? Fatmo, ?] "Is
there any first steps class
you suggest, or is there
any intro class that
has a professor with good reviews?"
ANDY CHEN: At Harvard?
Or--
COLTON OGDEN: Maybe just any.
ANDY CHEN: So edX, Harvard X
has an offering called Stat100x,
[INAUDIBLE] because I worked on it.
COLTON OGDEN: There you go.
ANDY CHEN: It's pretty intense.
It's an introduction to
probability theory, which actually
isn't what we're doing today,
but it's the background for why
what we're doing to today, works.
If that's what you're interested in.
COLTON OGDEN: More rigorous?
ANDY CHEN: Yeah.
It's very difficult.
COLTON OGDEN: You'll
have to check that out.
What was the name of it again?
ANDY CHEN: s Stats 110x on edX.
It's probably offered
by Harvard Stat 110x.
COLTON OGDEN: OK.
ANDY CHEN: Professor
is Joe [? Blitstein. ?]
COLTON OGDEN: Check it out.
ANDY CHEN: Yeah.
COLTON OGDEN: You learn some stats.
Actually, [? dive ?] into
a little bit at some point.
ANDY CHEN: Yeah.
I forget all of it.
COLTON OGDEN: Maybe some R. Some Python
data science stuff sounds pretty cool.
ANDY CHEN: Name some Rthon.
Is that a thing?
Rthon.
COLTON OGDEN: Rthon?
Maybe, I'm not sure.
Integrate RStudio with Python.
"Thanks for the stream.
I want to ask the logic
behind the p value,
but I know it's the end
of the stream so its cool
if you don't have time to explain it.
ANDY CHEN: The logic
behind the p value is
we assume that everything
that we sample, all events,
happen along a distribution.
In this instance, we assume
it's a normal distribution.
And you p value is saying,
what is the likelihood
that the actual result we get is--
so if you think about
the normal distribution.
When we think about the area under
the curve as the possible region where
conceivably, that event could happen.
The likelihood of that happening--
there is a very small area on
both sides of the tail that
are extremely unlikely
that cover 5% of that area,
and that's actually two standard
deviations from the mean.
And we're saying that we're OK,
essentially, if our sample--
if our results actually
were in that area.
It's saying like, the likelihood
of it being in this area
is so far gone, it's 5%,
that we're OK with it.
But what that also means, is
every 1 out of every 20 times
you do it you're going to get
not a great result. But yeah.
COLTON OGDEN: And tune
in for the stats course
for probably more of the background
on that, I'm guessing, right?
ANDY CHEN: Yeah.
COLTON OGDEN: Someone asked,
JumpJump123, "Could you
say the course name again?"
ANDY CHEN: That would be Stat 100x.
COLTON OGDEN: And then,
[? TwitchHelloWorld, ?] aka,
Jacques or Jack, says,"What did you
say is the stream Professor Manning is
doing Monday?"
And that is a surprise.
We're not going to spoil that one.
Another surprise, you're
going to have to tune in.
Cool.
ANDY CHEN: Nice.
COLTON OGDEN: I think that was it.
We're going to adjourn now.
It's been a little over two hours.
Thanks again, Andy--
ANDY CHEN: Yeah.
Of course.
COLTON OGDEN: --for coming on today.
ANDY CHEN: Thanks for having me.
COLTON OGDEN: It was great.
It was great fun.
Great time seeing R. I've
always heard about it.
Never actually seen it
too much in practice.
ANDY CHEN: [INAUDIBLE].
COLTON OGDEN: Physically seen it.
But it was a great exposure for me.
Have a great rest of the week, all.
I think we'll probably post videos
of hackathon related activities,
and pictures, and whatnot
on the Facebook group.
And I will see all of you next Monday.
ANDY CHEN: That's right.
Have a great weekend in the meantime.
COLTON OGDEN: All right,
everybody, on that note,
let's have a great rest
of the week and weekend.
See you next time.
ANDY CHEN: Ciao.
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It's hard to imagine certain celebs together,
but A-listers, just like the rest of us, have
hidden romantic pasts.
Sometimes these relationships even pre-date
their time in the limelight... meaning that
some stars dated one another long before either
one of them became household names.
Neil Patrick Harris came out as gay in 2006,
but it was a relationship he had years earlier
with a now-famous woman that made him realize
he wasn't attracted to the ladies.
In an interview with radio shock jock Howard
Stern, Harris revealed that dating actress
Christine Taylor, who married Ben Stiller
in 2000 before they later divorced, made him
realize that he was into men.
He said:
E! News reports that Harris and Taylor dated
back in 1997, after Harris became famous from
Doogie Howser, M.D., but before he became
relevant as an adult actor.
But Taylor doesn't get all the credit for
having helped Harris realize his sexuality:
In Harris' autobiography, the How I Met Your
Mother star shared that a joking kiss from
Burt Reynolds also did the trick.
Yeah that'll do it!
January Jones dated Ashton Kutcher before
hitting it big as Betty Draper on Mad Men,
and there were rumors for years that he was
the subject of a remark she made in a 2009
GQ profile about an ex.
In the article, Jones griped that her first
boyfriend since moving to Los Angeles, quote,
"was not supportive of my acting."
She said:
Years later, Jones appeared on Watch What
Happens Live With Andy Cohen, where a caller
asked, quote, "January, have you ever talked
to Ashton Kutcher since he said you couldn't
act, and what do you think about his acting
skills?"
Jones replied:
"I don't know if that person had ever actually
seen me act."
"Got it."
"But the person who wrote the interview did
the math and thought it might be him."
Jones never confirmed that Kutcher was the
jerk in question, but she did quip:
"But I haven't talked to him, but I'm super
happy for him and his family, to be political
and all that."
"Okay.
Okay, good."
Could there possibly be a funnier couple than
Conan O'Brien and Lisa Kudrow?
The Friends star revealed that she and Coco
dated before they each hit it big in television.
She revealed to More magazine that she and
O'Brien dated briefly but were better off
as, wait for it, friends.
"Oh, okay, I see what you did there."
They were such good pals, in fact, that she
said she credits him with her sticking it
out in improv classes when she wasn't too
thrilled with them.
She recalled:
But regarding improv, she added:
Eventually O'Brien convinced her to join the
Los Angeles-based improv group the Groundlings,
and she, as we all know, later became a TV
legend playing Friends' Phoebe Buffay.
And O'Brien might be just as indebted to Kudrow
for getting his start in late night television,
which she confirmed to The Saturday Evening
Post.
She told the publication, cheekily:
Actress Megan Fox began dating her now-husband,
Beverly Hills, 90210 star and former teen
heartthrob Brian Austin Green, when she was
18 years old and he was 30, but before that,
she was in a much more age-appropriate relationship
with a fellow young actor.
Long before Fox became a household name with
the 2007 Transformers movie, she had a role
in the TV series Hope & Faith, starring Faith
Ford and Kelly Ripa, and a small part in a
2001 direct-to-DVD Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen
flick called Holiday in the Sun, among other
tiny gigs.
During this period of her career, Fox dated
7th Heaven actor David Gallagher, who played
Simon Camden on the '90s family-friendly series
following a minister and his large family.
According to E! News, Gallagher and Fox were
an item from 2003 to 2004, when she was 17
to his 18.
Juliette Lewis and Brad Pitt, who starred
together in 1993's Kalifornia, dated for a
few years.
She revealed to the Daily Mail:
The two are still friendly.
Pitt told Vanity Fair in 1995:
He added:
In 2010, Lewis told Fox News that she and
Pitt's ex-wife Jennifer Aniston were pals,
and noted that she and Pitt would, quote,
"run into each other" every so often, which
was, quote, "really nice."
Back when pop star Katy Perry was still a
fledgling Christian singer in the early 2000s,
she dated Christian pop-punk artist Matt Thiessen,
frontman of the band Relient K. Thiessen told
Songfacts:
He added that she became a star while he was
working with Owl City, noting:
Perry was such a supportive girlfriend to
Thiessen that video footage resurfaced a decade
later of her failing epically to stage-dive
at a Relient K show.
The two even wrote the song "Long Shot" together,
which was eventually recorded by Kelly Clarkson
for her All I Ever Wanted album.
Celebs Colin Hanks and Busy Philipps dated
when they were classmates at Loyola Marymount
University in the 1990s, and they're still
close friends today.
In fact, in 2017, Philipps was a guest co-host
on Live With Kelly when Hanks was a guest
on the show and gushed about their prior relationship,
saying:
"He was my college boyfriend, but we are very,
very close friends now, his wife and I are
very tight, he and my husband hang out.
We go on vacation together."
The two met when Philipps was 18 and Hanks
was 19.
After noting that they'd known each other
for 20 years, Philipps shared:
"I do have moments where I think, 'How cool..."
"Yeah."
"... that we knew each other at this formative
moment in our life?'"
Hanks added, quote, "We got our first televisions
shows within the same week.
We got our first movies within the same week."
"Like we were able to go through all of these
really special moments in young actors' lives
together."
Way before Chris Evans became Captain America,
he was pretty much relegated to being 7th
Heaven star Jessica Biel's plus-one on red
carpets.
The couple dated for roughly five years, from
2001 to 2006.
Neither of them has spoken too much publicly
about their relationship, though what they
have said has been pretty damn sweet.
Biel once gushed to Cosmopolitan in 2005:
Evans, meanwhile, revealed to Esquire in 2017
that he and Biel once went skydiving for Valentine's
Day.
When they called it quits in 2006, reports
circulated that Evans had been spotted with
brunette PR exec Joyce Sevilla.
Biel, on the other hand, moved on later that
year with Derek Jeter, before getting together
with Justin Timberlake in January 2007.
She and Timberlake ended up marrying several
years later.
Who knew Will Schuester got around?
Glee star Matthew Morrison briefly dated co-star
Lea Michele during their Broadway days back
before they ever shared screen time in the
musical dramedy series.
Michele revealed in her memoir, Brunette Ambition:
But Michele wasn't the only celeb Morrison
dated before hitting it big.
In 2010, Kristen Bell shared that Morrison
was an old college flame, telling Us Weekly:
Sounds like the Veronica Mars actress must
have some great memories of that relationship,
huh?
When Melissa Joan Hart was first rising to
fame on Sabrina the Teenage Witch in 1996,
she had then-unknown actor Ryan Reynolds smitten.
She revealed on Chelsea Lately that he tried
to win her over with a Beluga watch, telling
host Chelsea Handler:
It was just a fling for Hart, though.
She told Australia's Studio 10:
"He was sweet, he was very sweet. I had a boyfriend at the time, but we were smitten and cute, and, you know…"
"Awwww."
She added, quote, "[Reynolds] probably would
have been a great boyfriend, and I didn't
end up with the other guy, so maybe I should
have taken a chance."
Before he had Robin's tights, Chris O'Donnell
had Reese Witherspoon's digits.
He was around 22 years old when he dated the
future Legally Blonde star, who was just a
teenager in 1992, as Rolling Stone reported.
According to E! News, the two were an item
when Witherspoon first moved to Los Angeles,
but little else is known about their relationship.
O'Donnell and Witherspoon were reportedly
together for a few months, but their romance
didn't last.
The following year, the future NCIS: Los Angeles
star met a woman named Caroline Fentress,
a college pal's younger sister who would later
become his wife.
O'Donnell married Fentress in 1997, as noted
by People magazine, and, as of making this
video, the two have since welcomed five children.
Since dating O'Donnell, Witherspoon moved
on to relationships with Ryan Phillippe and
later Jim Toth.
Check out one of our newest videos right here!
Plus, even more Nicki Swift videos about your
favorite stuff are coming soon.
Subscribe to our YouTube channel and hit the
bell so you don't miss a single one.
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Dean will now....
What is this...are they putting it in his head?
I didn't even see it.
Will they enter already?
You know how much protection is there?
It hurts him...she did something....
She did something to him?
She washed his brain. She put something there to control him, so he has to tell her everything.
The question is does he remember anything?
He'll figure that something's not right.
He doesn't remember.
The blood is flowing from his eyes...
He's done with him....for good.
He's with him.
Logical.
I thought he left to see her, but she maybe went for a walk.
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Hi, everyone.
I'm Corey D'Augustine.
I want to welcome you to the third live Q&A
session.
I'll be here for the next 30 minutes, something
like that, taking questions about art history,
about perhaps some of your works in the studio,
or whatever else is on your mind.
We will be taking live questions but we've
also compiled a list of questions from previous
episodes, so let's dive right in.
First question comes from alexmeinhof.
Alex writes, "How do you respond to people
who say that abstract art requires no skill?"
Okay, so this is kind of a classic question
for modernism, and especially for abstract
painting, the Jackson Pollocks of the world.
Actually, a quick story.
I remember once when I was working the National
Gallery I was dusting frames early in the
morning and a dad came in with his daughter
on his shoulders, and they're looking at a
Joan Michell painting.
You could imagine what that might look like.
And the daughter said, "Oh, Daddy it's dirty.
I want to clean it."
He was like, "Okay, well, dirty is one word
for it," but language I think is key here.
Pablo Picasso, who, by the way, never painted
an abstract painting himself, was asked about
cubism and how he responded to the fact that
many people didn't understand cubism, and
kind of ridiculed it as crazy, avant-garde.
And Picasso said, "Well, you know modern art
movements are very much like foreign languages.
And if someone French came in the room right
now and started speaking French and you didn't
know the language you wouldn't blink.
You wouldn't understand anything."
And for Picasso it was really the same thing,
so his opinion was that if someone had never
spent time with cubism, never studied that
abstract language, semi-abstract language,
that it would come as no surprise that they
didn't really understand what it was about.
Now could anyone paint a cubist painting?
Could anyone paint an abstract painting?
Well, in a way, of course.
But if we can run with this analogy a little
bit longer, you know, if you start to study
Chinese.
Your first class in Chinese language class
you're actually just making noises.
You're making not words but just sounds that
are vaguely Chinese.
But they don't mean anything, right?
So you can imitate that, but if a Chinese
person walks in the room and starts to try
to understand what you're saying, of course
you're not getting anywhere, right?
So without a background in some of these movements
it's really difficult to understand what the
intentions are, what the painting is trying
to do or say, and this is potentially a problem.
And, you know, for Alex and perhaps many viewers
out there, there is something difficult about
a lot of modern art.
Perhaps elitist, unfortunately, about some
modern art that if you come into it cold you're
having a difficult time to get a foothold
and really understand what the movement is
about.
Whereas, you know, old master paintings, like
it or not, if you go look at a Titian or a
Vermeer, now you might like it.
You might love it.
You might not, but you understand what the
criteria is of a good painting.
Is it realistic?
Is it not?
Whereas in modernism they threw that out the
window, as they did so many things.
So this is a huge topic, and we could talk
about this for the next half an hour.
But I hope anyway that's an introduction to
this idea that, yeah, it's fair to say that
some of these movements are really difficult.
They do require a little bit of homework.
And if you don't want to, no problem.
In my opinion, if you do follow through with
some of that homework you're opening some
really interesting doors to an appreciation
of a lot of art that, by the way, try it yourself.
You can't do if you speak the language and
you're sensitive to it.
Or you can maybe after a lot of practice.
All right, first live question here comes
from Rachel Birkner.
"Corey, you have a remarkable ability to recreate
the style of the abstract expressionist.
What drew you to these artists and this time
period specifically?
And PS, does Drake mind that you stole his
DNA?"
I didn't do that, I promise.
But the real question here, what drew me personally
to the New York school, living in New York
is a big one.
Being an American, by the way, since the so-called
Abstract Expressionists were probably, fair
to say, the most critically important historical
avant-garde in this country now.
And you could go back to Alfred Stieglitz
and there's many other interesting modern
artists before them, but that's really the
one that got the ball rolling here in New
York City.
You know, I have a background studying jazz
and a lot of the same ideas meshed with improvisation
with a lot of, you know, the bebop players
and the Jackson Pollocks of the world.
So when I was in grad school that was really
where I focused.
And, you know, in my own studio work certainly
wasn't an abstract expressionist style painter
but I spent a lot of time thinking about them.
So yeah, thank you for the compliment and
keep going.
Next question.
This comes from the September live Q&A.
That was our last one.
"At the risk of sounding like a kiss-ass,
this is definitely one light bulb you've turned
on in terms of learning to appreciate the
Abstract Expressionist movement, and I've
been to art school.
Having said that, what are some avenues one
could explore in furthering a beginner's education
the art form, books, films, podcast, etc?"
Okay, great question.
First of all, podcasts, I'm not aware of any
but there probably are some good ones out
there, so please post down below and share
this with me and everyone else watching.
Films, one really good one, a documentary
film made by Emile de Antonio.
And maybe we'll post this down in the comments
later, "Painters Painting" is the name of
that documentary from 1971 or '72, something
like that.
De Antonio was a New York school artist himself
and he interviewed a whole lot of great artists,
ranging from Barnett Newman, and Willem de
Kooning, to Andy Warhol.
And if you want to hear it, you know, from
the source, an artist documenting the work
of other artists in their studios, etc, in
my opinion that's really as good as it gets.
And books, wow, there's about a million of
them out there.
I think my favorite entry-level-ish book on
the New York School is written by Irving Sandler.
Sandler was a really young aspiring art historian,
probably not even an art historian yet, at
the
Artists Club.
He knew de Kooning, and Pollock, and all those
guys and gals.
And his memoirs, or actually one chapter of
his memoirs is called, "A Sweeper-Up After
Artists."
Kind of a strange title, but those are his
personal recollections, and he's kind of weaving
great stories back and forth with the history
of the movement.
It's really entertaining.
It's also quite interesting and elucidating.
Katharina Huemer, also from the September
live Q&A.
"Thanks so much.
As we all know, practice is the key.
Can you recommend something to practice on,
as buying canvas all the time is quite expensive?
But the specific surface is still quite important,
at least to me.
Again, thank you very much."
Thank you.
Okay, so to practice on, first of all, paper
is really cheap, brown paper, etc.
And certainly you can practice brushwork,
etc, but Katharina is right here, the texture
is different, the
absorbance is different, etc.
One thing you can do to make it act a little
bit more like canvas is to prime paper.
That seals the paper and reduces its absorption,
so the paint starts to feel a little bit more
like applying to canvas.
Also you can do what Picasso did and many
other artists, paint on the back of a canvas.
When you're done with one, unstretch it, flip
it over, prime the other side, and paint it
again.
Or what Picasso also did it early on the Blue
Period when he wasn't really selling works
is to paint directly on top of another painting.
Now for all of us Picasso lovers it's kind
of a bummer that there are all of these so-called
lost or hidden Picasso's, which by the way,
conservators like myself are using imaging
techniques of increased specificity to really
pick out some of those under paintings, if
you will.
So maybe if you make a masterpiece don't paint
it out, please.
But as you're just growing as a painter, I
think it's completely fine to realize that
your painting is kind of exercise.
They're kind of platforms, or kind of steps
forward.
And when you've finished one, by all means
take a picture of it, remember it.
But if money's tight I think it's completely
fine to paint over that.
And really, again, as I mentioned in the previous
one, I think one of the most important things
for a young painter is not to fall in love
with anything you've done.
Always risk what you've done to try to make
it better.
Don't rest on your laurels in other words.
And I think making yourself paint over works
is a really, really good way to ensure that
that's the case.
And by the way, it's the cheap way, too.
Emily Tarleton writes, "I feel like I learned
more in the first 10 minutes of this video
than I did in 3 years' worth of art classes
in high school."
Well, that's kind of a good news, bad news
one.
I'm glad to hear that, in a way.
Not so glad to hear that about your high school
art class, but thanks for those kind words.
Iveta Wiedermann writes, "Is it necessary
to be capable of realistic drawing or painting
for abstract for an abstract painter?
Were mentioned artists like Newman, de Kooning,
and others also great in realistic drawings
and paintings?"
Interesting.
Is it necessary?
This is a case-by-case situation.
It really depends on what kind of abstract
painting you're making.
Willem de Kooning, as you probably know since
you're here, really exerts a kind of battle
between painting and drawing in his painted
canvases, drawing with a loaded brush, drawing
back on top of a painting, painting back on
top of a drawing, etc.
And by the way, de Kooning was one of the
greatest draftsman, in terms of drawing, of
the 20th century.
So if you're going to draw like...sorry, if
you're going to paint like de Kooning I think
the answer this question is yes.
You really gotta hone your draftsmanship skills.
Newman is a great counter example, though.
If you look at early representational work
by Newman.
Ugh, good luck.
He destroyed it all because he didn't want
you to see it.
Something tells me there was a reason for
that.
Ego's certainly a part of it, but in Newman's
graphic work later on, his zips, his prints,
etc, the artist hand, in terms of realistic
drawing, is completely irrelevant.
And whereas some kind of Philistine argument
will say, "Well, you can't be an abstract
painter unless you pay your dues first," I
really don't think that's the case.
It really depends on what kind of an abstract
artist that you want to be.
Same thing with jazz, by the way.
Ornette Coleman, great avant-garde innovator
on the alto saxophone and other instruments,
was not a great bebop player.
But he just improvised a completely new relationship
to the music without paying his dues, and
that was very difficult for many people.
In fact, when he first came to New York City
in 1959 he was labeled anti-jazz.
Well, now when you listen to Ornette you're
going to be tapping your foot.
I'm pretty sure you're going to think it's
jazz.
So sometimes as movements make their way into
history we really start to understand that
it's more about the idea rather than the checklist
of things that gets you to that idea.
Cecelia Beck asks, "How did de Kooning's paintings
fare over time with the mixture?"
Cecelia referring to some really interesting
materials that de Kooning added to his paint,
including some non-drying oils, like safflower,
cooking oil, in other words.
How did they fare?
Kind of a mixed bag.
I think it's fair to say that de Kooning's
paintings have a lot more cracks than certain
other artists who are more academic or conventional
in their approach to the canvas.
de Kooning knew how to paint according to
the academic standards for sure, but he just
willingly deviated from those recipes in the
interest of creative ideas.
In other words, fat over lean, that rule of
thumb of oil painting or really any kind of
painting.
How to make a painting that lasts.
He didn't do that.
So in many cases actually we see drying cracks
in his painting.
Now what a drying crack is is not a crack
that happened because, you know, someone crashed
into it or kicked a soccer ball against it,
or that the temperature of the humidity varied
wildly in your living room.
Instead it's those cracks forming as the paint
dries.
So those cracks, they're actually not a damage.
It's not a condition problem for the painting.
It's something that the material did naturally
as it dried in the studio.
At the very least de Kooning accepted these
kind of drying cracks.
And having looked at a lot de Kooning paintings,
I'm pretty confident that actually he invited
these drying cracks at times.
de Kooning getting really wrinkly textures
sometimes, adding way too much medium, and
other times working super dry and underbound,
and having cracking, kind of dry paint surfaces.
de Kooning really made paint do everything
that it
possibly could do, including not dry, as we
talked about in a previous video, where some
of his paintings still have drips that are
literally still wet today, 50 years down the
road.
And they're probably not drying anytime soon.
Pamela writes, "Question for you, Corey.
When you painted during Parts I & II in de
Kooning style can you please talk about the
fat over lean principle and whether de Kooning
adhered to this principle?"
Actually we just kind of addressed this.
The answer really here is rarely.
In these kind of paintings when de Kooning
did follow fat over lean, I think it was almost
just by chance.
It's really not something that he was worried
about, and it is why some of these really
interesting paint textures happened on his
paintings.
And, you know, let's be frank.
Some of his paintings do have condition problems.
Some of them do have flaking paint when the
paint is cracking, and lifting off the surface,
and falling on the floor, etc.
And painters of this generation, Franz Kline
also, you know, there's a certain risk, a
certain cost littered to the condition, the
aging properties of your painting when you
do deviate from those academic techniques.
But I don't think de Kooning is really an
extreme example of that.
We can find other painters who were making
much more unorthodox and much more fragile
paint films, like Yves Klein from France,
or Ad Reinhardt here from New York City.
ArnoM73 writes, "A big thanks from Germany
for everything.
Big fan of your videos.
Which binder is best to use with acrylics
to get more fluidity?
Any thoughts about mixing oils and acrylics?
I would love to hear more about Pierre Soulages."
Actually I just finished working on a Pierre
Soulages painting, a great abstract painter
who's still kicking, by the way, still working
in Paris.
Okay, so the question here about getting more
fluidity with acrylics.
Okay, one way to do that is to add solvent,
which in this case is water, which cuts the
fluidity of your paint.
But if you're trying to increase also the
translucence of your paint there's a really
wide range of additives for acrylics.
Now the truth here is that, you know, within
all of these different lines, and I'm talking
about commercial brands of acrylic paints,
a lot of these additives, they're really,
really similar to each other.
They have the same binder or really closely
related binders.
They might have rheological modifiers.
That sounds complicated, but just something
to change the flow ability, the brush ability
of your paint.
And each one of these companies has their
own names and their own brands of different
approaches to cutting the viscosity of your
paint.
Another way to do it is actually just to add
a surfactant, like a little bit of alcohol,
ethanol, which you can buy at the drug store.
Just a little bit is going to cut the surface
tension of your paint, and really that's a
whole lot of what I think this question is
about.
So sorry there's not a super specific answer,
but, you know, if you're working with Golden
paints, or Liquitex, or what have you, explore
some of these different additives.
And I really encourage you to, you know, get
a piece of masonite or a
canvas and do some paint outs, do some tests.
So take a little bit of cadmium red and add
equal part of one additive, and then do the
same thing in another one, and another one,
another one, and then make the same brush
stroke down and start to get a feel for, ah,
the fluidity is much higher in this one but
is much more translucent.
Or this one is more opaque.
Or this one has a body to it, is more kind
of a waxy kind of thickness to it.
These days it's a nice time to be a painter
in the acrylic realm since there is a really
wide range of materials available to us.
Live question from Cheryl Herndon here on
YouTube.
"Can you get similar effects of matte and
glossy surfaces with H2 oils?"
Okay, yeah.
So H2 oils, this is just a brand name, but
these are the so-called water soluble, or
water miscible oil paints.
First thing, it's a bit of a misnomer.
Oils are not soluble in water.
They're not really miscible either.
These are emulsion paints, and before you
start getting freaked out, don't worry.
Most acrylic paints are also emulsion paints.
The so called water-soluble oils, it's just
a different binder in there.
For me they still really feel plasticky.
They are plastics, by the way.
They have plastic components in them.
So yeah, they look more like oil than acrylic,
emulsion paints do.
But for me, the handling properties, I'm not
really convinced.
Moreover they're relatively young.
Someone can tell me exactly how long they've
been around but I want to guess, I don't know,
15 years, something like that.
And conservators studied these a bit, but
really the best way to understand the material
and its aging process is to, well, stick around
for 100 years.
By the way, a lot of the early acrylic paintings
from the 60s, conservators like myself are
encountering some very strange problems that
some of them are having over time that we're
just learning about these days because they're
a ticking clock in a way.
And certain things happen at certain times,
and we're learning that on-the-fly.
So matte and glossy surfaces with water-soluble
oils.
The medium there is quite glossy, so if you
want to reduce the gloss you want to reduce
the binder content, or increase the pigment-to-binder
ratio.
One way to do that is that you can do what
the Impressionists did and squeeze out your
oil paint on to newspaper or onto cardboard.
It'll soak up some of the medium, and what
you're left with is a thicker, drier paint,
which will also dry with a much more matte
appearance.
Also if you add more water to it you will
increase the viscosity, and as your paint
is applied to an absorbent support like canvas,
more of that medium is going to follow the
water and get soaked into your priming, or
your canvas, or what have you.
And again, the same kind of thing, pigment-to-binder
ratio goes up and you have a more matte appearance.
Anamaria Arango writes, "Thank you.
Love your videos.
I'm teaching visual art in a bilingual school
in Colombia, South America and we watch many
of your videos.
Keep it up."
Super cool.
I just love the idea that this is a kind of
language tool, as well as a cultural tool,
as well as an artistic teaching device in
Colombia.
Sign me up.
I'm ready to go to Colombia.
What next?
Justin Worrell writes, "Have conservators
studied or reached any conclusions regarding
the integrity of water-soluble oil paints?"
I'm going to pass on this one since actually
we just took a live question about this.
"Assuming I follow all the traditional rules,
fat over lean, proper ground, how many generations
of my family will get to enjoy my awesomely
mediocre paintings?"
We don't know is really the answer to that
one.
If you're really concerned about the longevity
of your works, your awesomely mediocre paintings,
stick with oils, or stick with egg, or stick
with distemper.
Stick with something that's been around for
hundreds of years, and we know the answer
to these questions.
Acrylics might be fine.
Water miscible oils might be fine, but I wouldn't
bet the farm on it.
More likely when paintings of historic, and
frankly monetary value, get made in these
new media, conservators will get good and
the market will drive this pressure and make
sure that we keep them around in a way.
But specifically what are the problems and
how bad are they going to be?
I think we're going to have to wait around
a little bit to really be sure.
From the September live Q&A, Lynda Lehmann
writes, "Long question here.
For months and months I've been bemoaning
the loss of my independent study painting
group and life changes propelled me to move
across the country.
Listening to you speak with so much knowledge
and authority about painting grounds and anchors
me to the dimension of creativity that I was
once able to express in my tiny art community.
Already inspired learning things I've missed.
Looking forward to plunge into the grand universe
of inner space impacting pigments."
Hey, you guys know how to write.
I love this stuff.
"Thanks MoMA and thanks me."
You're very welcome.
Really nothing makes me happier in this series
than I get comments like this that people
are either beginning to explore painting for
the first time or kind of reinvigorating their
painting process.
Actually I got a note recently, a kind of
thank you note that someone said I was like
gasoline on a smoldering fire.
I think that was meant as a compliment but
it took me a little while to figure it out.
Jack Ready writes in the live Q&A trailer
for this session, "Hi, Corey.
Many of the artists I've been interested in
recently, including Basquiat and de Kooning,
seem to take direct inspiration from their
peers and predecessors' work and make it their
own.
Is there a fine line between imitation and
originality?"
Wow, a lot of artists have been pondering
these same ideas, perhaps none more so than
Marcel Duchamp, who basically made an entire
career out of this idea of questioning authenticity,
originality concepts therein.
But back to painting, yeah, many artists paint
their way through the master to the extent
available options to them.
There's nothing wrong with that.
In fact, I think it's a really productive
way to work.
As an artist if you're trying you know to
do something historically important to be
a serious artist, etc, if you're copying you
better understand the ramifications of that.
The so-called Pictures Generation, largely
focus here in New York City in the 1980s and
'90s, Louise Lawler, Richard Prince, Jeff
Koons, and other artists really went back
to Duchamp and started thinking about, well,
what happens when you take a photograph of
a photograph?
Or if you make a painting that looks just
like another painting, except this one's done
by a woman and it's done in the 1990s.
What's the meaning of this contextual shift
here?
And the answer is actually there's a lot of
interesting things that happen here, you know?
The old fable about, you know, someone who
likes Don Quixote so much that they wrote
it themselves to experience what Cervantes
would have experienced in writing the original
Quixote, Pedro Menard.
But, you know, these kind of ideas have been
around for quite some time now in the 20th
century now into the 21st.
So all I'm recommending here is that if, you
know, you're painting through other artists'
work as a way to find your own voice, excellent,
a really productive way to do that.
If you're copying other artists' work as your
own art, hit the books and understand some
of the rationale of other artists who have
done this kind of a thing, and figure out
where your ideas lie in there.
And by the way, I'm sure this is not the the
last that we've heard of these kind of approaches.
SpecialDoc: TryYourMedincine writes, "Why
not paint like yourself?"
Okay, related question here.
There's no reason not to paint like yourself.
In fact, even if you do try to rewrite Don
Quixote yourself you're not going to do it.
It's going to be your own in certain ways.
The experience of it will be quite subjective
and quite personal.
I think that the flip side to this question
is, "Why paint like other artists?"
And we've touched on this as a way to understand
really the experience of a work, to understand
the process, to understand why things look
the way they do in, say, a Picasso painting.
I hope some of you have tried your hand at
working in a Cubist style, and suddenly you'll
realize really, really quickly how cubism
progressed very methodically and very rationally
from one step to another.
Because it's all about how the image relates
between what you're looking at in still life
and on a canvas, or then perhaps you skip
the still life altogether and further flattened
the pictorial space of that painting.
One answer here is to learn art history, to
learn the history of painting by using your
hands and really sharpening the relationships
between what your eye tells you where you're
comfortable perhaps looking at paintings and
thinking about paintings with what your hand
tells you, which maybe you haven't done so
much of.
And suddenly you'll have an understanding
why certain de Kooning's brush strokes look
the way they do, or start the way they do,
or stop with a crackle in the way they do.
Because the quality of paint, because of the
kind of physical gesture that was responsible
for getting that paint there.
So, you know, multiple answers here.
One is to learn art history, two, to learn
how to paint, and I think many of us here
in this series of In the Studio works, I hope
you're doing both of those hand-in-hand.
At least that's certainly my intentions.
Alberto Arredondo on Twitter writes, "I'm
working in tempera grassa.
First of all, tempera grassa is egg plus oil.
This was a technique invented really in Italy
where there's a history of egg tempera painting.
And then as oil painting moved in from the
north in the hands of Albrecht Durer and other
artists like that, artists like Raphael started
to mix the two as a kind of crutch to get
them towards true oil painting technique.
So Alberto is working this technique on canvas
primed with gesso, lean to fat, reducing the
amount of water and increasing the oil each
layer until I have half oil, two volumes water.
Thoughts on stability?"
Okay, so first thought on stability.
Seems like an okay approach.
I worry a little bit working with this medium,
tempera grassa, on a flexible support like
canvas.
Oil is quite flexible, although it does get
more brittle with age.
Acrylics are quite flexible and they also
get brittle with age.
Egg tempera is quite brittle from the get-go,
and this is why when you go the Uffizi and
the great museums of the Italian old masters
you see them working on wood principally as
they're painting in egg, because that medium
is brittle.
And on a flexible support like canvas, which
waves around as you're carrying it across
the room, or shrinking and expanding with
variations in relative humidity, etc, you're
going to run into some cracks and some flaking.
Now tempera grassa, because there's some oil
mixed into the egg it does make it stronger.
It does make it more flexible.
If you're really concerned about the longevity
of these paints, I might consider working
on wood on panel rather than on canvas.
That being said, I think your approach here,
working fat over lean, layer by layer by layer,
is a very thoughtful and very strong way to
encourage the stability of those works.
From Instagram, fabulouschels writes, "Hi.
I truly enjoyed the Coursera course and look
forward to more in-studio videos.
Question is this, I've seen videos of a few
young professional artists mixing a large
amount of water with their acrylic paints.
They pour water onto a stretched canvas laying
on the floor and mix a small amount of acrylic
paint into it, making a wash or watercolor-like
effect.
Would a product like Golden's Absorbent Ground
prevent under binding when using this technique?
Or are their paintings doomed to flake off
in the future?"
So another question here about unorthodox
painting techniques and the physical ramifications
of them.
Okay, so what happens here is that when you're
working in a stain with a lot of solvent,
and this is true of oil paints, Magna paints,
the first acrylics, or Liquitex acrylic emulsion
type paints.
When you're working in a stain you have that
fixed pigment-to-binder ratio.
Comes out of the tube, what have you.
But when you work with a lot of extra solvent
you're encouraging some of that medium to
migrate out of your paint as it dries and
into the ground, and or into the support.
So the more absorbent the material that you're
painting on, the more of that binder is actually
going to make its way out of your paint.
Now what this is going to do is it's going
to make a very matte surface.
It's going to increase the opacity of your
paint.
Maybe these are good things for you.
Helen Frankenthaler, by the way, really explored
these ideas.
I think we might do that in a future video.
That being said, if too much of that happens
you may have drying cracks, the kind of thing
that we were talking about a little bit ago
in some of the works of Willem de Kooning
and many other artists.
So if that is the case then yes, I'm afraid
if you're working with a truly under bound
paint surface it's going to be really fragile.
It may flake off, etc.
Working with a ground or a size adhesive to
seal that canvas is going to prevent a lot
of that soaking, or that seeping into the
canvas the same kind of way when you knock
over a glass of wine on a tablecloth.
If you have kind of a plasticy tablecloth,
it's a shiny one that has adhesive into it,
you know that wine is just going to kind of
bubble up and sit there until you clean it
up.
If you have an old cotton tablecloth, or something
like silk, something like that wicking in,
right?
Same kind of idea is true of canvas.
So again, the rule of thumb here, or really
your focus in answering these kind of questions
is the pigment-to-binder ratio.
If it's really high, if it's excessive, your
paint is going to be quite weak, especially
if you're not locking it in with a fatter
layer on top, fat over lean approach to an
academic painting.
Igor Sado, cool name, writes from the September
live Q&A.
"Currently following your course on Coursera."
Excellent.
"That's how I found out about you and your
videos.
I love them so much.
I love Abstract Expressionism and I love MoMA,
which we currently have here in Paris near
my house.
I'm not a painter per se.
I'm a fashion designer and illustrator and
yet I find your tips very useful to my work."
Super glad to hear it, and I really like this
idea that some of the ideas that we explore
together in the Coursera course and some of
the In the Studio videos go in other directions,
they inspire.
One of my students mentioned that he's a composer
and some of the electronic music that he's
making really came out of a thing about Barnett
Newman and others, which I really loved.
I just went to an event the other day and
a chef stopped me and said, "Oh, I know you."
And, you know, "Some of these these ideas,
I wonder if some of the painterly effects
could be explored in food, etc."
Sign me up.
From today's live chat, Golnaz Farazi, another
cool name, writes, "Thanks for the awesome
online classes.
Any suggestion on how to find a qualified
person to critique my artworks?"
Interesting.
I don't know where you live, Golnaz, but artists
are everywhere.
And doing studio visits, excuse me, studio
visits with other artists is a really good
way to get a critique of your own work, and
also for you to present your own work.
It's one thing to make a painting and to look
at it.
It's another thing to make a painting and
present it to your girlfriend, or wife, or
husband, or what have you.
It's another thing to introduce it to another
artist, or to a stranger, or to an art critic,
or something like that.
And suddenly you're making a sales pitch.
And if this sounds kind of slimy, well, potentially
it is.
But really the good side of this is that you're
focusing on your work.
You're thinking about explaining what you're
trying to do, how to talk about it, how to
frame your work for someone who's coming in
cold so that they can really understand what
you're doing.
How to find these people?
Well, probably I think the Coursera course
is a great way to start.
We have students from all over the world so
I'd encourage you to post there about where
you live and see if there's someone else in
the course who is local or semi-local.
And certainly in the Coursera course there
is a lot of kind of inter-student critique
going on.
Of course, this is dealing with JPEGs and
TIFFs, which as we found out in the course
are quite useful but not as good as the real
thing, paint in the flesh.
But I think it's a really good way to get
started in this kind of process.
Wish you all the best.
Starsandink on Instagram writes, "Will oil,
protein, and water-based paints," protein-based
paint we're talking about egg, by the way,
egg tempera.
"Will oil, protein, and water-based paints
apply to an acrylic-based ground, stand up
to time, or will they eventually delaminate?
Is it true that early oil painters used calcium
carbonate in their paints to make them more
paste-like?"
Okay, two kind of unrelated questions here.
First one, can you work on an acrylic-based
ground for all these different kind of paints?
And thankfully, for us sometimes it's easy.
The answer is yes.
You can paint acrylic over an acrylic ground.
You can paint oil over an acrylic ground.
You can paint egg over an acrylic ground.
They're all going to work.
In fact, these days I really strongly recommend
working with an acrylic ground, regardless
of what kind of paint you're going to work
with over it.
Because not only does it provide a nice seal
to the canvas, it also provides a flexible
kind of ground so that, again, if that canvas
waves around over time it's not prone to cracking
like a glue ground would be that's a hide
glue, an animal glue ground.
Or an oil-based ground also could be over
time.
So all of these things work but I think the
idea of working with an acrylic ground is
a really good one.
Again, it's nice to be a painter these days.
"Is it true that early oil painters used calcium
carbonate in their paints," a kind of chalk,
"To make them more paste-like?"
Indeed, sometimes.
Indeed, that's a white pigment.
So some white oil paints principally use that
paint, and it also does make it more pastose,
or thick, more toothpaste-like.
And certainly some artists deliberately did
that.
By the way, you can do the same thing with
lead white, as Rembrandt and others did.
So it's not that that's the only white pigment
out there that could do it, but it's a cheap
one, and another.
There's really no reason not to.
"No rubber gloves."
Frowning face.
Okay, so let's talk about safety here.
Oh, by the way, this comes from the video
on turpentine burns that Mark Rothko and others
did, taking a rag wet with solvent and scrubbing
back into the canvas.
And this webberon, Ron maybe, is suggesting
between the lines here that you should wear
rubber gloves.
Now if you're doing this every day I strongly
agree with you.
If you're working with turpentine, turpentine
is a relatively strong solvent and it will
really, you know, dry out your hands, and
you'll crack your hands.
And if you're working with toxic pigments,
not a great idea anyway, you run the risk
of quite serious things.
First of all, I was working with just mineral
spirit, super low toxicity.
And I don't do that every day.
So is it a good idea to wear rubber gloves?
Yes, certainly.
For many of you out there I think you'll find
though that working with rubber gloves feels
a little weird and uncreative, etc.
I've gotten used to it as a conservator.
We wear gloves all the time.
But the first time you have a small brush
in your hand with a rubber glove it's going
to feel a little bizarre.
So safety is really important, of course.
Wearing rubber gloves if you're painting every
day.
If you're smearing paint all over your hands
every day, definitely a really good idea.
If you're working with just a little mineral
spirits on a rag, you know, every once in
a while, I think I'm doing okay.
But to each his own.
Always safety is a good idea.
PedestrianRage, whoa.
It sounds like someone who doesn't like bikers
here in New York City.
Writes, "Absolutely love this new series.
It has turned me into a fan of abstract art.
I used to lambaste it.
Can you explore watercolor as a medium in
modern abstract art?"
Yeah, that is a good idea.
There's a lot of really interesting modern
watercolor artists.
Cezanne made some wonderful watercolors.
Marin here in New York City made some great
ones in the beginning of the 20th century.
My own background, I work with watercolors
a lot as a conservator for in-painting techniques.
It's very reversible on a lot of kind of paintings.
In my own work I haven't really worked with
watercolor that much but I'd be happy to explore
it and demonstrate a couple of the key ideas.
Maybe we can find someone better than I am
in watercolor to do that kind of thing.
I think it's a good idea.
From the YouTube video on how to paint like
Picasso and Georges Braque, that's the cubist
video, Pam writes, "This is such an interesting
video.
Would the style work with watercolor?"
A similar kind of question.
Absolutely.
Picasso and Braque, to my understanding anyway,
they did work in in water-based paints but
more in studies, more in sketches, more in
preparatory kind of works.
By the way, for 1907's Demoiselles d'Avignon,
the great early cubist Picasso masterwork
which is in the collection here at the Modern,
there are some really interesting preparatory
sketches, Google them, you'll find them, for
that great painting.
And we can see how Picasso was thinking about
that composition and how he changed it quite
radically, in fact, as he approached that
really watershed moment in the early 20th
century.
Absolutely.
There's no reason why you couldn't paint a
Cubist work in watercolor.
The big difference here is that your paints
are going to be quite translucent.
And as I hope I convinced you in the video,
a whole lot of cubism is about compressing
pictorial space, or flattening that illusionistic
volume of old master painting.
And a lot of that is done in very opaque paints.
In fact, almost all the paints I applied to
that that Picasso type painting were quite
opaque.
So if you work in watercolor everything is
going to be translucent.
It's going to be more challenging for you
to really get the same kind of density and
opacity in your composition, but maybe you'll
find some really interesting avenues forward.
Personally I wonder if that's one of the reasons
that Picasso and Braque didn't work so much
in watercolor for finished works, but I'm
just speculating here.
Also from the Picasso video, "Cool, though
the blue dots seem a bit sloppy."
You know, it's funny.
This is modestroker1, nice name.
Personally I live with this painting now,
it's on the wall in my house.
And I go back and forth on this.
Sometimes I really like that and other times
I kind of agree with the writer here that
they do seem a little sloppy.
Sometimes the sloppiness of a cubist painting
is really interesting, though.
In tension with all those lines and all the
grammar of geometry, etc, to have the kind
of manual imprecision in there is quite nice.
I think, you know, this is something that
Picasso would agree with.
If you look at Picasso's neoclassical works
or his Blue Period works, or his academic
works early on in this life, man, that guy
could paint.
But then you look at some of his paintings
in the teens and the 20s and they're aggressively
clumsy, and aggressively ugly.
And even some of the really gorgeous, to my
eye, Cubist paintings, he's working with this
really lumpy, stiff, staccato kind of brushstroke,
which is a little bit, you know, lumpy, and
bumpy, and gross looking.
It's deliberate, in other words, and it's
further announcing the kind of lumpiness,
the flatness, the two dimensionality of the
painting.
Okay, it's three-dimensional, they're lumps.
But really reducing that illusionism behind
the picture plane.
Long way to say it's crossed my mind to clean
them up a couple times but I'm not quite sure.
Again, oil painting is quite forgiving, so
if I did decide sometime that I agree with
the writer here, simply working with a small
brush, a little bit of, I believe, white background
there, an opaque white, like a titanium-white,
or something like that, can just kind of clean
up the edges of them to refine them into more
clean polka dots, that's certainly something
that could be done anytime.
Question from Madeline today here on the live
chat.
"Do you have any information on the preservation
and maintenance of wax and caustic paintings?
Are encaustic paintings able to be preserved
for many years, or will they crack and melt
over time?"
Okay, so encaustic.
I don't think we talked about this much in
the course.
The most famous 20th century artist who is
sometimes said to work in encaustic is Jasper
Johns, working here in New York City.
Johns actually did not work in encaustic.
He mixed oil into wax, which is really not
encaustic, excuse me, painting.
Encaustic is just pigment in wax.
The Egyptians painted in encaustic an incredibly
long time ago.
Encaustic is a stable medium if handled correctly.
It does require a non-flexible support, like
a wall, or a piece of wood, a panel, something
like that.
And in that kind of situation they shouldn't
crack overtime.
However, will they melt over time?
You better believe it.
If it gets really warm they certainly will
liquify a little bit on the surface and get
shiny.
Or if it got really hot it could be dripping
down as well.
It is wax.
There are different kinds of wax, beeswax
microcrystalline wax, which tends to be a
little softer, lower melting point, and more
prone to melting.
But yes, certainly if you're working on a
Jasper Johns, or if you have a Jasper Johns,
or a Brice Marden with wax in your apartment,
first of all, lucky you.
But yeah, be careful about the temperature
in the summer time, please.
Robert Baker, III writes, "Why do artists
stretch their own canvas?
Is there something less valuable about a painting
on a factory-stretched canvas?
When purchasing a pre-stretched canvas, what
should you look for?
Sorry about the three-part question."
Not at all.
Why do artists stretch their own canvas?
A few different reasons.
One possible reason, my own reason is that
I don't like to buy something ready-made at
the store and then put something on it.
It feels rather decorative and feels rather
impersonal to me.
Totally subjective personal answer here.
I like building something myself and starting
to get a relationship with that object from
the get-go.
Now you can say, "Oh, but, you know, if you
really feel that way you should cut the tree
down and saw the stretcher bars, etc."
By the way, some artists do that.
I don't go that far.
So that's one possible reason.
Another one is that, for me personally, I
want to know what is on there.
I want to trust those materials.
And whereas you might think, "Well, what's
the big deal?"
Sometimes it is a big deal.
I'm not going to mention specific names, but
there's a certain line of canvases, which
were used by some important artists by the
way, that paint just didn't stick to after
10 years.
And the reason why is that this commercial
canvas maker applied some kind of a sealant
on top of the primer so it looks shiny, and
glossy, and clean, and made you want to buy
it off the shelf, except paint started to
delaminate on it over time.
You can imagine if you're an artist who made
a entire body of work on that canvas that
you bought from the store you're pretty upset
about that, and certainly there are artists
out there who are.
If you do work on a commercially-primed canvas,
my own suggestion here, just to make sure
that is not going to happen to you, take some
sandpaper and sand through whatever the surface
coating that may be on there and make sure
that it's really truly absorbent and your
paint is going to get some tooth into the
ground there.
"When purchasing a pre-stretched canvas, what
should you look for?"
Now it's really up to you.
If it's a reputable vendor, and certainly
there are plenty out there, you want to think
about the thread count of the canvas.
Should it be rough?
Should it be smooth?
Single prime, double prime, triple primed.
How thick?
And, you know, if you're sanding a triple-primed
canvas you can make it super smooth, whereas
a single prime canvas you're going to be still
picking up some of the warps and the wefts,
the textile surface of the threads there.
So this is really now about the appearance
of your work over time.
Happy painting, Robert.
Argendiego writes, "Hi, Corey.
I stretched my canvas and primed it.
The tension was excellent, but after painting
on it with oils and using a spatula, or pallette
knife, the canvas lost its tension.
The surface moves like jelly, yikes.
Could you give me some tips?
Thanks."
Okay, so this often happens if you're putting
a lot of pressure on the canvas during your
painting process.
Pallet knives will often do this, or if you're
really violent with your work and, you know,
hacking and slashing de Kooning style perhaps
you might do this as well.
A couple answers here.
If you've already done that, hopefully you're
working on a stretcher and not a strainer.
Watch the videos in the Coursera course for
the difference there.
But a stretcher you can key out the corners,
and the cross bar, etc, to
supply an increased tension in certain regions
of the canvas where you might have a little
beer belly, or what Argendiego writes as a
jelly kind of loss of tautness, or loss of
tension in the canvas.
So that's the entire idea behind those keyable,
expandable stretchers is that you can get
some of that tension back if that happens.
Or, by the way, if you have a fireplace, and
you're in a cold day like today, New York.
You burned a couple logs.
The humidity went way down, and then your
canvas had a little bit of a lack of tension
again.
So that's one idea.
Another idea if you're going to be working
with pallet knives, etc, is that maybe you
don't want to stretch it first.
Maybe, in fact, you want to take that canvas
and staple it directly onto a wall that you're
going to paint on.
And this way, here's the wall, when you're
scraping on it you're not actually flexing
the canvas because there's a wall behind it,
and you're getting a nice firm resistance.
When the painting is done and when it's dry
then you can stretch that canvas over stretcher
bars.
In the late
work by Philip Guston, he worked that way.
By the way, de Kooning worked that way a lot
of times, too.
And that approach has another potential benefit
that you can kind of decide the dimensions
of the canvas after you paint it.
You can crop out an area.
Gustin, if you look at his work from the '70s,
often had a pencil line of a big rectangle
where he thought the canvas would be, but
then sometimes actually it grew as he worked
with a composition.
Or sometimes it actually shrunk and he, you
know, ended up folding over part of the canvas,
the pencil line is actually on the back of
the painting now.
At any rate, a lot of really good artists
have used that approach.
You might give it a shot.
Nina Shukaylo writes, "I really love fantastic
International Klein Blue, IKB."
This is kind of blue paint that the French
painter Yves Klein developed and actually
patented in France.
"Do you know if it's possible to purchase
the pigment or how to substitute it if not?"
Actually you're asking the right person because
when I used to work here in the conservation
department at MoMA I did a lot of research
on Yves Klein and a really important painting
of his and the collection here.
The pigment that he worked with is synthetic,
or French ultramarine.
That's widely available all over the world.
And, in fact, for a long time it was thought
that there was just one blue and only one
store in Montparnasse in Paris that sold just
the right pigment.
But actually I found out that the pigment
that is sold there today isn't exactly the
same one as what he was working with anyway.
So it's less about the pigments than it is
about the paint.
IKB, International Klein Blue, is a combination
of a polyvinyl acetate.
That's a kind of synthetic resin, a little
bit like acrylic.
And the solvents are really important, working
with ethanol, that's alcohol, and ethyl acetate,
some acetone.
And depending on the formulation of the paint,
something that's either brushable, or rollerable,
rollable or sprayable, etc.
By the way Klein died in his 30s and he wasn't
particularly worried about some of the health
risks of these materials.
I hope you are, please.
At any rate, the short answer here is IKB,
it's less about the pigment, get some synthetic
ultramarine and you'll be happy, than it is
about the paint itself.
And maybe we can tackle this in an In the
Studio sometime.
Get some Europeans in the mix.
That could be quite interesting.
Miss Telly today on YouTube writes, "Please
be this generation's Bob Ross."
I'd be happy to.
I think a lot of you know Bob Ross and his
happy little clouds.
You can find them on YouTube also.
Bob Ross is just a hero of mine, and many,
many painters out there.
His paintings, maybe they're not the most
sophisticated and beautiful works, but, man,
it's just nice to listen to that guy talk.
So if you have the same relationship to some
of my videos, I'm flattered.
Believe it or not, years ago, 20 years ago
for Halloween I went to a party as Bob Ross
once, so maybe it's fate.
From the Agnes Martin video, Bruno Galvan
writes, "You're the cool sequel of Bob Ross."
Hey, Bob Ross was pretty cool, so I take offense.
Soul Izanami writes, "Dude looks like Drake's
uncle."
Dude, I'm not old enough to be his uncle.
Please.
C.S.
Imming - "Hey, Corey.
Still use your info from the abstract expressionism
class.
Think of you often tell others about the classes.
Still have my painting of you when I gave
you de Kooning teeth."
I remember that one, too.
"Watching the videos again and hope you do
more."
I'm not going to post that.
I can only imagine what kind of comment it
would get.
Jen Egelnick writes, "I have the nerdiest
fangirl crush on this guy."
Jen, first drink's on me.
Okay, and let's move onto some requests.
A lot of requests for artists to cover in
the course.
Sorry, not the course but in the In the Studio
series on which we're continuing this spring,
most likely with two episodes.
Do stay tuned for those.
Jay Colvin a couple weeks ago writes, "How
to paint like Basquiat?"
In fact, if you spend a little bit of time
in the comments sections of many of these
videos I think Basquiat is winning this competition
for most requested.
I would love to.
I think Basquiat is a really interesting artist,
has a really interesting set of materials
that he kinda went back to, although he was
quite diverse.
My opinion is not the only one.
It's quite complicated to make these videos,
and there's more than a couple other voices
that need to weigh in here.
But trust me, Basquiat remains on the table
and I hope we can do that sometime.
Helen Frankenthaler, another one I think we
might tackle.
Frankenthaler, a New York School painter inspired
by Jackson Pollock, and so many of those artists
were, who stained the canvas on the floor
rather than dripping on it.
We might check out some of her work soon.
Mary Thompson writes, "I'd love to see episodes
on Frida Kahlo, Mary Cassatt, Georgia O'Keeffe."
Yeah, Impressionism, post-Impressionism we
could definitely do a video on.
Frida Kahlo, interesting.
Frida was very interested in and influenced
by le tableau painting.
That's indigenous Mexican kind of folk painting
techniques, often in, but not exclusively,
in the Catholic tradition in recent centuries.
But Kahlo really used that vernacular in a
modern sensibility, and I think that could
be quite interesting.
Georgia O'Keeffe had a really delicate hand.
She was a really subtle and really beautiful
painter.
She didn't use materials or techniques that
were all that idiosyncratic but she just refined
them to an extreme degree.
Would be definitely worth our time.
"You should do a video exploring Gerhard Richter's
abstract painting style."
I'd be happy to.
By the way, there's a great documentary recently
on Gerhard Richter where you can watch Richter
doing Richter paintings, which obviously would
be much better than mine.
But he doesn't really talk you through them
as I might, so another good idea.
Philip Guston, Richard Diebenkorn, Joan Mitchell,
Italian Futurism, a whole lot of great ideas
here.
We definitely do pay attention to these, so
please keep them coming.
In a way we're, you know, keeping score a
little bit about interests.
But it's also great to say, "Oh yeah, Italian
Futurism video.
That could be really interesting building
on the cubism video."
So some some great ideas here.
Thanks for those.
A couple more live requests, Jasper Johns,
van Gogh, Richter, Richard Pousette-Dart who
was a French painter living here in New York
City in the 1950s.
These are all good ideas from the today's
live stream.
And by the way, super cool, among other places,
people in the audience today from here in
New York City, but from Germany, Algeria,
India, Bahrain, Columbia, Bulgaria, Brazil.
I think that's pretty cool.
I don't think you need me to tell you that.
At any rate I want to thank everyone for great
questions and comments today.
Do want to let you know that we'll have a
couple of these episodes coming up, another
Q&A probably coming up this spring or early
summer.
Also for those of you who are New York-based,
or Jersey-based, or what have you, I want
to let you know that I'm teaching a painting
studio class here at the Museum, which starts
in just a few weeks.
There are a couple slots open for that.
We're going to be tackling pop art, Andy Warhol,
Lichtenstein, artists like that.
The class is pretty cool, you know?
We spend a lot of time up in the galleries
here at MoMA when the museum is closed, so
I hope you learn a lot from me but you'll
definitely get your money's worth just seeing
paintings in the flesh with me without any
other distractions around you, etc.
So you can find out more about that on moma.org.
Please check it out.
If we didn't get your questions in the video
today we'll try to answer them in text in
the comments section afterwards, and of course
in our next Q&A.
Stay tuned for that.
So yeah, keep sending questions, subscribe
down below so you don't miss our next release.
And thanks again for watching In the Studio.
Look forward to seeing you next time.
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When it comes to choosing your BMSc
module, it can be so confusing. I'm Neal
and I will be your guide in exploring
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And in Immunology, you will study the
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Microbiology and Immunology, you will
realize just how many clinical and
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you will also be exposed to the
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and just hang out with your friends.
In your fourth year, you will complete a
full-year independent research project
with a faculty member and receive
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students may also participate in a
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well as other summer research
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With your Microbiology and Immunology
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and even health and safety.
If Microbiology and Immunology seems
like it's the right fit for you, learn
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program office.
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[Movie camera Flicker]
♪ Sci-fi Music ♪
From the darkness depths of deep space...
Mystery is on a collision course with danger!
The world will never be the same!
Brace for impact.
[Explosion]
♪ Alluring music ♪
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So the eyes are a very useful ways to sometimes
to determine truthfulness, and there’s a
lot of things so the first thing, let’s
talk about eye contact.
There’s not one shred of academic research
that shows breaking eye contact is an indication
of lying.
However, everybody believes that.
Everybody believes that If you break eye contact
you’re lying, there’s not one shred of
research that shows that, okay.
However, there is some research that shows
that people tend to make an overbearing amount
of contact when they lie, because they think
that you, you think that if they break eye
contact that you are going to perceive them
as lying.
So one of the things you’ll see people do
is, I swear to God, I swear to God, I didn’t
do that, and then they make an unusual amount
of eye contact, which is a deviation from
how they make could be an indication of lying.
Also blink rates, it’s really a strong way
of determining, it’s not a strong way, but
it’s one of the ways you could maybe use
to determine whether someone is lying.
So there’s two responses with blink rate.
Our blink rate tends to increase when we get
really emotional about something, all right.
So blink rate is coordinated with emotion
all right, so you’ll see an increase in
blink rate right there.
But blink rate also decreases when we experience
something called cognitive overload.
And what cognitive overload is, it’s basically
when our brain, lying requires more cognition
then telling the truth.
So lying requires more cognitive facilities
than when you are telling something honest.
So what tends to happen behaviors tend to
stop when you are lying.
So one of the cool things you’ll tend to
see is, some research points to, when you
see someone is telling a lie, you’ll see
a decrease in cognitive overload, and when
they get away with it, you’ll see an increase
in blink rate, because they just got away
with it.
So it’s kind of cool, but it’s not highly
accurate and it’s hard to look for, but
it’s something you can be mindful of.
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And, you know, I
went to Mongolia
and we brought together this
team, we started packing up.
There's Fred Hiebert,
my partner in this.
We got to this point
where we pass this gate.
There was a gate
that was guarded
by these
Mongolian soldiers, right.
That essentially have been
stationed there for 800 years.
I'm serious. The descendants of
the Darkhads, you know...
this tribe that had been put in
place by Genghis Khan himself
to defend this region,
the Ikh Khorig.
This zone that you know
he closed off to anybody outside
of the Imperial family.
Marco Polo wrote about
this place, right.
The history of the
Mongols was written by
historians like Rashid Al-Din,
from the 17th century.
He wrote about this place.
They wanted to go here
but they couldn't.
And for the first time,
I am entering into this zone.
I am on that journey.
We take that data, we
had the GPS points now
where the crowd had converged.
We could
mathematically calculate
where everybody had
converged and clustered.
And we started
looking and you can
see where people
had converged.
These little clusters
of tags would result in
you know, us finding things
like this huge Khirigsur, which
had been here for 3,000 years!
We started scanning this region.
This is a magnetometer
and you walk
back and forth in these lines.
And you add up all this data.
And of course the
sheep come after you
every once in a while.
And the result is you
create these maps of
what's under the
sub-surface, right.
There is some metal underneath
this rectangular mound.
We don't really know what
it was but it wasn't--
we don't believe
it was, you know
what we were really
looking for.
So we push north,
we push deeper
into this region of
this Ikh Khorig
towards this mountain, right.
This place that legend has
it Genghis Khan went to
every time he went
to war, right.
He'd go there and
pray to Tengri and say
well, you know,
"Am I okay here".
Then he would go
out and wage war.
We would head out
every single day
up into the upper reaches
of this mountain range
to hit all of the
different peaks
to try to see what
people were tagging.
We'd fly these drones
across this whole region
with cameras on them
to look and see
if we could see things that...
you know, were little
higher resolution
than what we were
seeing from space.
We're moving down off the
side of this mountain and
literally this storm just starts
descending all around us.
You can see this big
rain cloud coming at us.
Among it was lightning,
and thunder, and wind
and it started blowing all
around us at this rate
which was, I mean,
really terrifying.
Cause there's no trees
around you to duck into.
We had to move almost a
mile down off this ridge
down to those trees, just to try
to get down below the tree line
get down into the undercut
but we're so exposed, and
we had these big magnetometers
hanging off of our back.
We ran, we ran and the
wind started blowing.
You know, I mean, it started
gushing around us and
I mean, we couldn't
even hear each other.
And as we were running down
off the side of this mountain
down the south-east
flank of that mountain
what would be the sunny
side of that mountain
what the secret history the
Mongols had described as being
where Genghis Khan
should be buried
all these trees started
falling down around us.
( crashing sounds )
And, you know, it was really...
it was almost like...
the mountain was showing us
its underbelly, it was
showing us a window
into the sub-surface,
you know.
And it would be in the roots
of one of those trees
that my life would
really change.
My geologist turns to me
and shows me this thing
and I'm looking at it, just
in the roots of this tree.
And it's this lion face.
We made a plan, as we
were walking around
we're like literally
walking around across
across this grass and the earth
is crunching underneath me.
I could feel, I could feel like
I was stepping on something.
I could hear it
crunching underneath me
like
( crunching sounds )
And we agreed that it was okay
to just look under the grass
like it was a rug, you know
we'd just stare barely
underneath this.
You know, this thing, we'd
look underneath the grass.
And, we were standing on a roof.
And as you look at these pieces
that are in this sub-surface
it's this part of this temple.
We started finding horse
bones, tons of horse bones.
We sent this data out to
get Radiocarbon dated
and it comes back...
at exactly our
sweet spot, right.
Somewhere between 500
and 800 years old.
Genghis Khan died in 1227,
about 800 years ago.
So, Fred and I, we
started making a plan.
And we started mapping
out this region
with whatever tools
we could find.
We used cameras on our drones
and we created this
3-D photogrammetry mapper
of the surface.
And we started using things
like ground penetrating radar.
This is an 18--
actually an eight-antenna
array radar system.
We're doing a virtual dig.
We're trying to recreate the
unknown, in virtual reality
because we can't
actually go there
and pull up the earth, right.
But, I feel like...
I didn't really even have
to look for this artifact.
I just had to look at what
was happening around me
and realize that the
people around me were
they were telling me that
the history was still alive
the artifact was
in the experience.
Did we find the tomb or
did each individual in us
each individual in this group
find something in themselves?
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Malay (macrolanguage):
Hai
Ini adalah Atmuman
Hari ini..saya akan membuat ..
Pelanggan: Sila buat Billie untuk video seterusnya
Baiklah Mari buat Billie Eilish bersama
Saya akan menggunakan tanah liat kertas ini lagi
Mengapa saya selalu menggunakan tanah liat ini?
cuz Saya membeli Kotak dari tanah liat ini secara tidak sengaja (Terdapat lebih dari 30ea)
Tanah liat baru harus diuli agar menjadi tanah liat yang lembut
Buat alas berbentuk telur seperti biasa
Belum memikirkan modelnya. Cantikkan saja
Balut benang sehingga tanah liat tidak akan digoncang
pada penyepit kayu
Pada langkah ini, anda perlu memilih ukuran patung ini
Sekiranya anda ingin menjadikan kerja anda lebih besar, anda boleh membuat bentuk telur yang lebih besar
Anda belum perlu membuatnya kelihatan seperti wajah model
Sekiranya anda berusaha terlalu keras pada peringkat ini, anda mungkin akan mudah berhenti pada separuh masa
German:
Hallo
Das ist Atmuman
Heute ... werde ich machen ...
Abonnenten: Bitte machen Sie Billie für das nächste Video
Okay, lass uns Billie Eilish zusammen machen
Ich werde diesen Papierlehm wieder verwenden
Warum benutze ich diesen Ton immer?
Weil ich versehentlich eine Schachtel mit diesem Ton gekauft habe (es gibt mehr als 30ea)
Der neue Ton muss geknetet werden, um ein weicher Ton zu werden
Machen Sie wie gewohnt eine eiförmige Basis
Denken Sie noch nicht an das Modell. Mach es einfach schön
Wickeln Sie den Faden so ein, dass der Ton nicht geschüttelt wird
auf den hölzernen Stäbchen
In diesem Schritt müssen Sie die Größe dieser Skulptur auswählen
Wenn Sie Ihre Arbeit größer machen möchten, können Sie eine größere Eiform machen
Sie müssen noch nicht versuchen, es wie das Gesicht eines Models aussehen zu lassen
Wenn Sie sich zu diesem Zeitpunkt zu sehr anstrengen, können Sie leicht auf halbem Weg aufgeben
Arabic:
مرحبا
هذا Atmuman
اليوم .. سأصنع ..
المشتركون: الرجاء جعل بيلي للفيديو التالي
حسنا دعنا نجعل بيلي ايليش معا
سأستخدم الطين الورقي هذا مرة أخرى
لماذا أستخدم هذا الصلصال دائمًا؟
لأنني اشتريت صندوقًا من هذا الصلصال عن طريق الصدفة (هناك أكثر من 30 لكل وحدة)
يجب عجن الطين الجديد ليصبح طينًا ناعمًا
اصنع قاعدة على شكل بيضة كالمعتاد
لا تفكر في النموذج بعد. فقط اجعلها لطيفة
لف الخيط بحيث لا يهتز الطين
على عيدان خشبية
في هذه الخطوة ، تحتاج إلى اختيار حجم هذا النحت
إذا كنت ترغب في جعل عملك أكبر ، يمكنك جعل شكل بيضة أكبر
لست مضطرًا لمحاولة جعلها تبدو كوجه نموذج بعد
إذا حاولت بشدة في هذه المرحلة ، فقد تستسلم بسهولة في منتصف الطريق
Indonesian:
Hai
Ini Atmuman
Hari ini..Aku akan membuat ..
Pelanggan: Silakan buat Billie untuk video berikutnya
Oke, mari kita buat Billie Eilish bersama
Saya akan menggunakan kertas tanah liat ini lagi
Kenapa saya selalu menggunakan tanah liat ini?
karena saya membeli sekotak tanah liat ini secara tidak sengaja (Ada lebih dari 30ea)
Tanah liat baru harus diuleni agar menjadi tanah liat lunak
Buat alas berbentuk telur seperti biasa
Jangan pikirkan modelnya. Buat itu menyenangkan
Bungkus benang agar tanah liat tidak terguncang
pada sumpit kayu
Pada langkah ini, Anda harus memilih ukuran patung ini
Jika Anda ingin membuat pekerjaan Anda lebih besar, Anda bisa membuat bentuk telur yang lebih besar
Anda tidak perlu mencoba membuatnya terlihat seperti model
Jika Anda berusaha terlalu keras pada tahap ini, Anda mungkin dengan mudah menyerah di tengah jalan
Spanish:
Hola
Este es atmuman
Hoy ... voy a hacer ...
Suscriptores: por favor hagan Billie para el próximo video
Bien, hagamos que Billie Eilish juntos
Voy a usar esta arcilla de papel otra vez
¿Por qué siempre uso esta arcilla?
porque compré una caja de esta arcilla por accidente (hay más de 30ea)
La nueva arcilla tiene que ser amasada para convertirse en una arcilla blanda.
Haga una base en forma de huevo como de costumbre
No pienses en el modelo todavía. Solo hazlo bien
Envuelva el hilo para que la arcilla no se agite
en los palillos de madera
En este paso, debes elegir el tamaño de esta escultura
Si quieres hacer tu trabajo más grande, puedes hacer una forma de huevo más grande
Todavía no tienes que intentar que parezca la cara de una modelo
Si te esfuerzas demasiado en esta etapa, podrías rendirte fácilmente a la mitad
English:
Hi
This is Atmuman
Today..I'm gonna make..
Subscribers : Please make Billie for the next video
Okay Let's make Billie Eilish together
I'm gonna use this paper clay again
Why do I always use this clay?
cuz I bought a Box of this clay by accident (There is more than 30ea)
The new clay has to be kneaded in order to become a soft clay
Make an egg-shaped base as usual
Don't think about the model yet. Just make it nice
Wrap the thread so that the clay won't be shaken
on the wooden chopsticks
In this step, you need to choose the size of this sculpture
If you want to make your work bigger, you can make a bigger egg shape
You don't have to try to make it look like a model's face yet
If you try too hard at this stage, you might easily give up halfway
Italian:
Ciao
Questo è Atmuman
Oggi ... farò ..
Iscritti: crea Billie per il prossimo video
Ok, facciamo Billie Eilish insieme
Userò di nuovo questa argilla di carta
Perché uso sempre questa argilla?
perché ho comprato una scatola di questa argilla per caso (ce ne sono più di 30)
La nuova argilla deve essere impastata per diventare un'argilla morbida
Crea una base a forma di uovo come al solito
Non pensare ancora al modello. Fallo e basta
Avvolgi il filo in modo che l'argilla non venga agitata
sulle bacchette di legno
In questo passaggio, devi scegliere la dimensione di questa scultura
Se vuoi rendere il tuo lavoro più grande, puoi creare una forma di uovo più grande
Non devi ancora provare a farlo sembrare la faccia di una modella
Se ci provi troppo in questa fase, potresti facilmente rinunciare a metà
Turkish:
Selam
Bu Atmuman
Bugün .. Yapacağım ..
Aboneler: Lütfen sonraki video için Billie yapın
Tamam birlikte Billie Eilish yapalım
Bu kağıt kili tekrar kullanacağım
Neden her zaman bu kili kullanıyorum?
çünkü bu kilden bir kutu kazara aldım (30'dan fazla var)
Yumuşak kil olabilmek için yeni kil yoğrulur.
Her zamanki gibi yumurta şekilli bir taban yapın
Henüz modeli düşünmeyin. Sadece güzelleştir
Kil sarılmayacak şekilde ipliği sarın
ahşap çubuk üzerinde
Bu adımda, bu heykelin boyutunu seçmeniz gerekiyor
İşinizi büyütmek istiyorsanız, daha büyük bir yumurta şekli yapabilirsiniz
Henüz bir modelin yüzü gibi görünmeye çalışmanıza gerek yok
Bu aşamada çok fazla uğraşırsanız, kolayca yarı yolda vazgeçebilirsiniz
Thai:
สวัสดี
นี่คืออัตมาน
วันนี้ .. ฉันจะทำ ..
สมาชิก: โปรดสร้าง Billie สำหรับวิดีโอถัดไป
โอเคมาทำให้ Billie Eilish มารวมกัน
ฉันจะใช้ดินกระดาษนี้อีกครั้ง
ทำไมฉันถึงใช้ดินนี้อยู่เสมอ?
เพราะฉันซื้อกล่องดินนี้โดยไม่ตั้งใจ (มีมากกว่า 30ea)
ดินใหม่จะต้องนวดเพื่อให้เป็นดินอ่อน
ทำฐานรูปไข่ตามปกติ
ยังไม่ได้คิดเกี่ยวกับแบบจำลอง แค่ทำให้ดี
พันด้ายเพื่อไม่ให้ดินเหนียวสั่น
บนตะเกียบไม้
ในขั้นตอนนี้คุณต้องเลือกขนาดของรูปปั้นนี้
หากคุณต้องการทำให้งานของคุณใหญ่ขึ้นคุณสามารถสร้างไข่ให้ใหญ่ขึ้นได้
คุณไม่ต้องพยายามทำให้มันดูเป็นแบบอย่าง
หากคุณพยายามอย่างหนักในขั้นตอนนี้คุณอาจเลิกกลางคันได้อย่างง่ายดาย
Russian:
Привет
Это Атмуман
Сегодня .. Я собираюсь сделать ..
Подписчики: Пожалуйста, сделайте Билли для следующего видео
Хорошо, давайте сделаем Билли Эйлиш вместе
Я снова буду использовать эту бумажную глину
Почему я всегда использую эту глину?
Потому что я купил коробку из этой глины случайно (есть более 30ea)
Новая глина должна быть замешена, чтобы стать мягкой глиной
Сделайте яйцевидную основу как обычно
Пока не думай о модели. Просто сделай это красиво
Оберните нить так, чтобы глина не встряхивалась
на деревянных палочках
На этом этапе вам нужно выбрать размер этой скульптуры
Если вы хотите сделать свою работу больше, вы можете сделать яйцо больше
Вы не должны пытаться сделать его похожим на лицо модели.
Если вы слишком сильно постараетесь на этом этапе, вы можете легко сдаться на полпути
Japanese:
こんにちは
これはアトマンです
今日..作るつもり..
チャンネル登録者：次の動画でビリーを作ってください
では、一緒にビリー・アイリッシュを作ろう
またこの紙粘土を使います
なぜ私はいつもこの粘土を使うのですか？
偶然この粘土の箱を購入しました（30ea以上あります）
新しい粘土は、柔らかい粘土になるために混練する必要があります
いつものように卵型のベースを作ります
モデルについてはまだ考えないでください。素敵にして
粘土が揺れないように糸を包みます
木の箸に
このステップでは、この彫刻のサイズを選択する必要があります
作品を大きくしたい場合は、卵の形を大きくすることができます
まだモデルの顔のように見せようとする必要はありません
この段階で頑張ると、途中で簡単に諦めてしまうかもしれません
Portuguese:
Oi
Este é Atmuman
Hoje .. eu vou fazer ..
Inscritos: faça Billie para o próximo vídeo
Ok, vamos fazer Billie Eilish juntos
Vou usar essa argila de papel de novo
Por que eu sempre uso esse barro?
porque eu comprei uma caixa deste barro por acidente (há mais de 30ea)
A nova argila deve ser amassada para se tornar uma argila macia
Faça uma base em forma de ovo, como de costume
Não pense no modelo ainda. Apenas faça bem
Enrole o fio para que o barro não seja abalado
nos pauzinhos de madeira
Nesta etapa, você precisa escolher o tamanho dessa escultura
Se você quiser aumentar o seu trabalho, pode criar uma forma maior de ovo
Você não precisa tentar fazer com que pareça o rosto de uma modelo ainda
Se você se esforçar demais nesse estágio, pode desistir facilmente até a metade
French:
salut
C'est Atmuman
Aujourd'hui .. je vais faire ..
Abonnés: veuillez faire Billie pour la prochaine vidéo
D'accord, faisons ensemble Billie Eilish
Je vais utiliser à nouveau cette pâte à papier
Pourquoi est-ce que j'utilise toujours cette argile?
parce que j'ai acheté une boîte de cette argile par accident (il y en a plus de 30ea)
La nouvelle argile doit être pétrie pour devenir une argile molle
Faire une base en forme d'oeuf comme d'habitude
Ne pensez pas encore au modèle. Rends-le juste sympa
Enveloppez le fil pour que l'argile ne soit pas secouée
sur les baguettes en bois
Dans cette étape, vous devez choisir la taille de cette sculpture
Si vous voulez agrandir votre travail, vous pouvez faire une plus grande forme d'oeuf
Vous n'avez pas encore besoin de faire ressembler le visage d'un mannequin
Si vous essayez trop fort à ce stade, vous pourriez facilement abandonner à mi-chemin
Vietnamese:
Chào
Đây là Atmuman
Hôm nay..tôi sẽ làm ..
Người đăng ký: Vui lòng tạo Billie cho video tiếp theo
Được rồi, hãy cùng Billie Eilish
Tôi sẽ sử dụng đất sét giấy này một lần nữa
Tại sao tôi luôn sử dụng đất sét này?
Vì tôi đã mua một hộp đất sét này một cách tình cờ (Có hơn 30ea)
Đất sét mới phải được nhào để trở thành đất sét mềm
Tạo một cơ sở hình quả trứng như bình thường
Đừng nghĩ về mô hình nào. Chỉ cần làm cho nó tốt đẹp
Quấn sợi chỉ để đất sét không bị rung
trên đũa gỗ
Trong bước này, bạn cần chọn kích thước của tác phẩm điêu khắc này
Nếu bạn muốn làm cho công việc của bạn lớn hơn, bạn có thể làm cho hình dạng quả trứng lớn hơn
Bạn không cần phải cố gắng để làm cho nó trông giống như khuôn mặt của một người mẫu nào
Nếu bạn cố gắng quá sức ở giai đoạn này, bạn có thể dễ dàng bỏ cuộc giữa chừng
French:
Tu sais, parfois dans la vie,
Essayer d'être trop bon et de le gâcher
Rendons ces loisirs plus faciles
Grossièrement,
juste,
faire une sculpture
ajouter des oreilles
Fais-moi aussi un front.
En fait, j'aime la sensation de l'appliquer en douceur
J'utilise de l'argile comme ça, donc tu n'as pas à faire comme moi
Pensez aux caractéristiques de la tête d'un occidental
Désormais, retrouvez les caractéristiques du modèle et réalisez-le.
Quand il est trop mou, il n'est pas facile de réaliser des pièces délicates
J'ai donc essayé de le durcir et de le sculpter.
Il est confortable de creuser et de faire une narine avant de faire un nez.
Turkish:
Bilirsiniz, bazen hayatta,
Çok iyi olmaya çalışıyorum ve berbat et
Bu hobileri daha kolaylaştıralım
Kabaca,
sadece,
heykel yapmak
kulak ekle
Bana da aln ver.
Aslında, düzgün bir şekilde uygulama hissini seviyorum
Kili bu şekilde kullanıyorum, bu yüzden benim gibi yapmak zorunda değilsin
Bir Batılı şefin özelliklerini düşünün
Şu andan itibaren, lütfen modelin özelliklerini bulun ve yapın.
Çok yumuşak olduğunda hassas parçalar yapmak kolay değildir
Bu yüzden onu sertleştirmeye ve oymaya çalıştım.
Bir burun yapmadan önce bir burun deliği kazmak ve yapmak rahattır.
Arabic:
كما تعلم ، أحيانًا في الحياة ،
تحاول أن تكون جيدًا جدًا وتفسد الأمر
دعونا نجعل هذه الهوايات أسهل
بقسوة،
مجرد،
جعل النحت
إضافة آذان
اجعلني جبينًا أيضًا.
في الواقع ، أنا أحب الشعور بتطبيقه بسلاسة
أستخدم الطين مثل هذا ، لذلك لا يجب عليك أن تفعل مثلي
فكر في خصائص رأس الغربي
من الآن فصاعدًا ، يرجى العثور على خصائص النموذج وجعله.
عندما تكون ناعمة للغاية ، ليس من السهل عمل أجزاء دقيقة
لذلك حاولت أن أقويها ونحتها.
من المريح أن تحفر فتحات الأنف وتصنعها قبل صنع الأنف.
Thai:
คุณรู้บางครั้งในชีวิต
การพยายามทำตัวให้ดีเกินไป
มาทำให้งานอดิเรกนี้ง่ายขึ้น
ประมาณ
แค่,
ทำรูปปั้น
เพิ่มหู
ทำให้หน้าผากฉันเหมือนกัน
ที่จริงแล้วฉันชอบความรู้สึกของการใช้มันอย่างราบรื่น
ฉันใช้ดินแบบนี้ดังนั้นคุณไม่ต้องทำเช่นฉัน
คิดเกี่ยวกับลักษณะของหัวหน้าชาวตะวันตก
จากนี้ไปโปรดค้นหาลักษณะของแบบจำลองและสร้างมันขึ้นมา
เมื่อมันอ่อนเกินไปมันไม่ง่ายที่จะสร้างชิ้นส่วนที่บอบบาง
ดังนั้นฉันจึงพยายามทำให้แข็งและแกะสลัก
มันสะดวกสบายในการขุดและสร้างรูจมูกก่อนทำจมูก
Russian:
Знаешь, иногда в жизни,
Пытаться быть слишком хорошим и облажаться
Давайте сделаем это хобби проще
Грубо говоря,
просто,
сделать скульптуру
добавить уши
Сделай мне лоб тоже.
На самом деле, мне нравится ощущение его плавного применения
Я использую глину, как это, поэтому вы не должны делать, как я
Подумайте о характеристиках головы западного человека
Отныне, пожалуйста, найдите характеристики модели и сделайте это.
Когда он слишком мягкий, не легко сделать деликатные детали.
Поэтому я попытался укрепить его и вырезать.
Перед носом удобно копать и делать ноздрю.
Italian:
Sai, a volte nella vita,
Cercare di essere troppo bravo e rovinare tutto
Rendiamo questi hobby più facili
approssimativamente,
appena,
fare una scultura
aggiungi orecchie
Fammi anche una fronte.
In realtà, mi piace la sensazione di applicarlo senza problemi
Uso l'argilla in questo modo, quindi non devi fare come me
Pensa alle caratteristiche del capo di un occidentale
D'ora in poi, trova le caratteristiche del modello e crealo.
Quando è troppo morbido non è facile realizzare parti delicate
Quindi ho cercato di indurirlo e scolpirlo.
È comodo scavare e fare una narice prima di fare un naso.
English:
You know, sometimes in life,
Trying to be too good and screw it up
Let's make this hobbies easier
Roughly,
just,
make a sculpture
add ears
Make me a forehead, too.
Actually, I like the feeling of applying it smoothly
I use clay like this, so you don't have to do like me
Think about the characteristics of the head of a Westerner
From now on, please find the characteristics of the model and make it.
When it is too soft it is not easy to make delicate parts
So I tried to harden it and carved it.
It is comfortable to dig and make a nostril before making a nose.
Vietnamese:
Bạn biết đấy, đôi khi trong cuộc sống,
Cố gắng là quá tốt và làm hỏng nó lên
Hãy làm cho sở thích này dễ dàng hơn
Thô
chỉ,
làm một tác phẩm điêu khắc
thêm tai
Làm cho tôi một cái trán, quá.
Thật ra, tôi thích cảm giác áp dụng nó một cách trơn tru
Tôi sử dụng đất sét như thế này, vì vậy bạn không cần phải làm như tôi
Nghĩ về đặc điểm của người đứng đầu phương Tây
Từ bây giờ, xin vui lòng tìm các đặc điểm của mô hình và làm cho nó.
Khi nó quá mềm không dễ để tạo ra những bộ phận mỏng manh
Vì vậy, tôi đã cố gắng để làm cứng nó và khắc nó.
Thật thoải mái khi đào và làm một lỗ mũi trước khi làm mũi.
Spanish:
Ya sabes, a veces en la vida,
Tratando de ser demasiado bueno y arruinarlo
Hagamos que estos pasatiempos sean más fáciles
Aproximadamente,
sólo,
hacer una escultura
agregar orejas
Hazme una frente también.
En realidad, me gusta la sensación de aplicarlo suavemente
Yo uso arcilla así, así que no tienes que hacer como yo
Piensa en las características de la cabeza de un occidental
De ahora en adelante, encuentre las características del modelo y hágalo.
Cuando es demasiado suave, no es fácil hacer partes delicadas
Así que traté de endurecerlo y lo tallé.
Es cómodo cavar y hacer una nariz antes de hacer una nariz.
German:
Weißt du, manchmal im Leben,
Ich versuche zu gut zu sein und es zu vermasseln
Lassen Sie uns diese Hobbys einfacher machen
Grob,
gerade,
mache eine Skulptur
Ohren hinzufügen
Mach mir auch eine Stirn.
Eigentlich mag ich das Gefühl, es reibungslos anzuwenden
Ich benutze Ton wie diesen, also musst du mich nicht mögen
Denken Sie an die Eigenschaften des Kopfes eines Westlers
Finden Sie von nun an die Eigenschaften des Modells und machen Sie es.
Wenn es zu weich ist, ist es nicht einfach, empfindliche Teile herzustellen
Also habe ich versucht, es zu härten und zu schnitzen.
Es ist bequem zu graben und ein Nasenloch zu machen, bevor man eine Nase macht.
Japanese:
ご存知のように、時には人生の中で、
良くなりすぎてそれを台無しにしよう
この趣味を簡単にしましょう
だいたい
ただ、
彫刻を作る
耳を追加
私もおでこにします。
実は、スムーズに塗る感覚が好き
私はこのように粘土を使うので、私のようにする必要はありません
西洋人の頭の特徴を考える
これからモデルの特徴を見つけて作ってください。
柔らかすぎると繊細なパーツを作るのが難しい
だから固めてみました。
鼻を作る前に鼻孔を掘って作るのは快適です。
Portuguese:
Você sabe, às vezes na vida,
Tentando ser bom demais e estragar tudo
Vamos facilitar esses hobbies
Aproximadamente,
somente,
faça uma escultura
adicione ouvidos
Faça-me uma testa também.
Na verdade, eu gosto da sensação de aplicá-lo sem problemas
Eu uso argila assim, então você não precisa fazer como eu
Pense nas características da cabeça de um ocidental
A partir de agora, encontre as características do modelo e faça-o.
Quando é muito macio, não é fácil fazer peças delicadas
Então eu tentei endurecê-lo e esculpir.
É confortável cavar e fazer uma narina antes de fazer o nariz.
Malay (macrolanguage):
Anda tahu, kadang-kadang dalam hidup,
Berusaha terlalu baik dan kacau
Mari buat hobi ini lebih mudah
Secara kasar,
hanya,
membuat patung
tambah telinga
Jadikan saya dahi juga.
Sebenarnya, saya suka perasaan menerapkannya dengan lancar
Saya menggunakan tanah liat seperti ini, jadi anda tidak perlu melakukan seperti saya
Fikirkan tentang ciri-ciri ketua orang Barat
Mulai sekarang, cari ciri-ciri model dan membuatnya.
Apabila terlalu lembut tidak mudah membuat bahagian yang halus
Oleh itu, saya berusaha mengerasnya dan mengukirnya.
Adalah selesa untuk menggali dan membuat lubang hidung sebelum membuat hidung.
Indonesian:
Anda tahu, terkadang dalam hidup,
Berusaha menjadi terlalu baik dan mengacaukannya
Ayo buat hobi ini lebih mudah
Kurang lebih,
hanya,
membuat patung
tambahkan telinga
Buatkan aku dahi juga.
Sebenarnya, saya suka perasaan menerapkannya dengan lancar
Saya menggunakan tanah liat seperti ini, jadi Anda tidak harus seperti saya
Pikirkan tentang karakteristik kepala orang Barat
Mulai sekarang, silakan temukan karakteristik model dan buatlah.
Ketika terlalu lunak itu tidak mudah untuk membuat bagian-bagian yang halus
Jadi saya mencoba mengeraskannya dan mengukirnya.
Sangat nyaman untuk menggali dan membuat lubang hidung sebelum membuat hidung.
Turkish:
Pürüzlü yüzeyleri temizlemek ve bir iskelet oluşturmak için zımpara kağıdı kullanın.
ow, modelin genel yüzünü yapmak için gözler, burun ve ağız odaklanmak.
Bazı aboneler bazen soru soruyor.
(Ama neden başaramayacağımızı bilmesine rağmen neden nasıl yapılacağını açıklıyor?)
Tabii ki, benim gibi yapmak biraz zor olabilir,
Beni takip etmeye devam edersen, kendini tatmin edebilirsin.
Sert kile su uygularsanız tekrar yumuşar.
Bu yüzden yüzeyi düzeltmek için fırçaya su uyguladım.
Sert bir göz, burun ve ağız pozisyonunuz varsa, bunu açıklığa kavuşturmanın zamanı geldi.
Bu aşamada, modeli gözlemlemeye odaklanmanız gerekir.
Dudaklara biraz daha hacim ekledim.
Bu işi yapmak iki hafta sürdü.
English:
Use sandpaper to clean up rough surfaces and form a skeleton.
ow, focus on the eyes, nose, and mouth to make the overall face of the model.
Some of the subscribers ask questions sometimes.
(But why does he explain how to make it even though he knows we can't make it?)
Of course, it may be a little hard to make like me,
If you keep following me, you'll be able to make yourself satisfied.
If you apply water to the hard clay, it becomes soft again.
So I applied water to the brush to smooth the surface.
If you've got a rough eye, nose and mouth position, it's time to make it clear.
At this stage, you need to focus on observing the model.
I added a little more volume to the lips.
It took two weeks to make this work.
German:
Verwenden Sie Sandpapier, um raue Oberflächen zu reinigen und ein Skelett zu bilden.
Konzentrieren Sie sich nun auf Augen, Nase und Mund, um das gesamte Gesicht des Modells zu erhalten.
Einige Abonnenten stellen manchmal Fragen.
(Aber warum erklärt er, wie man es macht, obwohl er weiß, dass wir es nicht schaffen können?)
Natürlich kann es ein bisschen schwierig sein, wie ich zu machen,
Wenn Sie mir weiterhin folgen, können Sie sich zufrieden stellen.
Wenn Sie Wasser auf den harten Ton auftragen, wird er wieder weich.
Also habe ich Wasser auf den Pinsel aufgetragen, um die Oberfläche zu glätten.
Wenn Sie eine raue Augen-, Nasen- und Mundposition haben, ist es Zeit, dies klar zu machen.
In dieser Phase müssen Sie sich auf die Beobachtung des Modells konzentrieren.
Ich fügte den Lippen etwas mehr Volumen hinzu.
Es dauerte zwei Wochen, um diese Arbeit zu machen.
Italian:
Usa la carta vetrata per pulire le superfici ruvide e formare uno scheletro.
ow, concentrati su occhi, naso e bocca per creare il volto complessivo del modello.
Alcuni abbonati fanno domande a volte.
(Ma perché spiega come farlo anche se sa che non possiamo farcela?)
Certo, potrebbe essere un po 'difficile fare come me,
Se continui a seguirmi, sarai in grado di renderti soddisfatto.
Se applichi acqua all'argilla dura, questa diventa di nuovo morbida.
Quindi ho applicato dell'acqua sul pennello per levigare la superficie.
Se hai una posizione approssimativa di occhi, naso e bocca, è tempo di chiarire.
In questa fase, è necessario concentrarsi sull'osservazione del modello.
Ho aggiunto un po 'più di volume alle labbra.
Ci sono volute due settimane per farlo funzionare.
Japanese:
サンドペーパーを使用して、粗い表面をきれいにし、スケルトンを形成します。
それでは、モデルの顔全体を作るために、目、鼻、口に焦点を当てます。
一部の加入者は時々質問をします。
（しかし、私たちが作成できないことを知っているにもかかわらず、なぜ彼はそれを作成する方法を説明するのですか？
もちろん、私のように作るのは少し難しいかもしれませんが、
私をフォローし続けると、自分を満足させることができます。
固い粘土に水をかけると、やわらかくなります。
そこで、ブラシに水を塗って表面を滑らかにしました。
目、鼻、口の位置が粗い場合は、それを明確にする時です。
この段階では、モデルの観察に集中する必要があります。
唇にもう少しボリュームを加えました。
この作業に2週間かかりました。
Thai:
ใช้กระดาษทรายเพื่อทำความสะอาดพื้นผิวที่ขรุขระและสร้างโครงกระดูก
โอ๊ยให้ความสำคัญกับดวงตาจมูกและปากเพื่อทำให้ใบหน้าโดยรวมของโมเดล
สมาชิกบางคนถามคำถามบางครั้ง
(แต่ทำไมเขาอธิบายถึงวิธีการทำแม้ว่าเขาจะรู้ว่าเราไม่สามารถทำได้)
แน่นอนว่ามันอาจจะยากนิดหน่อยที่จะทำให้เหมือนฉัน
หากคุณติดตามฉันต่อไปคุณจะสามารถทำให้ตัวเองพอใจ
หากคุณใช้น้ำกับดินเหนียวมันจะนุ่มอีกครั้ง
ดังนั้นฉันจึงใช้น้ำกับแปรงเพื่อทำให้ผิวเรียบ
หากคุณมีตาที่หยาบกร้านจมูกและปากก็ถึงเวลาที่ต้องทำให้ชัดเจน
ในขั้นตอนนี้คุณจะต้องมุ่งเน้นไปที่การสังเกตแบบจำลอง
ฉันเพิ่มปริมาณเล็กน้อยบนริมฝีปาก
ใช้เวลาสองสัปดาห์ในการทำงานนี้
Malay (macrolanguage):
Gunakan kertas pasir untuk membersihkan permukaan kasar dan membentuk kerangka.
hai, fokus pada mata, hidung, dan mulut untuk menjadikan wajah keseluruhan model.
Sebilangan pelanggan kadang-kadang bertanya.
(Tetapi mengapa dia menjelaskan bagaimana membuatnya walaupun dia tahu kita tidak dapat membuatnya?)
Sudah tentu, agak sukar untuk dibuat seperti saya,
Sekiranya anda terus mengikuti saya, anda akan dapat membuat diri anda berpuas hati.
Sekiranya anda menggunakan air ke tanah liat keras, ia menjadi lembut kembali.
Oleh itu, saya menggunakan air ke berus untuk melicinkan permukaannya.
Sekiranya anda mempunyai kedudukan mata, hidung dan mulut yang kasar, inilah masanya untuk membuatnya jelas.
Pada peringkat ini, anda perlu fokus memerhatikan model tersebut.
Saya menambah sedikit kelantangan ke bibir.
Perlu dua minggu untuk membuat kerja ini.
Vietnamese:
Sử dụng giấy nhám để làm sạch các bề mặt gồ ghề và tạo thành bộ xương.
ow, tập trung vào mắt, mũi và miệng để làm cho khuôn mặt tổng thể của người mẫu.
Một số người đăng ký đôi khi đặt câu hỏi.
(Nhưng tại sao anh ta giải thích cách tạo ra nó mặc dù anh ta biết chúng ta không thể làm được?)
Tất nhiên, có thể hơi khó để làm như tôi,
Nếu bạn tiếp tục theo dõi tôi, bạn sẽ có thể khiến mình hài lòng.
Nếu bạn áp dụng nước vào đất sét cứng, nó sẽ trở nên mềm trở lại.
Vì vậy, tôi áp dụng nước vào bàn chải để làm mịn bề mặt.
Nếu bạn có một vị trí mắt, mũi và miệng thô ráp, đã đến lúc làm cho nó rõ ràng.
Ở giai đoạn này, bạn cần tập trung vào việc quan sát mô hình.
Tôi thêm một chút âm lượng cho đôi môi.
Phải mất hai tuần để thực hiện công việc này.
Spanish:
Use papel de lija para limpiar superficies rugosas y formar un esqueleto.
Ahora, concéntrese en los ojos, la nariz y la boca para hacer la cara general de la modelo.
Algunos de los suscriptores hacen preguntas a veces.
(¿Pero por qué explica cómo hacerlo aunque sepa que no podemos hacerlo?)
Por supuesto, puede ser un poco difícil de hacer como yo,
Si sigues siguiéndome, podrás satisfacerte.
Si aplica agua a la arcilla dura, se vuelve suave nuevamente.
Así que apliqué agua al pincel para alisar la superficie.
Si tiene una posición áspera en los ojos, la nariz y la boca, es hora de aclararlo.
En esta etapa, debe concentrarse en observar el modelo.
Agregué un poco más de volumen a los labios.
Me llevó dos semanas hacer que esto funcionara.
Arabic:
استخدم ورق الصنفرة لتنظيف الأسطح الخشنة وتشكيل هيكل عظمي.
التركيز على العين والأنف والفم لجعل الوجه العام للنموذج.
يسأل بعض المشتركين في بعض الأحيان أسئلة.
(لكن لماذا يشرح كيف يصنعها على الرغم من أنه يعلم أننا لا نستطيع فعلها؟)
بالطبع ، قد يكون من الصعب قليلاً صنع مثلي ،
إذا واصلت متابعتي ، فستكون قادرًا على إرضاء نفسك.
إذا قمت بتطبيق الماء على الطين الصلب ، فإنه يصبح طريًا مرة أخرى.
لذلك قمت بتطبيق الماء على الفرشاة لتنعيم السطح.
إذا كان لديك عين خشنة وأنف وفم ، فقد حان الوقت لتوضيح الأمر.
في هذه المرحلة ، تحتاج إلى التركيز على مراقبة النموذج.
أضفت المزيد من الحجم إلى الشفاه.
استغرق الأمر أسبوعين لجعل هذا العمل.
Portuguese:
Use uma lixa para limpar superfícies ásperas e formar um esqueleto.
Agora, foque nos olhos, nariz e boca para criar a face geral do modelo.
Alguns dos assinantes fazem perguntas às vezes.
(Mas por que ele explica como fazer isso, mesmo sabendo que não podemos fazê-lo?)
Claro, pode ser um pouco difícil de fazer como eu,
Se você continuar me seguindo, poderá ficar satisfeito.
Se você aplicar água à argila dura, ela ficará macia novamente.
Então eu apliquei água no pincel para suavizar a superfície.
Se você tem uma posição áspera nos olhos, nariz e boca, é hora de deixar isso claro.
Nesta fase, você precisa se concentrar em observar o modelo.
Eu adicionei um pouco mais de volume aos lábios.
Demorou duas semanas para fazer isso funcionar.
French:
Utilisez du papier de verre pour nettoyer les surfaces rugueuses et former un squelette.
ow, concentrez-vous sur les yeux, le nez et la bouche pour faire le visage global du modèle.
Certains abonnés posent parfois des questions.
(Mais pourquoi explique-t-il comment le faire même s'il sait que nous ne pouvons pas le faire?)
Bien sûr, ça peut être un peu difficile de faire comme moi,
Si vous continuez à me suivre, vous pourrez vous satisfaire.
Si vous appliquez de l'eau sur l'argile dure, elle redevient douce.
J'ai donc appliqué de l'eau sur le pinceau pour lisser la surface.
Si vous avez les yeux, le nez et la bouche rugueux, il est temps de le préciser.
À ce stade, vous devez vous concentrer sur l'observation du modèle.
J'ai ajouté un peu plus de volume aux lèvres.
Il a fallu deux semaines pour que cela fonctionne.
Indonesian:
Gunakan amplas untuk membersihkan permukaan kasar dan membentuk kerangka.
ow, fokus pada mata, hidung, dan mulut untuk membuat wajah keseluruhan model.
Beberapa pelanggan terkadang mengajukan pertanyaan.
(Tapi mengapa dia menjelaskan bagaimana membuatnya meskipun dia tahu kita tidak bisa membuatnya?)
Tentu saja, mungkin agak sulit untuk membuat seperti saya,
Jika Anda terus mengikuti saya, Anda akan dapat membuat diri Anda puas.
Jika Anda menerapkan air ke tanah liat yang keras, itu menjadi lunak lagi.
Jadi saya mengoleskan air ke sikat untuk menghaluskan permukaan.
Jika Anda memiliki posisi mata, hidung, dan mulut yang kasar, inilah saatnya untuk membuatnya jelas.
Pada tahap ini, Anda perlu fokus mengamati model.
Saya menambahkan sedikit volume ke bibir.
Butuh dua minggu untuk membuat ini bekerja.
Russian:
Используйте наждачную бумагу для очистки шероховатой поверхности и формирования каркаса.
Теперь сфокусируйтесь на глазах, носу и рте, чтобы создать общее лицо модели.
Некоторые из подписчиков иногда задают вопросы.
(Но почему он объясняет, как это сделать, хотя знает, что мы не можем это сделать?)
Конечно, это может быть немного трудно сделать, как я,
Если вы будете продолжать следовать за мной, вы сможете быть довольны собой.
Если вы нанесете воду на твердую глину, она снова станет мягкой.
Поэтому я применил воду к кисти, чтобы сгладить поверхность.
Если у вас плохое положение глаз, носа и рта, пришло время прояснить это.
На этом этапе вам необходимо сосредоточиться на наблюдении за моделью.
Я добавил немного больше объема к губам.
Потребовалось две недели, чтобы сделать эту работу.
Italian:
Penso che mi ci sia voluto più di una settimana per risolverlo in questa fase.
Nella descrizione dettagliata, la qualità degli occhi, del naso e della bocca è notevolmente aumentata per sembrare più realistica
Se organizzi i bordi o le linee,
È un aspetto molto più completo
Applicare argilla e spazzolare immediatamente per mantenere una superficie liscia
La superficie deve essere liscia per creare la forma esatta
Quando la forma delle labbra è completa, crea delle rughe sulle labbra
Ho anche chiarito le palpebre
Turkish:
Sanırım bu aşamada düzeltmem bir haftadan fazla sürdü.
Ayrıntılı açıklamada, daha gerçekçi görünmek için gözlerin, burnun ve ağzın kalitesi büyük ölçüde artırıldı
Kenarları veya çizgileri düzenlerseniz,
Çok daha eksiksiz bir görünüm
Pürüzsüz yüzeyi korumak için derhal kil ve fırça uygulayın
Kesin şekli oluşturmak için yüzeyin pürüzsüz olması gerekir
Dudakların şekli tamamlandığında, dudaklarda kırışıklıklar yapın
Ben de göz kapaklarını temizledim
Malay (macrolanguage):
Saya fikir saya memerlukan lebih dari seminggu untuk memperbaikinya pada tahap ini.
Dalam keterangan terperinci, kualiti mata, hidung, dan mulut sangat meningkat untuk kelihatan lebih realistik
Sekiranya anda mengatur bahagian tepi atau garis,
Ia adalah penampilan yang lebih lengkap
Sapukan tanah liat dan sikat segera untuk mengekalkan permukaan licin
Permukaannya perlu licin untuk membuat bentuk yang tepat
Apabila bentuk bibir lengkap, buat kerutan di bibir
Saya juga menjadikan kelopak mata jelas
Japanese:
この段階で修正するのに1週間以上かかったと思います。
詳細な説明では、目、鼻、口の質が大幅に向上し、よりリアルに見えます
エッジやラインを整理すると
それははるかに完全な外観です
粘土を塗ってすぐにブラシをかけ、滑らかな表面を維持します
正確な形状を作成するには、表面を滑らかにする必要があります
唇の形が完成したら、唇にしわを寄せます
まぶたも綺麗にしました
Vietnamese:
Tôi nghĩ rằng tôi đã mất hơn một tuần để sửa nó ở giai đoạn này.
Trong phần mô tả chi tiết, độ tinh xảo của mắt, mũi và miệng được tăng lên rất nhiều để trông thật hơn
Nếu bạn tổ chức các cạnh hoặc các dòng,
Đó là một cái nhìn đầy đủ hơn nhiều
Áp dụng đất sét và bàn chải ngay lập tức để duy trì bề mặt mịn
Bề mặt cần phải nhẵn để tạo hình chính xác
Khi hình dạng của đôi môi hoàn chỉnh, tạo nếp nhăn trên môi
Tôi cũng làm cho mí mắt rõ ràng
Thai:
ฉันคิดว่าใช้เวลานานกว่าหนึ่งสัปดาห์ในการแก้ไขในขั้นตอนนี้
ในรายละเอียดคำอธิบายคุณภาพของดวงตาจมูกและปากนั้นเพิ่มขึ้นอย่างมากเพื่อให้ดูสมจริงยิ่งขึ้น
หากคุณจัดระเบียบขอบหรือเส้น
มันดูสมบูรณ์มากขึ้น
ใช้ดินและแปรงทันทีเพื่อรักษาพื้นผิวเรียบ
พื้นผิวจะต้องเรียบเพื่อสร้างรูปร่างที่แน่นอน
เมื่อริมฝีปากมีรูปร่างที่สมบูรณ์แล้วทำให้เกิดริ้วรอยบนริมฝีปาก
ฉันยังทำให้เปลือกตาชัดเจน
Spanish:
Creo que me llevó más de una semana arreglarlo en esta etapa.
En la descripción detallada, la calidad de los ojos, la nariz y la boca aumenta considerablemente para parecer más realista.
Si organiza los bordes o las líneas,
Es un aspecto mucho más completo.
Aplique arcilla y cepille inmediatamente para mantener la superficie lisa.
La superficie debe ser lisa para crear la forma exacta.
Cuando la forma de los labios esté completa, haga arrugas en los labios.
También dejé los párpados claros
Indonesian:
Saya pikir butuh lebih dari seminggu untuk memperbaikinya pada tahap ini.
Dalam uraian terperinci, kualitas pelayanan mata, hidung, dan mulut sangat meningkat agar terlihat lebih realistis
Jika Anda mengatur tepi atau garis,
Tampilannya jauh lebih lengkap
Oleskan tanah liat dan sikat segera untuk menjaga permukaan halus
Permukaan harus halus untuk membuat bentuk yang tepat
Saat bentuk bibir sudah selesai, buat keriput di bibir
Saya juga membuat kelopak mata jelas
Russian:
Я думаю, что мне потребовалось больше недели, чтобы исправить это на этом этапе.
В подробном описании качество глаз, носа и рта значительно увеличено, чтобы выглядеть более реалистично
Если вы организуете края или линии,
Это гораздо более полный вид
Нанесите глину и кисть немедленно, чтобы сохранить гладкую поверхность
Поверхность должна быть гладкой, чтобы создать точную форму
Когда форма губ будет завершена, сделайте морщины на губах
Я также прояснил веки
French:
Je pense qu'il m'a fallu plus d'une semaine pour le réparer à ce stade.
Dans la description détaillée, la qualité des yeux, du nez et de la bouche est considérablement augmentée pour paraître plus réaliste
Si vous organisez les bords ou les lignes,
C'est un look beaucoup plus complet
Appliquer l'argile et brosser immédiatement pour maintenir une surface lisse
La surface doit être lisse pour créer la forme exacte
Lorsque la forme des lèvres est terminée, faites des rides sur les lèvres
J'ai aussi clarifié les paupières
Arabic:
أعتقد أن الأمر استغرق مني أكثر من أسبوع لإصلاحه في هذه المرحلة.
في الوصف التفصيلي ، يتم زيادة كوليتي العيون والأنف والفم بشكل كبير لتبدو أكثر واقعية
إذا قمت بتنظيم الحواف أو الخطوط ،
إنها نظرة أكثر اكتمالاً
ضعي الطين والفرشاة على الفور للحفاظ على سطح أملس
يجب أن يكون السطح سلسًا لإنشاء الشكل الدقيق
عندما يكتمل شكل الشفاه ، قم بعمل تجاعيد على الشفاه
أنا أيضا جعلت الجفون واضحة
German:
Ich glaube, ich habe mehr als eine Woche gebraucht, um das Problem zu beheben.
In der detaillierten Beschreibung wird die Qualität von Augen, Nase und Mund stark erhöht, um realistischer auszusehen
Wenn Sie die Kanten oder Linien organisieren,
Es sieht viel vollständiger aus
Tragen Sie Ton auf und bürsten Sie sofort, um eine glatte Oberfläche zu erhalten
Die Oberfläche muss glatt sein, um die genaue Form zu erhalten
Wenn die Form der Lippen vollständig ist, machen Sie Falten auf den Lippen
Ich habe auch die Augenlider klar gemacht
Portuguese:
Eu acho que demorei mais de uma semana para consertar isso nesta fase.
Na descrição detalhada, a qualidade dos olhos, nariz e boca aumenta bastante para parecer mais realista
Se você organizar as arestas ou as linhas,
É uma aparência muito mais completa
Aplique argila e pincele imediatamente para manter a superfície lisa
A superfície precisa ser lisa para criar a forma exata
Quando o formato dos lábios estiver completo, faça rugas nos lábios
Eu também deixei as pálpebras claras
English:
I think it took me more than a week to fix it at this stage.
In the detailed description, the qulity of the eyes, nose, and mouth is greatly increased to look more realistic
If you organize the edges or the lines,
It's a much more complete look
Apply clay and brush immediately to maintain smooth surface
The surface needs to be smooth to create the exact shape
When the shape of the lips is complete, make wrinkles on the lips
I also made the eyelids clear
Italian:
È naturale quando fai ogni sopracciglio
La direzione in cui crescono le sopracciglia può anche influenzare l'immagine del modello
È un po 'tardi, ma proverò a fare orecchie.
L'orecchio sembra facile, ma in realtà è difficile da realizzare
Non avere fretta e fallo lentamente
I principianti possono fare un solo orecchio per tutta la settimana.
Ora vado a farmi i capelli
È facile fare schizzi prima di applicare l'argilla
Questa volta, farò acconciatura legata
Nelle prime fasi, è necessario concentrarsi su grandi fronzoli
Ora vado a fare il collo e una spalla.
Pensa alla postura del modello quando fai parte del collo
Thai:
มันเป็นเรื่องธรรมชาติเมื่อคุณทำคิ้วแต่ละข้าง
ทิศทางที่ขนคิ้วโตขึ้นสามารถส่งผลกระทบต่อภาพลักษณ์ของนางแบบได้เช่นกัน
มันสายไปหน่อย แต่ฉันจะพยายามทำหู
หูดูง่าย แต่จริงๆแล้วมันยากที่จะทำ
อย่ารีบร้อนและทำให้ช้าลง
ผู้เริ่มต้นสามารถทำหูเดียวตลอดทั้งสัปดาห์
ตอนนี้ฉันจะทำให้ผมของมัน
ง่ายต่อการร่างก่อนที่จะใช้ดินเหนียว
คราวนี้ฉันจะทำทรงผมผูก
ในระยะแรกคุณต้องมุ่งเน้นไปที่ความใหญ่โต
ตอนนี้ฉันจะทำคอและไหล่
คิดถึงท่าทางของนางแบบเมื่อคุณทำส่วนคอ
Indonesian:
Wajar jika Anda membuat setiap alis
Arah pertumbuhan alis juga dapat memengaruhi citra model
Ini sedikit terlambat, tetapi saya akan mencoba membuat telinga.
Telinga terlihat mudah, tetapi sebenarnya sulit dibuat
Jangan terburu-buru dan lakukan perlahan
Pemula dapat membuat satu telinga sepanjang minggu.
Sekarang saya akan membuat rambutnya
Sangat mudah untuk membuat sketsa sebelum menerapkan tanah liat
Kali ini, saya akan membuat gaya rambut yang diikat
Pada tahap awal, Anda harus fokus pada embel-embel besar
Sekarang saya akan membuat leher dan bahu.
Pikirkan tentang postur model ketika Anda membuat bagian leher
Spanish:
Es natural cuando haces cada ceja
La dirección en la que crecen las cejas también puede afectar la imagen del modelo.
Es un poco tarde, pero intentaré hacer orejas.
El oído se ve fácil, pero en realidad es difícil de hacer
No tengas prisa y hazlo lentamente
Los principiantes pueden hacer una sola oreja durante toda la semana.
Ahora me voy a hacer el pelo
Es fácil dibujar antes de aplicar arcilla
Esta vez, voy a hacer un peinado atado
En las primeras etapas, debes concentrarte en los grandes volantes
Ahora voy a hacer un cuello y un hombro.
Piensa en la postura de la modelo cuando hagas parte del cuello
Malay (macrolanguage):
Adalah wajar apabila anda membuat setiap alis
Arah di mana alis tumbuh juga dapat mempengaruhi imej model
Ia agak lewat, tetapi saya akan cuba membuat telinga.
Telinga kelihatan mudah, tetapi sebenarnya sukar dibuat
Jangan terburu-buru dan buat perlahan-lahan
Pemula boleh membuat telinga tunggal sepanjang minggu.
Sekarang saya akan membuat rambutnya
Sangat mudah untuk membuat lakaran sebelum menggunakan tanah liat
Kali ini, saya akan membuat gaya rambut yang diikat
Pada peringkat awal, anda perlu menumpukan perhatian pada perbelanjaan besar
Sekarang saya akan membuat leher dan bahu.
Fikirkan tentang postur model ketika anda membuat bahagian leher
Portuguese:
É natural quando você faz cada sobrancelha
A direção na qual as sobrancelhas crescem também pode afetar a imagem do modelo
É um pouco tarde, mas vou tentar fazer ouvidos.
O ouvido parece fácil, mas é realmente difícil de fazer
Não tenha pressa e vá devagar
Iniciantes podem fazer uma única orelha durante toda a semana.
Agora eu vou fazer o cabelo
É fácil esboçar antes de aplicar argila
Desta vez, eu vou fazer penteado amarrado
Nos estágios iniciais, você precisa se concentrar nos grandes babados
Agora eu vou fazer pescoço e ombro.
Pense na postura do modelo ao fazer parte do pescoço
Russian:
Это естественно, когда вы делаете каждую бровь
Направление, в котором растут брови, также может влиять на изображение модели.
Уже немного поздно, но я постараюсь сделать уши.
Ухо выглядит легко, но на самом деле это трудно сделать
Не спешите и делайте это медленно
Начинающие могут делать одно ухо всю неделю.
Теперь я собираюсь сделать свою прическу
Это легко сделать эскиз перед применением глины
На этот раз я собираюсь сделать прическу
На ранних этапах вам нужно сосредоточиться на больших изысках
Теперь я собираюсь сделать шею и плечо.
Подумайте о позе модели, когда вы делаете шею частью
French:
C'est naturel quand on fait chaque sourcil
La direction dans laquelle les sourcils grandissent peut également affecter l'image du modèle
Il est un peu tard, mais je vais essayer de faire des oreilles.
L'oreille a l'air facile, mais c'est en fait difficile à faire
Ne soyez pas pressé et faites-le lentement
Les débutants peuvent faire une seule oreille toute la semaine.
Maintenant je vais faire ses cheveux
Il est facile de dessiner avant d'appliquer de l'argile
Cette fois, je vais faire un style de cheveux attachés
Dans les premiers stades, vous devez vous concentrer sur les gros fioritures
Maintenant, je vais faire un cou et une épaule.
Pensez à la posture du modèle lorsque vous faites une partie du cou
Turkish:
Her kaş yaptığınızda doğal
Kaşların büyüdüğü yön modelin görüntüsünü de etkileyebilir
Biraz geç oldu, ama kulak yapmaya çalışacağım.
Kulak kolay görünüyor, ama aslında zor
Acele etme ve yavaşça yapma
Yeni başlayanlar hafta boyunca tek bir kulak yapabilir.
Şimdi saçını yapacağım
Kil uygulamadan önce eskiz yapmak kolaydır
Bu sefer, bağlı saç stili yapacağım
Erken aşamalarda, büyük fırfırlara odaklanmanız gerekir
Şimdi boyun ve omuz yapacağım.
Boyun kısmı yaptığınızda modelin duruşunu düşünün
Vietnamese:
Thật tự nhiên khi bạn thực hiện mỗi lông mày
Hướng mà lông mày mọc cũng có thể ảnh hưởng đến hình ảnh của người mẫu
Hơi muộn một chút, nhưng tôi sẽ thử làm tai.
Tai có vẻ dễ dàng, nhưng thực sự rất khó để thực hiện
Đừng vội vàng và làm cho nó chậm
Người mới bắt đầu có thể làm một tai duy nhất trong cả tuần.
Bây giờ tôi sẽ làm tóc của nó
Thật dễ dàng để phác thảo trước khi áp dụng đất sét
Lần này, tôi sẽ tạo kiểu tóc buộc
Trong giai đoạn đầu, bạn cần tập trung vào các diềm lớn
Bây giờ tôi sẽ làm cổ và vai.
Hãy suy nghĩ về tư thế của người mẫu khi bạn làm phần cổ
German:
Es ist natürlich, wenn Sie jede Augenbraue machen
Die Richtung, in die die Augenbrauen wachsen, kann auch das Bild des Modells beeinflussen
Es ist etwas spät, aber ich werde versuchen, Ohren zu machen.
Das Ohr sieht einfach aus, ist aber eigentlich schwer zu machen
Beeilen Sie sich nicht und machen Sie es langsam
Anfänger können die ganze Woche über ein Ohr machen.
Jetzt werde ich seine Haare machen
Es ist einfach zu skizzieren, bevor Ton aufgetragen wird
Dieses Mal werde ich gebundene Frisur machen
In der Anfangsphase müssen Sie sich auf die großen Schnickschnack konzentrieren
Jetzt mache ich Hals und Schulter.
Denken Sie an die Haltung des Modells, wenn Sie das Nackenteil herstellen
Arabic:
من الطبيعي عند رسم كل حاجب
يمكن أن يؤثر الاتجاه الذي ينمو فيه الحاجبين أيضًا على صورة النموذج
لقد تأخر الوقت قليلاً ، لكنني سأحاول جعل الأذنين.
تبدو الأذن سهلة ، ولكن يصعب صنعها في الواقع
لا تتعجل واجعله ببطء
يمكن للمبتدئين صنع أذن واحدة طوال الأسبوع.
الآن سأقوم بعمل شعرها
من السهل أن ترسم قبل تطبيق الطين
هذه المرة ، سأقوم بعمل أسلوب شعر مقيد
في المراحل المبكرة ، تحتاج إلى التركيز على الرتوش الكبيرة
الآن سأقوم بعمل الرقبة والكتف.
فكر في وضع النموذج عند عمل جزء من الرقبة
English:
It's natural when you make each eyebrow
The direction in which the eyebrows grow can also affect the image of the model
It's a little late, but I'll try making ears.
The ear looks easy, but it's actually hard to make
Don't be in a hurry and make it slowly
Beginners can make a single ear all week long.
Now I'm going to make its hair
It's easy to sketch before applying clay
This time, I'm going to make tied hair style
In the early stages, you need to focus on the big frills
Now I'm going to make neck and a shoulder.
Think about the posture of the model when you make neck part
Japanese:
眉毛ひとつひとつ作るのは当たり前
眉が伸びる方向もモデルのイメージに影響を与える可能性があります
少し遅いですが、耳を作ってみます。
耳は簡単に見えますが、実際には作るのは難しいです
急がずにゆっくりと作ってください
初心者は一週間中片耳を作ることができます。
これから髪を作ります
粘土を塗る前にスケッチするのは簡単です
今回は結んだ髪型にします
初期段階では、大きなフリルに集中する必要があります
これから首と肩を作ります。
首部分を作るときのモデルの姿勢を考える
Turkish:
Aynı şekilde, yüzeyi temizlemek için zımpara kağıdı kullanılır
Saç stilini değiştirdim çünkü bağlı bir saçı ifade etmek zordu
Kulaklarım gitti
(Kesinlikle kulaklarımı yaptım ...)
Şimdi, lütfen her saç yapmak
Saç kalıcılık ve sabırla yapılacaktır.
Lütfen bir fırça ile bitirin.
Şimdi bir heykel inşa etmek için bir sütun yapacağım
Elektrikli matkap olmadan yeterli yapabilir
Matkaplar daha kolay ve daha hızlı hale getirir
Yumuşak kil ile şekil verin
Sertleştiğinde, zımpara kağıdı ile hassas bir eğri yapın
Son olarak, su uygulayın ve pürüzsüz bir şekilde bitirin
O kadar zor değil, değil mi?
Indonesian:
Demikian juga, amplas digunakan untuk membersihkan permukaan
Saya mengubah gaya rambut karena sulit untuk mengekspresikan rambut yang diikat
Telingaku hilang
(Aku pasti membuat telingaku ...)
Sekarang, tolong buat setiap rambut
Rambut akan dilakukan dengan membuatnya dengan ketekunan dan kesabaran
Silakan selesaikan dengan kuas.
Sekarang saya akan membuat pilar untuk membangun patung
Itu bisa menghasilkan cukup tanpa bor listrik
Latihan membuatnya lebih mudah dan lebih cepat
Buat bentuk dengan tanah liat lunak
Saat mengeras, buat kurva halus dengan amplas
Terakhir, oleskan air dan selesaikan dengan lancar
Tidak sesulit itu, kan?
English:
Likewise, sandpaper is used to clean up the surface
I changed the hairstyle because it was hard to express a tied hair
My ears are gone
(I definitely made my ears...)
Now, please make the each hair
Hair will be done by making it with persistence and patience
Please finish with a brush.
Now I'm going to make a pillar to build a sculpture
It can make enough without an electric drill
Drills make it easier and faster
Make a shape with soft clay
When it hardened, make a delicate curve with sandpaper
Lastly, apply water and finish smoothly
It's not that hard, is it?
Portuguese:
Da mesma forma, a lixa é usada para limpar a superfície
Eu mudei o penteado porque era difícil expressar um cabelo amarrado
Meus ouvidos se foram
(Eu definitivamente fiz meus ouvidos ...)
Agora, por favor, faça cada cabelo
O cabelo será feito com persistência e paciência
Por favor termine com um pincel.
Agora eu vou fazer um pilar para construir uma escultura
Pode fazer o suficiente sem uma furadeira elétrica
As brocas tornam mais fácil e rápido
Faça uma forma com argila macia
Quando endurecer, faça uma curva delicada com lixa
Por fim, aplique água e finalize suavemente
Não é tão difícil, é?
Vietnamese:
Tương tự như vậy, giấy nhám được sử dụng để làm sạch bề mặt
Tôi đã thay đổi kiểu tóc vì rất khó để thể hiện một mái tóc buộc
Tai tôi đã biến mất
(Tôi chắc chắn đã làm cho tai của tôi ...)
Bây giờ, hãy làm cho từng sợi tóc
Tóc sẽ được thực hiện bằng cách làm cho nó với sự kiên trì và kiên nhẫn
Hãy hoàn thành với một bàn chải.
Bây giờ tôi sẽ làm một trụ cột để xây dựng một tác phẩm điêu khắc
Nó có thể làm đủ mà không cần khoan điện
Mũi khoan làm cho nó dễ dàng hơn và nhanh hơn
Tạo hình bằng đất sét mềm
Khi nó cứng lại, tạo một đường cong tinh tế bằng giấy nhám
Cuối cùng, áp dụng nước và kết thúc thuận lợi
Nó không khó lắm phải không?
Japanese:
同様に、紙やすりは表面をきれいにするのに使用されています
結んだ髪が表現しづらかったので髪型を変えました
耳がなくなった
（私は間違いなく耳を作りました...）
さあ、それぞれの髪を作ってください
髪は粘り強さと忍耐力で作ることによって行われます
ブラシで仕上げてください。
今から柱を作って彫刻を作ります
電気ドリルがなくても十分に作れます
ドリルで簡単かつ高速に
やわらかい粘土で形を作る
固まったらサンドペーパーで微妙なカーブを描く
最後に水を塗ってスムーズに仕上げます
それほど難しいことではありませんか？
Spanish:
Asimismo, se usa papel de lija para limpiar la superficie.
Cambié el peinado porque era difícil expresar un cabello atado
Mis orejas se han ido
(Definitivamente hice mis oídos ...)
Ahora, por favor haz que cada cabello
El cabello se hará al hacerlo con persistencia y paciencia.
Por favor termina con un pincel.
Ahora voy a hacer un pilar para construir una escultura.
Puede hacer lo suficiente sin un taladro eléctrico
Los taladros lo hacen más fácil y rápido
Haz una forma con arcilla blanda
Cuando se endurezca, haga una curva delicada con papel de lija
Por último, aplique agua y termine suavemente
No es tan difícil, ¿verdad?
Malay (macrolanguage):
Begitu juga, kertas pasir digunakan untuk membersihkan permukaan
Saya mengubah gaya rambut kerana sukar untuk mengekspresikan rambut yang diikat
Telinga saya hilang
(Saya pasti membuat telinga ...)
Sekarang, sila buat setiap rambut
Rambut akan dilakukan dengan membuatnya dengan gigih dan sabar
Sila selesaikan dengan berus.
Sekarang saya akan membuat tiang untuk membina patung
Ia dapat membuat cukup tanpa gerudi elektrik
Latihan menjadikannya lebih mudah dan pantas
Buat bentuk dengan tanah liat lembut
Apabila mengeras, buat lekukan halus dengan kertas pasir
Akhir sekali, sapukan air dan selesaikan dengan lancar
Ia tidak begitu sukar, bukan?
Italian:
Allo stesso modo, la carta vetrata viene utilizzata per pulire la superficie
Ho cambiato l'acconciatura perché era difficile esprimere un capello legato
Le mie orecchie sono sparite
(Ho sicuramente fatto le mie orecchie ...)
Ora, per favore, prepara i capelli
I capelli saranno fatti rendendoli con persistenza e pazienza
Per favore, finisci con un pennello.
Ora farò un pilastro per costruire una scultura
Può fare abbastanza senza un trapano elettrico
I trapani lo rendono più facile e veloce
Crea una forma con argilla morbida
Quando indurito, fai una curva delicata con carta vetrata
Infine, applicare acqua e finire senza problemi
Non è così difficile, vero?
Thai:
ในทำนองเดียวกันกระดาษทรายจะใช้ในการทำความสะอาดพื้นผิว
ฉันเปลี่ยนทรงผมเพราะมันยากที่จะแสดงให้เห็นถึงการผูกผม
หูของฉันหายไปแล้ว
(ฉันทำหูของฉันแน่นอน ... )
ตอนนี้โปรดทำให้ผมแต่ละคน
ผมจะทำโดยการทำมันด้วยความเพียรและความอดทน
กรุณาจบด้วยแปรง
ตอนนี้ฉันจะสร้างเสาเพื่อสร้างประติมากรรม
มันสามารถทำให้เพียงพอโดยไม่ต้องใช้สว่านไฟฟ้า
การฝึกซ้อมทำให้ง่ายขึ้นและเร็วขึ้น
ทำรูปร่างด้วยดินเหนียวอ่อน
เมื่อแข็งแล้วให้ทำเส้นโค้งที่ละเอียดอ่อนด้วยกระดาษทราย
สุดท้ายใช้น้ำและเสร็จอย่างราบรื่น
มันไม่ยากใช่ไหม?
French:
De même, du papier de verre est utilisé pour nettoyer la surface
J'ai changé de coiffure car il était difficile d'exprimer un cheveu attaché
Mes oreilles sont parties
(J'ai définitivement fait mes oreilles ...)
Maintenant, veuillez faire les cheveux
Les cheveux seront faits en les faisant avec persévérance et patience
Veuillez terminer avec un pinceau.
Maintenant, je vais faire un pilier pour construire une sculpture
Il peut en faire assez sans perceuse électrique
Les exercices facilitent et accélèrent
Faites une forme avec de l'argile molle
Quand il a durci, faites une courbe délicate avec du papier de verre
Enfin, appliquez de l'eau et finissez en douceur
Ce n'est pas si difficile, non?
German:
Ebenso wird Sandpapier verwendet, um die Oberfläche zu reinigen
Ich habe die Frisur geändert, weil es schwierig war, ein gebundenes Haar auszudrücken
Meine Ohren sind weg
(Ich habe definitiv meine Ohren gemacht ...)
Nun machen Sie bitte jedes Haar
Das Haar wird mit Ausdauer und Geduld gemacht
Bitte beenden Sie mit einem Pinsel.
Jetzt werde ich eine Säule bauen, um eine Skulptur zu bauen
Ohne Bohrmaschine kann es genug machen
Bohrer machen es einfacher und schneller
Machen Sie eine Form mit weichem Ton
Wenn es ausgehärtet ist, machen Sie mit Sandpapier eine zarte Kurve
Zuletzt Wasser auftragen und glatt abschließen
Es ist nicht so schwer, oder?
Arabic:
وبالمثل ، يتم استخدام ورق الصنفرة لتنظيف السطح
لقد غيرت تصفيفة الشعر لأنه كان من الصعب التعبير عن شعر مربوط
ذهبت أذني
(لقد جعلت أذني بالتأكيد ...)
الآن ، يرجى جعل كل شعرة
سوف يتم الشعر بجعله بإصرار وصبر
يرجى الانتهاء بفرشاة.
الآن سأقوم بعمل عمود لبناء النحت
يمكنها صنع ما يكفي بدون مثقاب كهربائي
التدريبات تجعلها أسهل وأسرع
اصنع شكل مع الطين الطري
عندما تصلب ، قم بعمل منحنى دقيق باستخدام ورق الصنفرة
أخيرًا ، ضع الماء وانتهي بسلاسة
ليس الأمر صعبًا ، أليس كذلك؟
Russian:
Кроме того, наждачная бумага используется для очистки поверхности
Я изменил прическу, потому что было трудно выразить прическу
Мои уши исчезли
(Я определенно сделал мои уши ...)
Теперь, пожалуйста, сделайте каждый волос
Волосы будут сделаны, делая это с настойчивостью и терпением
Пожалуйста, закончите с кистью.
Теперь я собираюсь сделать столб для создания скульптуры
Это может сделать достаточно без электрической дрели
Тренировки делают это проще и быстрее
Сделай форму с мягкой глиной
Когда она затвердеет, сделайте тонкий изгиб наждачной бумагой
Наконец, примените воду и закончите гладко
Это не так сложно, не так ли?
Arabic:
الآن ستقوم بتوصيل العمود بالرأس
املأ الحفرة بالطين
جعل الباقي في الطين
يرجى تنعيم السطح بورق الصنفرة
تم الانتهاء من النحت أخيرا
سأقوم بتلوينها الآن
يرجى إعداد الطلاء قبل التلوين
الآن سأقوم بتلوينها بألوان أساسية
إذا كنت نموذجًا يقوم عادة بعمل مكياج ، فإنه يحتاج إلى طلاء لون المكياج
Indonesian:
Sekarang akan menghubungkan pilar ke kepala
Isi lubang dengan tanah liat
Buat sisanya menjadi tanah liat
Silakan menghaluskan permukaan dengan amplas
Patung itu akhirnya selesai
Saya akan mewarnai sekarang
Silakan siapkan cat sebelum mewarnai
Sekarang saya akan mewarnainya dalam warna dasar
Jika Anda seorang model yang biasanya melakukan riasan, perlu melukis warna riasan
Italian:
Ora collegherà il pilastro alla testa
Riempi il buco con l'argilla
Trasforma il resto in argilla
Si prega di lisciare la superficie con carta vetrata
La scultura è finalmente completata
Adesso lo colorerò
Si prega di preparare la vernice prima di colorare
Ora lo colorerò con colori di base
Se sei una modella che di solito fa il trucco, deve dipingere il colore del trucco
Japanese:
次に、柱を頭に接続します
穴を粘土で埋めます
残りを粘土にします
サンドペーパーで表面を滑らかにしてください
いよいよ彫刻が完成
今から色付けします
着色する前に塗料を準備してください
ベーシックカラーで塗ります
普段メイクをしているモデルならメイク色を塗る
French:
Maintenant, il va connecter le pilier à la tête
Remplissez le trou avec de l'argile
Transformez le reste en argile
Veuillez lisser la surface avec du papier de verre
La sculpture est enfin terminée
Je vais le colorier maintenant
Veuillez préparer la peinture avant la coloration
Maintenant, je vais le colorier dans des couleurs de base
Si vous êtes un mannequin qui maquille habituellement, il doit peindre la couleur du maquillage
Turkish:
Şimdi direği kafasına bağlayacak
Deliği kil ile doldurun
Geri kalanını kil haline getirin
Lütfen yüzeyi zımpara kağıdı ile düzeltin
Heykel sonunda tamamlandı
Şimdi renklendireceğim
Lütfen boyamadan önce boyayı hazırlayın
Şimdi onu temel renklerde boyayacağım
Genellikle makyaj yapan bir modelseniz, makyaj rengini boyaması gerekir
Thai:
ตอนนี้มันจะเชื่อมต่อเสากับหัว
เติมหลุมด้วยดิน
ทำให้ส่วนที่เหลือของมันเป็นดินเหนียว
กรุณาทำให้พื้นผิวเรียบด้วยกระดาษทราย
ประติมากรรมเสร็จสมบูรณ์ในที่สุด
ตอนนี้ฉันจะลงสีแล้ว
โปรดเตรียมสีก่อนทาสี
ตอนนี้ฉันจะระบายสีด้วยสีพื้นฐาน
หากคุณเป็นนางแบบที่มักแต่งหน้าก็ต้องใช้สีในการแต่งหน้า
Spanish:
Ahora va a conectar el pilar a la cabeza.
Llenar el hoyo con la arcilla
Convertir el resto en arcilla
Por favor, alise la superficie con papel de lija
La escultura finalmente se completa.
Voy a colorearlo ahora
Por favor prepare la pintura antes de colorear
Ahora voy a colorearlo en colores básicos.
Si eres una modelo que generalmente se maquilla, necesita pintar el color del maquillaje
English:
Now it's going to connect the pillar to the head
Fill the hole with the clay
Make the rest of it into clay
Please smooth the surface with sandpaper
The sculpture is finally completed
I'm going to color it right now
Please prepare the paint before coloring
Now I'm going to color it in basic colors
If you are a model who usually does makeup, it needs to paint makeup color
German:
Jetzt wird es die Säule mit dem Kopf verbinden
Füllen Sie das Loch mit dem Ton
Machen Sie den Rest daraus zu Ton
Bitte glätten Sie die Oberfläche mit Sandpapier
Die Skulptur ist endlich fertig
Ich werde es jetzt färben
Bitte bereiten Sie die Farbe vor dem Färben vor
Jetzt werde ich es in Grundfarben färben
Wenn Sie ein Model sind, das normalerweise Make-up macht, muss es Make-up-Farbe malen
Malay (macrolanguage):
Sekarang ia akan menghubungkan tiang ke kepala
Isi lubang dengan tanah liat
Jadikan selebihnya menjadi tanah liat
Sila ratakan permukaan dengan kertas pasir
Arca akhirnya siap
Saya akan mewarnainya sekarang
Sila sediakan cat sebelum mewarnakan
Sekarang saya akan mewarnainya dengan warna asas
Sekiranya anda seorang model yang biasanya melakukan solek, ia perlu melukis warna solek
Russian:
Теперь он собирается соединить столб с головой
Заполните отверстие глиной
Превратить остальное в глину
Пожалуйста, сгладьте поверхность наждачной бумагой
Скульптура наконец завершена
Я собираюсь покрасить это прямо сейчас
Пожалуйста, подготовьте краску перед окраской
Теперь я собираюсь раскрасить его в основные цвета
Если вы модель, которая обычно делает макияж, она должна раскрасить цвет макияжа
Vietnamese:
Bây giờ nó sẽ kết nối trụ với đầu
Đổ đất vào lỗ
Biến phần còn lại của nó thành đất sét
Hãy làm phẳng bề mặt bằng giấy nhám
Tác phẩm điêu khắc cuối cùng đã hoàn thành
Tôi sẽ tô màu nó ngay bây giờ
Vui lòng chuẩn bị sơn trước khi tô màu
Bây giờ tôi sẽ tô màu nó bằng các màu cơ bản
Nếu bạn là người mẫu thường trang điểm thì cần tô màu trang điểm.
Portuguese:
Agora vai conectar o pilar na cabeça
Encha o buraco com a argila
Transforme o restante em argila
Por favor, alise a superfície com uma lixa
A escultura está finalmente concluída
Eu vou colorir agora
Por favor, prepare a tinta antes de colorir
Agora vou colorir em cores básicas
Se você é um modelo que geralmente faz maquiagem, ele precisa pintar a cor da maquiagem
Vietnamese:
Tôi sơn chân tóc màu đen nhẹ để trông tự nhiên
Airbrushes giúp dễ dàng hơn để sơn ánh sáng và bóng râm
Tôi sẽ vẽ mái tóc màu xanh lá cây đặc trưng của Billie
Tôi vẽ phần đen thêm một lần nữa
Đó là một màu sơn đỏ trong suốt thể hiện màu đỏ
Nó có màu nâu nhạt để tạo hiệu ứng ba chiều
Vẽ mắt bằng sơn trắng
Portuguese:
Pintei as raízes do meu cabelo levemente de preto para torná-lo natural
Os aerógrafos facilitam a pintura da luz e da sombra
Eu vou pintar o cabelo verde da Billie
Eu pintei a parte preta mais uma vez
É uma tinta vermelha transparente que expressa a vermelhidão
É marrom claro para dar um efeito tridimensional
Pinte os olhos com tinta branca
Spanish:
Pinté las raíces de mi cabello ligeramente negro para que se vea natural
Los aerógrafos facilitan la pintura de luces y sombras
Pintaré el característico cabello verde de Billie
Pinté la parte negra una vez más
Es una pintura roja transparente que expresa el enrojecimiento.
Es de color marrón claro para darle un efecto tridimensional.
Pintar los ojos con pintura blanca.
German:
Ich habe die Haarwurzeln leicht schwarz gestrichen, damit sie natürlich aussehen
Airbrushes erleichtern das Malen von Licht und Schatten
Ich werde Billies charakteristisches grünes Haar malen
Ich habe noch einmal einen schwarzen Teil gemalt
Es ist eine transparente rote Farbe, die die Rötung ausdrückt
Es ist hellbraun, um einen dreidimensionalen Effekt zu erzielen
Malen Sie die Augen mit weißer Farbe
Malay (macrolanguage):
Saya mengecat akar rambut saya dengan warna hitam sehingga kelihatan semula jadi
Berus udara menjadikannya lebih mudah untuk melukis cahaya dan bayangan
Saya akan cat rambut hijau khas Billie
Saya melukis bahagian hitam sekali lagi
Ini cat merah lutsinar yang menyatakan kemerahan
Ia berwarna coklat muda untuk memberikan kesan tiga dimensi
Warnakan mata dengan cat putih
English:
I painted the roots of my hair lightly black to make it look natural
Airbrushes make it easier to paint light and shade
I'll paint Billie's signature green hair
I painted black part one more time
It's a transparent red paint that expresses the redness
It's light brown to give it a three-dimensional effect
Paint the eyes with white paint
French:
J'ai peint les racines de mes cheveux légèrement noirs pour les rendre naturels
Les aérographes facilitent la peinture de la lumière et de l'ombre
Je peindrai les cheveux verts de Billie
J'ai peint la partie noire une fois de plus
C'est une peinture rouge transparente qui exprime la rougeur
Il est marron clair pour lui donner un effet tridimensionnel
Peignez les yeux avec de la peinture blanche
Italian:
Ho dipinto le radici dei miei capelli leggermente nere per renderle naturali
Gli aerografi facilitano la verniciatura di luci e ombre
Dipingerò i capelli verdi distintivi di Billie
Ho dipinto la parte nera ancora una volta
È una vernice rossa trasparente che esprime il rossore
È marrone chiaro per dargli un effetto tridimensionale
Dipingi gli occhi con vernice bianca
Arabic:
لقد رسمت جذور شعري باللون الأسود الفاتح لجعله يبدو طبيعيًا
البخاخات تجعل من السهل طلاء الضوء والظل
سوف أرسم شعر بيلي الأخضر المميز
رسمت جزء أسود مرة أخرى
إنه طلاء أحمر شفاف يعبر عن الاحمرار
لونها بني فاتح لإعطائها تأثير ثلاثي الأبعاد
ترسم العينين بطلاء أبيض
Russian:
Я слегка покрасил корни моих волос, чтобы они выглядели естественно
Аэрографы облегчают рисование света и тени
Я нарисую фирменные зеленые волосы Билли
Я нарисовал черную часть еще раз
Это прозрачная красная краска, которая выражает покраснение
Это светло-коричневый, чтобы придать ему трехмерный эффект
Покрась глаза белой краской
Japanese:
髪の毛の根元を軽く黒く塗って、自然に見えるようにしました
エアブラシを使用すると、明暗を簡単にペイントできます
ビリーの署名の緑の髪を塗る
黒い部分をもう一度塗った
赤みを表現した透明な赤いペンキです
ライトブラウンで立体感を出す
目を白いペンキで塗ります
Turkish:
Doğal görünmesi için saçlarımın köklerini hafifçe siyah boyadım
Airbrushlar ışık ve gölge boyamayı kolaylaştırır
Bilardo imzalı yeşil saçları boyayacağım
Siyah kısmı bir kez daha boyadım
Kızarıklığı ifade eden şeffaf kırmızı bir boyadır.
Üç boyutlu bir etki vermek için açık kahverengi
Gözleri beyaz boya ile boya
Indonesian:
Saya mengecat akar rambut saya dengan warna hitam muda agar terlihat alami
Airbrush memudahkan untuk mengecat cahaya dan bayangan
Saya akan melukis rambut hijau khas Billie
Saya melukis bagian hitam sekali lagi
Ini adalah cat merah transparan yang mengekspresikan warna merah
Warnanya cokelat muda untuk memberikan efek tiga dimensi
Warnai mata dengan cat putih
Thai:
ฉันทาสีรากผมของฉันเป็นสีดำเบา ๆ เพื่อให้ดูเป็นธรรมชาติ
พู่กันทำให้การวาดแสงและเงาง่ายขึ้น
ฉันจะวาดผมสีเขียวของ Billie
ฉันทาสีส่วนสีดำอีกครั้ง
มันเป็นสีแดงโปร่งใสที่แสดงออกถึงรอยแดง
มันเป็นสีน้ำตาลอ่อนเพื่อให้เอฟเฟกต์สามมิติ
วาดดวงตาด้วยสีขาว
Turkish:
Lütfen dudaklarınızı da boyayın
Bu sefer gerçek kozmetiklerle renklendirdim
Daha önce hiç denemedim. İyiydi
Parçacıklar toplandı ve hassas çalışmalar mümkün oldu
Ayrıca gözlerinin mukoza zarını boyadım
Bu benim gerçek saçım
Bunu pamuklu çubukla sararım ve kıvrılırım
Yaylı bir kıvrılma
Lütfen uygun boyutlarda kesin ve hazırlayın
Her birini tek tek koymak için anında yapıştırıcı kullandım
Çok ince kirpikler çizmek için fırça kullandım
Italian:
Per favore, dipingi anche le labbra
Questa volta l'ho colorato con veri cosmetici
Non l'ho mai provato prima. È stato bello
Sono state raccolte particelle ed è stato possibile un lavoro delicato
Ho anche dipinto la mucosa dei suoi occhi
Questi sono i miei veri capelli
Lo avvolgo attorno a un batuffolo di cotone e faccio un ricciolo
È un ricciolo elastico
Si prega di tagliarlo in dimensioni appropriate e prepararlo
Ho usato la colla istantanea per mettere ciascuno per uno
Ho usato un pennello per disegnare ciglia troppo sottili
German:
Bitte malen Sie auch die Lippen
Diesmal habe ich es mit echter Kosmetik gefärbt
Ich habe es noch nie versucht. Es war gut
Partikel wurden gesammelt und heikle Arbeiten waren möglich
Ich habe auch die Schleimhaut seiner Augen gemalt
Das ist mein echtes Haar
Ich werde dies um ein Wattestäbchen wickeln und eine Locke machen
Es ist eine federnde Locke
Bitte schneiden Sie es in geeignete Größen und bereiten Sie es vor
Ich habe Sofortkleber verwendet, um jeden nach dem anderen zu setzen
Ich habe mit einem Pinsel zu dünne Wimpern gezeichnet
Russian:
Пожалуйста, покрасьте губы тоже
На этот раз я покрасил его настоящей косметикой
Я никогда не пробовал это раньше. Это было хорошо
Частицы были собраны и возможна деликатная работа
Я также нарисовал слизистую оболочку глаз
Это мои настоящие волосы
Я оберну это вокруг ватного тампона и сделаю завиток
Это упругий локон
Пожалуйста, нарежьте его на соответствующие размеры и подготовьте
Я использовал мгновенный клей, чтобы положить каждый по одному
Я использовал кисть, чтобы нарисовать слишком тонкие ресницы
English:
Please paint lips, too
I colored it with real cosmetics this time
I've never tried it before. It was good
Particles were collected and delicate work was possible
I also painted the mucous membrane of its eyes
This is my real hair
I'll wrap this around a cotton swab and make a curl
It's a springy curl
Please cut it into appropriate sizes and prepare it
I used instant glue to put each one by one
I used a brush to draw too thin eyelashes
French:
Veuillez aussi peindre les lèvres
Je l'ai colorée avec de vrais cosmétiques cette fois
Je ne l'ai jamais essayé auparavant. C'était bon
Des particules ont été collectées et un travail délicat a été possible
J'ai aussi peint la muqueuse de ses yeux
Ce sont mes vrais cheveux
Je vais l'enrouler autour d'un coton-tige et faire une boucle
C'est une boucle élastique
Veuillez le couper dans les tailles appropriées et le préparer
J'ai utilisé de la colle instantanée pour les mettre un par un
J'ai utilisé une brosse pour dessiner des cils trop fins
Portuguese:
Por favor, pinte os lábios também
Eu pintei com cosméticos reais desta vez
Eu nunca tentei isso antes. Foi bom
Foram coletadas partículas e foi possível um trabalho delicado
Eu também pintei a mucosa dos olhos
Este é o meu cabelo de verdade
Vou enrolá-lo em um cotonete e fazer um cacho
É um cacho elástico
Por favor, corte-o em tamanhos adequados e prepare-o
Eu usei cola instantânea para colocar cada um por um
Usei um pincel para desenhar cílios muito finos
Japanese:
唇も塗ってください
今回は本物の化粧品で着色しました
これまでに試したことはありません。良かったです
粒子を集めて繊細な作業が可能でした
目の粘膜も塗ってみました
これは私の本当の髪です
これを綿棒で包んでカールさせます
弾力のあるカールです
適当な大きさに切ってご用意ください
瞬間接着剤を使用して、1つずつ貼り付けました
ブラシを使って、まつ毛が薄すぎた
Malay (macrolanguage):
Tolong cat juga bibir
Saya mewarnainya dengan kosmetik sebenar kali ini
Saya tidak pernah mencubanya sebelum ini. Ia adalah baik
Zarah-zarah dikumpulkan dan kerja-kerja halus mungkin
Saya juga melukis membran mukus matanya
Ini rambut saya yang sebenar
Saya akan membalut kain kapas dan membuat ikal
Ia adalah curl springy
Sila potong dengan saiz yang sesuai dan sediakannya
Saya menggunakan gam segera untuk meletakkan setiap satu demi satu
Saya menggunakan berus untuk menarik bulu mata yang terlalu nipis
Arabic:
يرجى طلاء الشفاه أيضا
لقد قمت بتلوينها بمستحضرات التجميل الحقيقية هذه المرة
لم أجربه من قبل. كانت جيدة
تم جمع الجسيمات وكان من الممكن عمل دقيق
رسمت أيضًا الغشاء المخاطي لعينيه
هذا شعري الحقيقي
سألف هذا حول قطعة قطن وأقوم بتجعيد الشعر
إنه تجعيد نابض
يرجى تقطيعه إلى أحجام مناسبة وإعداده
استخدمت الغراء الفوري لوضع كل واحد على حدة
استخدمت فرشاة لرسم رموش رفيعة جدًا
Vietnamese:
Hãy vẽ môi nữa
Tôi đã tô màu nó bằng mỹ phẩm thực sự lần này
Tôi chưa bao giờ thử nó trước đây. Nó đã tốt
Các hạt đã được thu thập và công việc tinh tế là có thể
Tôi cũng vẽ màng nhầy của mắt nó
Đây là tóc thật của tôi
Tôi sẽ quấn cái này quanh một miếng bông gòn và uốn xoăn
Đó là một cuộn tròn mùa xuân
Vui lòng cắt nó thành các kích cỡ phù hợp và chuẩn bị nó
Tôi đã sử dụng keo ngay lập tức để đặt từng cái một
Tôi đã sử dụng một bàn chải để vẽ lông mi quá mỏng
Thai:
กรุณาทาสีริมฝีปากด้วย
ตอนนี้ฉันวาดภาพด้วยเครื่องสำอางจริง
ฉันไม่เคยลองมาก่อน มันดีนะ
มีการรวบรวมอนุภาคและทำงานได้ละเอียดอ่อน
ฉันยังทาสีเยื่อเมือกของดวงตา
นี่คือผมที่แท้จริงของฉัน
ฉันจะพันคันสำลีก้อนนี้แล้วม้วนงอ
มันเป็นขดสปริง
กรุณาตัดเป็นขนาดที่เหมาะสมและเตรียมมัน
ฉันใช้กาวทันทีเพื่อใส่ทีละตัว
ฉันใช้แปรงวาดขนตาบางเกินไป
Spanish:
Por favor pinta los labios también
Esta vez lo coloreé con cosméticos reales
Nunca lo he probado antes. Estuvo bien
Se recogieron partículas y fue posible realizar trabajos delicados.
También pinté la membrana mucosa de sus ojos.
Este es mi cabello real
Lo envolveré con un hisopo de algodón y haré un rizo
Es un rizo elástico
Córtalo en tamaños apropiados y prepáralo
Usé pegamento instantáneo para poner cada uno por uno
Usé un pincel para dibujar pestañas muy finas
Indonesian:
Tolong cat juga
Saya mewarnainya dengan kosmetik asli saat ini
Saya belum pernah mencobanya sebelumnya. Itu bagus
Partikel dikumpulkan dan pekerjaan yang sulit dimungkinkan
Saya juga mengecat selaput lendir matanya
Ini rambut asli saya
Saya akan membungkus ini dengan kapas dan membuat keriting
Ini ikal yang kenyal
Harap potong menjadi ukuran yang sesuai dan persiapkan
Saya menggunakan lem instan untuk meletakkan masing-masing satu per satu
Saya menggunakan kuas untuk menggambar bulu mata terlalu tipis
German:
Bitte zeichnen Sie die Augen als letzten Schliff
Ich zeichnete die Pupillen auf eine himmelblaue Basis
Die Skulptur von Billie Eilish ist also vollständig
Ich denke, die Eigenschaften des Modells kommen in dieser Arbeit gut zum Ausdruck
Ich mag die Farbe, weil sie so natürlich ist
Besonders mag ich flexible Wimpern
So läuft der gesamte Produktionsprozess ab
Wenn Sie im nächsten Video etwas sehen möchten,
Bitte empfehlen Sie es in den Kommentaren
Wir sehen uns im nächsten Video
Tschüss
Russian:
Пожалуйста, нарисуйте глаза как последний штрих
Я нарисовал учеников на небесно-голубом основании
Итак, скульптура Билли Эйлиша завершена
Я думаю, что характеристики модели хорошо выражены в этой работе
Мне нравится цвет, потому что это так естественно
Особенно мне нравятся эластичные ресницы
Так делается весь производственный процесс
Если есть что-то, что вы хотели бы увидеть в следующем видео,
Пожалуйста, порекомендуйте его в комментариях
Увидимся в следующем видео
пока-пока
Vietnamese:
Hãy vẽ đôi mắt như một sự hoàn thiện
Tôi vẽ những con ngươi trên nền trời xanh
Vậy là, điêu khắc Billie Eilish đã hoàn thành
Tôi nghĩ rằng các đặc điểm của mô hình được thể hiện tốt trong công việc này
Tôi thích màu sắc vì nó rất tự nhiên
Đặc biệt tôi thích lông mi linh hoạt
Đây là cách toàn bộ quá trình sản xuất được thực hiện
Nếu có bất cứ điều gì bạn muốn xem trong video tiếp theo,
Xin vui lòng giới thiệu nó trong các ý kiến
Hẹn gặp lại trong video tiếp theo
tạm biệt
Japanese:
仕上げとして目を描いてください
水色のベースに生徒を描いた
これで、ビリー・アイリッシュの彫刻が完成しました
この作品はモデルの特徴がよく表現されていると思います
自然な色なので好きです
特にまつ毛が好き
これは、全体の生産プロセスが行われる方法です
次の動画で見たいものがあれば、
コメントでそれをお勧めしてください
次のビデオでお会いしましょう
バイバイ
Indonesian:
Tolong gambar mata sebagai sentuhan akhir
Saya menggambar murid di dasar langit biru
Jadi, patung Billie Eilish lengkap
Saya pikir karakteristik model ini diekspresikan dengan baik dalam karya ini
Saya suka warnanya karena sangat alami
Terutama saya suka bulu mata yang fleksibel
Ini adalah bagaimana seluruh proses produksi dilakukan
Jika ada sesuatu yang ingin Anda lihat di video berikutnya,
Mohon rekomendasikan dalam komentar
Sampai jumpa di video berikutnya
sampai jumpa
English:
Please draw the eyes as a finishing touch
I drew the pupils on a sky blue base
So, Billie Eilish sculpture is complete
I think the characteristics of the model are well expressed in this work
I like the color because it's so natural
Especially I like flexible eyelashes
This is how the whole production process is done
If there's anything you'd like to see in the next video,
Please recommend it in the comments
See you in the next video
byebye
French:
Veuillez dessiner les yeux comme touche finale
J'ai dessiné les pupilles sur une base bleu ciel
Donc, la sculpture de Billie Eilish est terminée
Je pense que les caractéristiques du modèle sont bien exprimées dans ce travail
J'aime la couleur car c'est tellement naturel
Surtout j'aime les cils souples
Voici comment se déroule l'ensemble du processus de production
S'il y a quelque chose que vous aimeriez voir dans la vidéo suivante,
Veuillez le recommander dans les commentaires
Rendez-vous dans la prochaine vidéo
Bye Bye
Italian:
Per favore, disegna gli occhi come un tocco finale
Ho disegnato le pupille su una base blu cielo
Quindi, la scultura di Billie Eilish è completa
Penso che le caratteristiche del modello siano ben espresse in questo lavoro
Mi piace il colore perché è così naturale
Soprattutto mi piacciono le ciglia flessibili
Ecco come viene eseguito l'intero processo di produzione
Se c'è qualcosa che vorresti vedere nel prossimo video,
Si prega di raccomandarlo nei commenti
Ci vediamo nel prossimo video
Ciao ciao
Thai:
กรุณาวาดตาเป็นสัมผัสการตกแต่ง
ฉันวาดรูม่านตาบนฐานสีน้ำเงิน
ดังนั้นรูปปั้น Billie Eilish เสร็จสมบูรณ์
ฉันคิดว่าคุณสมบัติของแบบจำลองนั้นแสดงออกมาได้ดีในงานนี้
ฉันชอบสีเพราะมันเป็นธรรมชาติมาก
โดยเฉพาะฉันชอบขนตาที่ยืดหยุ่น
นี่คือวิธีการทำกระบวนการผลิตทั้งหมด
หากมีสิ่งใดที่คุณต้องการเห็นในวิดีโอถัดไป
กรุณาแนะนำมันในความคิดเห็น
พบกันในวิดีโอหน้า
ลาก่อน
Malay (macrolanguage):
Tolong tarik mata sebagai sentuhan penamat
Saya menarik murid-murid di dasar biru langit
Jadi, patung Billie Eilish sudah lengkap
Saya fikir ciri-ciri model dinyatakan dengan baik dalam karya ini
Saya suka warnanya kerana ia sangat semula jadi
Terutama saya suka bulu mata yang fleksibel
Ini adalah bagaimana keseluruhan proses pengeluaran dilakukan
Sekiranya ada yang ingin anda lihat dalam video seterusnya,
Sila sarankan dalam komen
Jumpa di video seterusnya
selamat tinggal
Portuguese:
Por favor, desenhe os olhos como um toque final
Eu desenhei as pupilas em uma base azul celeste
Então, a escultura de Billie Eilish está completa
Eu acho que as características do modelo estão bem expressas neste trabalho
Eu gosto da cor porque é tão natural
Gosto especialmente de cílios flexíveis
É assim que todo o processo de produção é realizado
Se houver algo que você gostaria de ver no próximo vídeo,
Por favor, recomende nos comentários
Vejo você no próximo vídeo
tchau tchau
Spanish:
Por favor dibuja los ojos como un toque final
Dibujé las pupilas sobre una base azul cielo
Entonces, la escultura de Billie Eilish está completa
Creo que las características del modelo están bien expresadas en este trabajo.
Me gusta el color porque es muy natural.
Especialmente me gustan las pestañas flexibles
Así es como se hace todo el proceso de producción.
Si hay algo que le gustaría ver en el próximo video,
Recomiéndalo en los comentarios
Nos vemos en el próximo video
adiós
Turkish:
Lütfen gözleri son dokunuş olarak çizin
Öğrencileri gök mavisi temeline çizdim
Yani, Billie Eilish heykeli tamamlandı
Bu çalışmada modelin özelliklerinin iyi ifade edildiğini düşünüyorum
Rengi seviyorum çünkü çok doğal
Özellikle esnek kirpikleri severim
Tüm üretim süreci bu şekilde yapılır
Bir sonraki videoda görmek istediğiniz bir şey varsa,
Lütfen yorumlarda önerin
Bir sonraki videoda görüşmek üzere
güle güle
Arabic:
يرجى رسم العينين بلمسة نهائية
وجهت التلاميذ على قاعدة السماء الزرقاء
لذلك ، اكتمل نحت بيلي إيليش
أعتقد أن خصائص النموذج تم التعبير عنها جيدًا في هذا العمل
يعجبني اللون لأنه طبيعي جدًا
خاصة أنني أحب الرموش المرنة
هذه هي الطريقة التي تتم بها عملية الإنتاج بأكملها
إذا كان هناك أي شيء تريد رؤيته في الفيديو التالي ،
يرجى التوصية به في التعليقات
أراك في الفيديو التالي
مع السلامة
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In section 2.4 we'll talk about using statistical
graphs to organize and present data.
We can see how data is divided among different
categories, or we can see how data changes
over time.
The statistical graph you're probably most
familiar with is a pie chart.
It gives a good visual image of what portion
of the population falls into each category.
This is the 12,500 people surveyed and asked
what's the greatest source of your happiness,
and here again we see that family and partner
was the answer given by 65% of those surveyed.
Over half of those surveyed, and the smallest
slice of that pie was sports.
Only 3% of people said that sports gave them
more happiness than anything else.
Now in the homework you have to ask some questions
to interpret a pie chart.
They're similar to these.
First of the 12,500 people surveyed, how many
people gave sports or leisure as their greatest
source of happiness?
Well 3 people said that sports was their greatest
source of happiness, and it looks like 8%
of people said leisure was their greatest
source of happiness, so that's 11% total said
either sports or leisure was their greatest
source of happiness, but we weren't asked
what percent.
We were asked how many people gave sports
or leisure as their greatest source of happiness.
So we need to find 11% of 12,500, and remember
to find that we just multiply .11 times 12,500.
.11 times 12,500 is 1,375.
Now it just happens to turn out in this problem
that ends up being a whole number, but certainly
if I had multiplied something else times 12,500
we are very likely to have not gotten a whole
number there.
It only makes sense that, that answer needs
to be a whole number.
The question is how many people, and it doesn't
make sense to say 25.7 people so in the case
that we would've ended up with a decimal we
would've rounded to the nearest whole person.
In the B part, if this sample is representative
of the adult population of the U.S. in 2013
(approximately 250,000,000), how many could
be expected to cite friends as their greatest
source of happiness?
Well if we were asked how many of the sample
cited friends as their greatest source of
happiness then we'd be finding this 11% of
12,500.
We're not trying to find the number of people
in the sample.
We're trying to find the number of people
in the population.
So I need to multiply that 11% or .11 times
250,000,000.
.11 times 250,000,000 is 275...
Hmmm...That answer doesn't make sense.
I think the calculator took my decimal on
the .11.
Actually I think my calculator battery is
about to die.
Uhm...
.11 times 250,000,000 gives me 27,500.
That's a much more reasonable answer.
27,500.
No I'm sorry I'm not reading that correct
27,500,000.
27,500,000.
That makes sense because 10% of 250,000,000
would
be 25,000,000.
This is just a little over 25,000,000.
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- Is it straight?
- Oh, now, yeah!
- Do you need to fix the part?
- Okay, got it.
- Okay right.
- What's up?
I'm Jesse from KARATEbyJesse.com,
aka The Karate Nerd,
and today I am joined by the one and only
Sensei Bill "Superfoot" Wallace.
Thank you so much Sensei for
joining us today.
- Thank you sir, my pleasure.
- So, what many people
might not know is that you
were actually the commentator
of the very first UFC fightl.
- Yes
Could you take us there,
bring us behind the scenes
and tell us what actually went
on in the early beginnings
of the UFC.
- What happened is Rorion
Gracie, the father, calls me up
and he says, "Bill, we would
like you to commentate at
"our first, you know,
fighting championships."
- Yeah.
- And I went, "Whoa, well, yeah
I could do that, no problem.
"I don't think it's gonna go well,
"because the martial artists are not in,
"they like the kickboxing part of it,
"but they didn't like
the grappling part of it,
"and so sure, I'll do that,
"'cause you're paying me a lot of money."
- Okay, yeah.
- So, I go and I show
up, I'm with Jim Brown,
the American Football
player, and Kathy Long,
who was also a lady kickboxer.
- Yeah.
- So, we're sittin' there,
we're going over it,
now, there's no pre runs
or anything, we're just,
I get there on Friday and the
thing happens on Saturday.
So they have the meeting
and there are no rules,
the two rules were: you
can't stick your fingers
in a guys' eye and you
can't kick him in the groin.
- Right.
- That's the two rules.
I went, okay.
- Interesting.
- Yup yup.
And, the participants
could not wear hand wraps.
- No.
- Could not wear leg wraps,
and just like it was.
They had to wear a mouthpiece 'cause--
- Okay.
- It protects the teeth.
- Groin cup?
- Yeah.
- Okay.
- And when the fights happened,
I'd have a guy sitting
beside me, from the Gracie
Jiu-jitsu, telling me what to say
about the Gracie's.
- Oh right.
- So it's to push the Gracie's.
So basically I'm thinking oh,
something doesn't sound right here.
Seems to me like it's a
two hour advertisement
for Gracie Jiu-Jitsu, which
is what it turned out to be.
I mean, Royce did a fantastic
job, don't get me wrong,
He didn't punch anybody,
- No.
- He didn't kick anybody,
- No.
- He just got 'em down,
took 'em down with a double
every time was a double leg
takedown, and he choked 'em out.
- No one barged, choked all of 'em out.
And the first time I said, "Okay," and
I think it was Royce's second
match against Ken Shamrock.
- Yeah.
- They're fighting and
Ken Shamrock jumped in
for a double leg takedown.
- Yeah.
- And Royce reaches under his
belt and grabs his own belt.
- Right.
- And chokes Ken Shamrock out.
- Okay.
- Ken Shamrock chokes.
- Yeah, yeah.
- Taps out.
They get up, "You can't do
that, you can't do that!"
and finding out was Ken
Shamrock accused him,
which is rightfully so,
- Yeah.
- That you can't reach
under, grab the belt,
- Okay.
- And choke me out with your
own belt.
- Yeah.
- Well yes you can because, as we know
in martial arts training,
- Yeah.
- Our uniform is also a weapon.
- Right, so that was allowed
according to the rules?
- Yeah, Ken Shamrock wasn't
for it, he was upset.
- Right.
- But he lost.
- Right.
- And then, you know, then
Royce just went through
their belts, choking everybody out.
- Right.
- Behind him, choke out.
- Yeah.
- But just, you know, choking out.
- Exactly.
So are you saying they kind
of organized this thing?
I don't want to say it's
a conspiracy theory but--
- No it wasn't, it just--
- Was it like a marketing stunt, almost?
- I guess you could say that.
- For the Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu system?
- Oh sure.
- Yeah.
- 'Cause they pick the fighters.
- Oh really?
- Rorion Gracie picked the fighters.
- So they probably picked
fighters that would look good
against Brazilian.
- Of course they would.
- Because you've got the
stand-up, the hands are here.
- Right.
- How easy now is it
for you to drop down into your
double leg takedown?
- Double, yeah.
- 'Cause they've never seen it before.
- They had never seen
that takedown before.
- They're stand-up fighters.
- Exactly.
- So they have no idea
how to even react to it.
The boxer didn't even throw a punch.
(Jesse laughs)
The boxer never threw a punch.
- They're just shooting
for the double leg.
- (mumbles) Took him down and that was it.
And what I don't understand too is that
they had a big sumo wrestler.
- Oh yeah, right.
- Excuse me.
(Jesse laughs)
What's the job of a sumo wrestler?
To push you out of a
circle about this size.
- Right.
- I push you out, I win.
He doesn't know how to strike.
- No.
- He doesn't know how to kick.
- No.
- He doesn't know how to choke
or arm bar, he just
pushed you out of a ring.
It's a closed ring, you
can't get out of there.
- Right.
- So what are you gonna do,
push him against a wall until
he suffocates or something?
(Jesse laughs)
And I'm sure that's what he
wanted to do, get him down,
lay on top of him.
- Yeah, yeah.
- So what happens is this
kid from the Netherlands.
- Yeah.
- Just nails him.
He comes in (mumbles) the
guy drops down to his knees.
- Yeah.
- And the guy from
the Netherlands, I can't
remember his name, just nails him
right in the face with a roundhouse kick.
- Right.
- And a tooth goes
flying over my head.
- Oh!
- I went (mumbles) then he steps down
and the kid's still sitting there.
Punches him right in the mouth.
Now, the kid from the
Netherlands broke his foot,
- Really?
- And then broke his hand
on the kid's face.
- Oh!
- But they stopped the match.
- Yeah.
- Now, I don't know why
because he wasn't hurt,
bleeding a little bit, but he wasn't hurt.
The guy was 350 or should
be 400 and something pounds.
Hell, this guy is like a log!
(Jesse chuckles)
So he wasn't hurt, he said,
"Why are you stopping the fight?
"Why are you stopping?"
Only because he knocked a tooth out.
But he was okay.
- Yeah.
- So there's another conspiracy.
- Right.
- Because now you're saying,
just a minute.
- Right.
- If this guy can hit this
guy with his best shot,
two best shots, and nothing
happened, what happened?
How's Royce gonna take him down?
- Oh!
- Royce is gonna get dropped
down for the double leg.
- Yeah.
- Or he just fans out on his back.
(choking noises)
Now he, Royce is on his
stomach flattened out,
this guy is going.
- Yeah.
(choking noises)
- So they wanted him out?
- Sure.
- Yeah.
- And then one of the guys
who was a really good boxer,
really good puncher, asked
him not to use the smoke
because he had asthma.
- Okay.
- So they used the smoke anyway.
We're coming out there, 'bout
halfway through the match
(heaving noises)
- Oh, so like smoke machines?
- Sure.
They go, now hold on just a minute.
(Jesse laughs)
What the hell's going on here?
(stutters)
So there's eight guys, which
means there's seven fights.
- Yeah.
- Right.
Four, two, then one right?
- Right.
- And you go, okay what
the heck's going on here?
But I never thought it would
be as popular as it was.
- No?
- No, I never did.
- How come?
- Because the first time
I saw it I didn't like it.
- No?
- The first time I saw it
I said, "What, that's bull!"
Because, number one,
Royce never threw a kick.
He threw one kick to keep
the guy away from him.
Never threw a punch, just
standing there like this.
Drops down, and Gracie was
the only one, the only one
that was allowed to wear a uniform.
The other guys couldn't
even wrap their hands,
but he was allowed to go in the uniform.
- So when they couldn't wrap
their hands, they can barely
punch full contact?
- Exactly.
And you got guys that, because you're,
"Oh I want to wrap my knees."
"No you can't wrap your knees."
But Royce is allowed to
wear all that stuff, yes.
So, you go, hold on, what,
I don't understand this.
And I think the reason
I wasn't invited back,
one of the reasons because
there are several--
- Oh, so you were not invited back?
- No.
I asked too many questions.
(Jesse laughs)
I said: "Why don't you have
a regular wrestler there?"
A wrestler that knows
how to defend against--
- Oh, there was no wrestler?
- Nope.
There was six strikers, strikers,
Royce and the sumo wrestler.
- So it sounds to me like
it was basically set up
for a Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu practitioner.
- Yeah, I mean don't get me wrong,
they all had their chance to win.
- Sure.
- But Royce knows how to defend that.
But this is 1993.
- And they didn't know how to defend that.
- They didn't know how to
defend against a takedown.
Even though you say, "Well I've
practiced," no you haven't.
Not against a guy that knows
how to do the takedown.
- Yeah, exactly.
- So, Royce was the reason,
the first one he won,
the second one he won,
the third one where they
changed the rules a little
bit because the time,
it was taking too long.
- Ah, I see.
- And on the third one he
had the Grand Championship
Master between Ken Shamrock and
Royce, rematch it might say.
Shamrock shot him with a
punch right here, split him
wide open, but it didn't do anything,
all it did was cut him and so
they finally called it a draw
because it was ...
- But that's how Brazilian
Jiu-Jitsu became so famous!
Because it looked so effective.
- Well, they keep saying most
fights end up on the ground.
- Yeah, I hear that all the time.
- Well all fights start standing up.
- That's true.
- All fights start standing,
so if I stand up and I'm from
me to her, she's gotta
come close to me before
she can do anything,
before she can punch me,
before she can kick me, before
she can do a takedown, right?
- Exactly.
- That gives me the chance to counter.
Well, they're not used to that because
if I'm standing right here
and I do this, you've got to
put your hands up and I drop
ready for the double leg.
That's what they do and the
stand-up fighters, naive,
that they are, they
say, "Well when he stops
"then I'll just punch him in the mouth."
No you won't, because I'll do this first.
You put your hands up
and then I'll drop down.
- Yeah, exactly.
Well it worked very well
because now Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu
is one of the world's largest,
most popular martial arts.
- But what did they have to do?
They had to learn to strike.
Because remember, we learned
how to defend against it.
- Exactly.
- So they had to learn how
to strike to get in there.
- Especially against a wrestler who knows
the double leg takedown,
who knows the defense.
- In wrestling the double leg is
the first takedown you're taught.
It's also the first takedown
you learn to defend.
- Imagine if a wrestler had
been invited to the first UFC.
- Imagine that, imagine.
- And if that wrestler knew
a little bit of striking
so he could do ground
and pound, for example.
- Imagine that.
- Maybe the whole martial arts
world would look different.
- Imagine that.
(Jesse laughs)
- Wow.
- They're in the process now of even
trying to get rid of
wrestling in the Olympics.
- Oh is that so?
- Yeah.
It was the very first one, it was in
the very first Olympics
back in somebody AD.
So think about this.
If they want to get rid of
wrestling, then how many people
will not be using wrestling techniques
but the Gracie's still will.
- Exactly.
So you could say they have
something of an unfair advantage.
- Well, no, they know what they're doing.
They know how to work the
chokes, they know how to work
the arm bars, they know how
to work, most of them now
have learnt the striking aspect of it.
- Yeah, exactly.
- The speed aspect of it.
- And they manage to combine that.
- And they don't mind you
taking them down because now
even though you're on top
I'm in the on guard position
to where I've got my legs wrapped
around you and pretty soon
you get frustrated, you
reach, I get the arm.
You reach, I get the neck.
(background shouting)
(Jesse chuckles)
So what happens is UFC now.
- Exactly.
So what do you think,
looking at the first UFC
to all the way, looking
at the evolution of it,
comparing that to today.
- Oh it's 100% different.
- It is?
- Sure.
Because the rules have changed.
Now there are rules, before
there were none, remember?
Now, it's a funny thing,
that if I'm on the ground
I can kick you in the face
but you can't kick me at all.
- Exactly.
(chuckles)
- You can't punch me in
the back of the head.
Why?
- One might argue that those rules favor
a Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu practitioner.
- Shame on you Jesse!
(Jesse laughs)
You shouldn't talk like
that, but again it's the,
and I hate to use the term
sport of it, you know.
I mean, it's like two
gladiators out there fighting.
Except this time, hopefully,
the loser doesn't die.
- Exactly, yeah.
- I don't like to watch it because
I hate that term ground and pound.
Think about it, ground and
pound, what does that say to you?
You get a guy on the ground, you beat him
until he says: "I quit."
Well, that doesn't even
happen out on the street.
There's gonna be somebody
who's gonna pull you off.
I don't know, just me,
I like to kick people.
(laughter)
- All right, thank you so much Sensei.
- Thank you.
- For sharing that amazing...
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